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J&K – The issues around the state

[3rd October 2025] The Hindu Op-ed: Should Ladakh get statehood?

op-ed snap | Polity | Mains Paper 2: Federalism

PYQ Relevance

[UPSC 2024] What changes has the Union Government recently introduced in the domain of Centre-State relations? Suggest measures to strengthen federalism.

Linkage: Ladakh’s case reflects the Union’s increasing control over border UTs, where administrative powers lie with the LG and Centre, marginalising local bodies — a recent trend in Centre-State/UT relations. Strengthening federalism requires constitutional safeguards (Sixth Schedule/statehood) and greater devolution of powers and finances to elected institutions.

Mentor’s Comment

The debate on Ladakh’s statehood is not merely about administrative restructuring, it is about the soul of Indian federalism. It combines questions of representation, tribal identity, border security, and constitutional safeguards. This issue is now a case study in balancing national interests with local aspirations.

Introduction

Ladakh, separated from Jammu & Kashmir in 2019 and designated a Union Territory (UT), was expected to gain autonomy and focused development. Instead, it has witnessed deepening resentment. The recent violence in Leh (September 24, 2025), which left four dead and led to the arrest of climate activist Sonam Wangchuck under the NSA, highlights the widening trust deficit. Civil society platforms like the Leh Apex Body (LAB) and the Kargil Democratic Alliance (KDA) demand statehood, inclusion under the Sixth Schedule, a Public Service Commission, and separate Lok Sabha representation.

Why in the News?

This is the first major violent episode in Ladakh since its conversion to a UT, bringing the region’s discontent into national focus. While the Centre insists that measures like reservations and recruitment drives are underway, locals argue these are executive orders, not constitutional guarantees. The clash exposes the failure of the UT model in ensuring democratic accountability, despite Ladakh’s strategic importance on the China–Pakistan frontier.

Democratic Deficit in Ladakh

  1. Loss of Voice: Earlier part of J&K Assembly; now Ladakhis cannot influence laws or leadership.
  2. Dominance of Bureaucrats: Short-term officials override local voices, bypassing elected Hill Councils.
  3. Recruitment Vacuum: No Public Service Commission; six years without gazetted officer recruitments.

Tribal and Land Safeguards at Risk

  1. Earlier Protection: Article 370 & 35A guaranteed land and job protections.
  2. Post-2019 Vacuum: Absence of safeguards raises fears of demographic change.
  3. Constitutional Demands: LAB & KDA demand Sixth Schedule — protection for tribal culture, language, land rights, beyond mere executive orders.

Sixth Schedule vs Statehood

  1. Government Stance: Argues Sixth Schedule inclusion is a logical first step before statehood.
  2. Counter View: Sajjad Kargili stresses that Sixth Schedule alone is insufficient; democracy needs statehood.
  3. Delhi Model Analogy: UTs with legislatures (Delhi) show friction with LGs — raising doubts about partial arrangements.

Population and Statehood Question

  1. Centre’s Hesitation: Population (~3.5 lakh) too small for statehood.
  2. Rebuttal: Sikkim (similar population) became a State in 1975; Goa in 1987.
  3. Fragmented Governance: Ladakh’s five new districts have micro-populations (5,000–7,000), making local governance difficult without a state-level structure.

Federalism and Centre-State Relations

  1. Supreme Court Endorsement: Upheld bifurcation of J&K into UTs.
  2. Federal Concerns: Raises questions about top-down imposition of governance models in sensitive areas.
  3. Centre vs Local Bodies: ₹6,000 crore annual budget, but only ₹600 crore devolved to Hill Councils; rest controlled by LG & bureaucrats.

Security Dimensions and Border Considerations

  1. Centre’s Argument: Border sensitivity justifies UT status.
  2. Counterpoint: Punjab, Sikkim, Uttarakhand are border states yet enjoy full statehood.
  3. Chinese Incursion 2020: Occurred post-UT status, undermining the security rationale.

Civil Society Demands and Distrust

  1. Four Core Demands: Statehood, Sixth Schedule, Public Service Commission, dual Lok Sabha seats (Leh & Kargil).
  2. Distrust of MHA: LAB & KDA halted talks, citing cosmetic concessions (women’s reservation, ST reservation) that miss the core demands.
  3. Governance Paralysis: Hill Councils reduced to ceremonial bodies; LG ignores their inputs.

Nationalism vs Allegations of “Anti-national”

  1. Local Sentiment: Ladakhis argue they are patriotic, sacrificing lives to defend frontiers.
  2. Mistrust Campaign: Trolls label them pro-China/pro-Pakistan, deepening alienation.
  3. Identity Politics: Perceived delegitimisation fuels separatist tendencies — dangerous for a border region.

Comparative Perspectives

  1. Delhi & Puducherry: UTs with legislatures — persistent Centre-LG tussle.
  2. North-East Sixth Schedule States: Despite safeguards, autonomy diluted by weak implementation.
  3. Statehood as Trust-Building: Granting Ladakh statehood could mirror past steps where integration was strengthened by empowerment (Sikkim, Mizoram).

Conclusion

The Ladakh case underscores that federalism is not only about administrative convenience but about trust-building. Sixth Schedule inclusion may provide interim safeguards, but without democratic statehood, Ladakh risks remaining voiceless. The challenge before India is to ensure that Ladakhis, guardians of a strategic frontier, feel like equal partners in the Union, not subjects of bureaucratic rule.

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Waste Management – SWM Rules, EWM Rules, etc

Cost of convenience, health hazards a a side effect of using digital tools

Explained | Enviro & Biodiversity | Mains Paper 3: Conservation, Environmental Pollution & Degradation, Eia

Introduction

India’s embrace of the digital revolution has been rapid and transformative. From smartphones to smart homes, electronics have become integral to urban living. However, this transformation carries a dark underbelly: the mounting crisis of e-waste. In 2025, India generated 2.2 million tonnes of e-waste, becoming the third-largest generator globally, after China and the United States. Despite having a formal recycling capacity of over 2.2 million MT, more than half of India’s e-waste is still processed informally, exposing millions to toxic substances. The issue is not just environmental but also a public health catastrophe, disproportionately affecting the poor and marginalised.

Why is e-waste in the news?

India’s e-waste problem is no longer a distant warning but an immediate crisis. The country has seen a 150% surge in e-waste since 2017–18 (0.71 MT to 2.2 MT in 2025), with projections of doubling by 2030. Cities like Seelampur (Delhi), Moradabad (UP), and Bhiwandi (Maharashtra) have emerged as hotspots of informal recycling, where toxic fumes and crude dismantling methods poison both workers and residents. Despite 322 formal recycling units, informal handlers dominate the sector, creating one of the sharpest contrasts between policy design and ground reality.

The Escalating Burden of E-Waste

  1. Third-largest generator: India stands only behind China and the U.S., producing 2.2 MT of e-waste in 2025.
  2. Rapid growth: A 150% surge in seven years, expected to double by 2030.
  3. Urban hotspots: Over 60% of e-waste originates from just 65 cities; major hubs include Seelampur, Mustafabad, Moradabad, and Bhiwandi.

Why informal recycling is a ticking time bomb

  1. Crude methods: Manual dismantling, open burning, and acid leaching without protective equipment.
  2. Toxic substances: Release of over 1,000 hazardous chemicals, including heavy metals (lead, cadmium, mercury, chromium), POPs (dioxins, furans), and fine particulate matter (PM₂.₅ and PM₁₀).
  3. Alarming air quality: PM₂.₅ levels in Seelampur exceed 300 µg/m³ — over 12 times higher than WHO’s safe limit of 25 µg/m³.

How does e-waste impact human health?

  1. Respiratory illnesses: Workers show 76–80% prevalence of chronic bronchitis, asthma, persistent coughing (MDPI Applied Sciences, 2025).
  2. Neurological damage: Lead exposure linked to cognitive impairment, reduced IQ, attention deficits. WHO warns millions of children are at risk.
  3. Skin & ocular disorders: Rashes, burns, dermatitis; in Guiyu (China), exposure linked to miscarriages and preterm births.
  4. Genetic and systemic effects: DNA damage, oxidative stress, altered immune functions; children show higher vulnerability.
  5. Syndemic environment: E-waste risks compound poverty, malnutrition, and unsafe housing, worsening outcomes for urban poor.

Policy response: Progress and gaps

  1. E-Waste (Management) Rules, 2022: Strengthened Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR), mandatory registration, incentives for formalisation.
  2. Weak enforcement: As of 2023–24, only 43% of e-waste was officially processed.
  3. Legal hurdles: Capping of EPR credit prices led to legal disputes with manufacturers.
  4. Gap: Informal handlers still dominate, undermining scientific recycling capacity.

The Way Forward

  1. Formalise the informal: Integrate kabadiwalas through skill certification, PPE provision, healthcare, social security.
  2. Strengthen enforcement: Empower Pollution Control Boards, mandate digital tracking & audits.
  3. Expand medical surveillance: Health camps and long-term studies, especially on children in hotspots.
  4. Foster innovation: Promote local recycling technologies, decentralised treatment hubs.
  5. Raise awareness: Mass campaigns and school-level education on e-waste.

Conclusion

India’s digital empowerment cannot come at the cost of environmental collapse and human suffering. The e-waste crisis is not only a question of waste management but also of justice and public health. Unless India formalises its informal sector, strengthens enforcement, invests in technology, and raises awareness, the cost of convenience will continue to erode both ecosystems and human dignity.

PYQ Relevance

[UPSC 2018] What are the impediments in disposing the huge quantities of discarded solid wastes which are continuously being generated? How do we remove safely the toxic wastes that have been accumulating in our habitable environment?

Linkage: The article on e-waste directly links to this PYQ as it highlights impediments like dominance of informal recycling, weak enforcement of E-Waste Rules, and lack of awareness, while also suggesting safe disposal measures such as formalisation, digital tracking, PPE use, decentralised hubs, and scientific recycling methods.

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US policy wise : Visa, Free Trade and WTO

Can diaspora please stand up

Explained | International Relations | Mains Paper 2: Indian Diaspora

Introduction

The Indian-American diaspora is often hailed as one of the most successful immigrant groups in the United States, with the highest median household income among all ethnicities, six Fortune 500 CEOs, governors, Congress members, and leaders in federal agencies like the CDC and FBI. However, recent U.S. policy shifts, such as increased tariffs on Indian goods, restrictions on H-1B visas, and sanctions affecting India’s strategic infrastructure, have highlighted the limits of diaspora influence. Despite its success, the community faces a pressing question: will it remain silent, or rise to defend India’s interests when challenged abroad?

Why is this in the news?

In recent months, the Trump administration unleashed a series of punitive measures: slapping 50% tariffs on Indian goods, imposing a $100,000 fee on H-1B visa applications (of which Indians receive 70%), restricting student visas, and sanctioning India’s strategic infrastructure projects like the Chabahar port. These measures directly affect Indian professionals, businesses, and students in the U.S. Surprisingly, the celebrated Indian-American diaspora has responded with muted or absent voices, raising serious concerns about the costs of silence. This marks a sharp contrast: while India has celebrated its diaspora as “soft power champions,” their political engagement on issues of consequence appears weak.

What makes the Indian-American diaspora so influential?

  1. High economic success: Highest median household income among ethnic groups, concentration of CEOs, professionals, and leaders in U.S. politics and administration.
  2. Symbol of integration: From Bollywood films to biryani, diaspora blends nostalgia with modern influence.
  3. Strategic assets: Strong presence in STEM, academia, corporate America, and policymaking.

Why is the diaspora silent on anti-India measures?

  1. Fear of backlash: Second-generation Indian-Americans feel their American identity questioned if they oppose U.S. policy too strongly.
  2. Fragmentation: Divided by region, religion, political orientation; no unified lobbying voice.
  3. Political caution: Many supported Trump for pro-business stance or Hindu nationalist sentiment but hesitated to confront his administration.
  4. Practical concerns: Rising costs for H-1B visas, employment restrictions on STEM graduates, yet little public opposition.

What are the consequences of this silence?

  1. Weakening of India’s strategic position: If diaspora fails to defend against hostile U.S. measures, it undermines India’s global partnerships.
  2. Loss of moral voice: Diaspora loses legitimacy as defenders of India’s interests.
  3. Encouragement of further punitive actions: Silence signals complicity, emboldening further sanctions and restrictions.
  4. Cultural reductionism: Diaspora risks being seen as only symbolic carriers of Bollywood, biryani, and Bharatanatyam rather than political actors.

What should be the role of the diaspora?

  1. Bridge-builder: Act as advocates for India when U.S. policies hurt strategic ties.
  2. Political engagement: Use lobbying capacity, financial resources, and media influence to defend India’s interests.
  3. Principled advocacy: Support India not just through nostalgia or identity politics but through substantive action.
  4. Moral responsibility: As beneficiaries of U.S. democracy, they must speak truth to power, not remain bystanders.

Conclusion

The Indian-American diaspora stands at a crossroads: to remain silent and symbolic or to act as a true strategic partner for India. Its wealth, numbers, and influence offer immense potential to shape narratives in Washington, but silence risks rendering it irrelevant. For India, the diaspora must be more than a cultural soft-power asset, it must become a political and moral force that safeguards India’s interests globally.

PYQ Relevance

[UPSC 2020] Indian diaspora has a decisive role to play in the politics and economy of America and European Countries. Comment with examples.

Linkage: The article highlights how the Indian-American diaspora, despite its economic and political clout, has remained largely silent on hostile U.S. measures like tariffs and H-1B restrictions. This directly links to the PYQ as it shows both the potential role of diaspora in shaping politics and economy abroad, and the limits of its current influence when it fails to actively advocate for India.

Value Addition

Size and Spread

  1. Largest diaspora in the world – 18 million (UN DESA, 2021).
  2. Major hubs – USA (4.8 mn), UAE (3.5 mn), Saudi Arabia (2.5 mn), UK (1.6 mn), Canada (1.7 mn), Australia (0.7 mn).

Economic Role

  1. Remittances – India received $125 billion in 2023 (World Bank), highest globally.
  2. Investment channels – NRI deposits (over $141 billion in Indian banks).
  3. Entrepreneurship – Indian-Americans own ~80,000 businesses in the US, employing ~200,000 people.

Diplomatic and Strategic Role

  1. Lobbying in the US – India Caucus in US Congress, among the largest country caucuses.
  2. Strengthening bilateral ties – Diaspora played a role in the US–India nuclear deal (2008).
  3. Community mobilisation – Helped India’s COVID-19 vaccine diplomacy; strong mobilisation for relief during natural disasters (Kerala floods, Nepal earthquake).

Cultural and Soft Power Influence

  1. Bollywood & cuisine – Bollywood films rank in top 10 foreign releases in Gulf and US theatres; Indian food chains like Patel Brothers in US are cultural hubs.
  2. International Day of Yoga (21st June) – Promoted by diaspora across 170+ countries.
  3. Cricket diplomacy – Popularised Indian Premier League abroad; diaspora support in stadiums gives visibility.

Challenges and Criticism

  1. Brain drain vs. brain gain – Loss of skilled talent, though remittances compensate.
  2. Fragmentation – Religious, regional, and political divides weaken unified lobbying.
  3. Political caution – Reluctance to challenge host-country policies that hurt India.
  4. Exploitation in Gulf – Migrant workers face poor labour conditions and weak legal recourse.

Initiatives by India

  1. Pravasi Bharatiya Divas (PBD) – Celebrated biennially since 2003.
  2. Overseas Citizenship of India (OCI) – Allows lifelong visa, parity with NRIs in most fields (except politics & purchase of agricultural land).
  3. Scholarship Program for Diaspora Children (SPDC) – Assists NRI/PIO children studying in India.
  4. Madad Portal & e-Migrate – For welfare and grievance redressal of emigrants.

Comparative Diaspora Roles in Other Countries

  1. China – Chinese diaspora heavily invests in home-country infrastructure, strong lobbying in US.
  2. Israel – Jewish diaspora played a decisive role in US foreign policy.
  3. Ireland – Irish-American lobby influenced US policy on Northern Ireland.

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Mother and Child Health – Immunization Program, BPBB, PMJSY, PMMSY, etc.

50 years of Integrated Child Development Services (ICDS) Scheme

Schemes | Social Justice | Mains Paper 2: Health & Education

Why in the News?

The Integrated Child Development Services (ICDS) scheme, launched on 2 October 1975 by then Prime Minister Indira Gandhi, has completed 50 years in 2025.

50 years of Integrated Child Development Services (ICDS) Scheme

What is Integrated Child Development Services (ICDS) Scheme?

  • Launched: 2nd October 1975 by PM Indira Gandhi.
  • Nodal Ministry: Ministry of Women and Child Development (MoWCD).
  • Nature: Flagship centrally sponsored scheme and world’s largest community-based outreach programme for early childhood care.
  • Beneficiaries: Children (0–6 years), pregnant women, lactating mothers, and adolescent girls (under extensions).
  • Objectives:
    • Improve nutritional and health status of 0–6 year children.
    • Lay foundation for physical, psychological, and social development.
    • Reduce mortality, morbidity, malnutrition, and school dropouts.
    • Provide non-formal pre-school education.
    • Enhance maternal health & nutrition awareness.

About Umbrella ICDS Scheme:

  • Origin: The Integrated Child Development Services (ICDS) scheme was restructured and renamed as the Umbrella ICDS scheme in 2016–17.
  • Aim: Strengthen child nutrition, early childhood care, adolescent girl support, and child protection services.
  • Key Feature: Convergence model – Anganwadi Centres serve as hubs delivering integrated health, nutrition, and education.
  • Funding Pattern:
    • General States: 60:40 (Centre: State).
    • Supplementary Nutrition: 50:50.
    • NE & Himalayan States: 90:10.
    • UTs without legislatures: 100% Centre.

Key Components and Their Features

  1. Anganwadi Services

  • Core ICDS component.
  • Provides six services: supplementary nutrition, pre-school non-formal education, health check-ups, immunization, referral services, and nutrition/health education.
  • Nutrition support: Take-Home Rations (THR), Hot Cooked Meals, snacks.

  1. Pradhan Mantri Matru Vandana Yojana (PMMVY)

  • Conditional cash transfer scheme for pregnant and lactating women.
  • Provides ₹5,000 in three instalments for wage loss, nutrition, and healthcare.
  • Delivered through Direct Benefit Transfer (DBT).

  1. National Creche Scheme

  • Day-care facilities for children (6 months–6 years) of working women.
  • Services include supplementary nutrition, early childcare education, health check-ups, and sleeping facilities.
  • Functions 7.5 hours/day, 26 days/month.

  1. Scheme for Adolescent Girls (SAG – SABLA)

  • Focus on out-of-school girls (11–14 years).
  • Nutrition support: 600 kcal/day, 18–20 g protein.
  • Non-nutrition support: life skills, home management, health & hygiene awareness, educational and skill training.
  • Encourages mainstreaming into formal education and skill development.

  1. Child Protection Services (CPS)

  • Ensures care, protection, and rehabilitation of children in difficult situations.
  • Prevents abuse, exploitation, neglect, and family separation.
  • Runs child care institutions, helplines, adoption and foster care systems.

  1. POSHAN Abhiyaan (National Nutrition Mission)

  • Launched in 2018 to reduce stunting, anaemia, and low birth weight.
  • Uses Poshan Tracker (ICT-based real-time monitoring).
  • Promotes inter-ministerial convergence and community participation via Poshan Maah and Poshan Pakhwada.
[UPSC 2013] Consider the following statements in relation to Janani Suraksha Yojna:

1. It is safe motherhood intervention of the State Health Departments.

2. Its objective is to reduce maternal and neonatal mortality among poor pregnant women.

3. It aims to promote institutional delivery among poor pregnant women.

4. Its objective includes providing public health facilities to sick infants up to one year of age.

How many of the statements given above are correct?

Options: (a) Only one (b) Only two* (c) Only three (d) All four

 

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Global Geological And Climatic Events

What are Flying Rivers/ Atmospheric Rivers?

Prelims Only | Geography | Mains Paper 1: Important Geophysical Phenomena

Why in the News?

Droughts and fires in South America highlight the importance of “flying rivers” — rain-bearing vapor streams disrupted by Amazon deforestation.

What are Atmospheric Rivers?

  • Overview: Long, narrow bands of concentrated water vapour in the lower atmosphere, often termed “rivers in the sky.”
  • Dimensions: Typically 2,000–5,000 km long, 400–500 km wide, and about 3 km deep.
  • Water Transport: Carry nearly 90% of water vapour across Earth’s mid-latitudes — almost double the Amazon River’s flow.
  • Formation: Warm tropical seawater evaporates, and winds transport this moisture; upon encountering land or mountains, vapour condenses into heavy rainfall or snow.
  • Role: Unlike short-term weather systems, Atmospheric Rivers (ARs) shape long-term hydrological cycles and trigger extreme precipitation events.

Global Impacts of Atmospheric Rivers:

  • Flooding & Extreme Weather: Cause 80% of flood-related damages along the US West Coast; also linked to devastating floods in Europe, Africa, South America, and Australia.
  • South America: Amazon’s “flying rivers” disrupted by deforestation, leading to droughts in Peru, Bolivia, and Ecuador; threatens Amazon rainforest’s survival and risks savannisation.
  • East Asia: Up to 80% of heavy rainfall events in China, Korea, and Japan during early monsoon linked to ARs.
  • Climate Connection: Warming oceans are making ARs longer, wider, and more intense, increasing risks of catastrophic floods and landslides.
  • Positive Role: Contribute 30–50% of annual precipitation in some regions (e.g., US West Coast) and help end 33–74% of droughts.

Atmospheric Rivers in India’s Context:

  • Interaction: ARs combine with cyclonic circulations and the Himalayan ranges, causing extreme rainfall and flash floods.
  • Case Studies:
    • 2010 Leh cloudburst (Ladakh) – flash floods and mudslides.
    • 2011 Kupwara floods (J&K) – severe AR-driven rainfall.
  • Study (1951–2020): Identified 574 AR events during the monsoon season in India.
  • Recent Trends: Nearly 80% of India’s most severe floods (1985–2020) linked to AR activity.
  • Cause: Rapid Indian Ocean warming intensifies evaporation, moisture transport, and AR-driven floods.
  • Impact: Leads to short, intense rainfall spells, landslides, flash floods, crop loss, and mass displacement of communities.
[UPSC 2024] With reference to “water vapour,” which of the following statements is/are correct?

1. It is a gas, the amount of which decreases with altitude.

2. Its percentage is maximum at the poles.

Select the answer using the code given below:

Options: (a) 1 only* (b) 2 only (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 and 2

 

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Climate Change Impact on India and World – International Reports, Key Observations, etc.

Climate Models and Their Accuracy

| Geography | Mains Paper 1: Salient Features Of World'S Physical Geography

Why in the News?

The US President Donald Trump called climate change the “greatest con job ever,” disgusted with the predictions based on climate models central to climate science.

Climate Models and Their Accuracy

What are Climate Models?

  • Overview: Climate models are computer simulations using mathematical equations to represent the Earth’s climate system, including the atmosphere, oceans, land surface, and ice.
  • Basis: Built on physics, chemistry, and biology, they simulate interactions among Earth’s components.
  • Purpose: Forecast temperature, rainfall, humidity, sea-level rise, and extreme weather under scenarios like high greenhouse gas emissions.
  • Difference from Weather Models: Weather models predict short-term local events, while climate models analyze long-term regional and global patterns.

How do Climate Models work?

  • Grid System: Earth divided into a 3D grid of cells across land, atmosphere, and oceans.
  • Equations: Each cell governed by equations on energy movement, air, ice, and land processes.
  • Data Input: Observational data (greenhouse gases, ocean conditions, land use) fed into the model.
  • Interactions: Equations simulate changes in each cell and their effects on neighboring cells.
  • Outputs: Provide projections for temperature, precipitation, sea levels, ice cover, and extreme climate events.

Evolution of Climate Models:

Model Type What is it? Strengths Limitations
Energy Balance Models (EBMs) 

(1960s)
  • The earliest climate models.
  • They treat Earth like a single box system, calculating surface temperature by balancing incoming solar radiation vs outgoing infrared radiation.
  • Essentially, they answer: “How warm should Earth be if X amount of energy comes in and Y amount goes out?”
  • Very simple; first to link CO₂ emissions with global warming.
  • Computationally inexpensive.
  • Oversimplified — ignores atmosphere, oceans, and circulation.
  • Cannot simulate rainfall, winds, or regional climate.
Radiative Convective Models (RCMs) 

(1960s–70s)
  • Introduced the vertical structure of the atmosphere.
  • They divide the atmosphere into layers and simulate how radiation (solar + infrared) and convection move heat upward and downward.
  • Show how greenhouse gases trap heat and alter temperatures at different heights.
  • Capture greenhouse effect more realistically;
  • Explain vertical temperature profiles;
  • Useful for studying stratospheric cooling.
  • Still ignore oceans and global circulation;
  • Cannot project regional variations or weather patterns.
General Circulation Models (GCMs) (Global Climate Models)

(1970s onwards)
  • The first 3D models of Earth’s climate.
  • Divide the planet into grid cells (100–250 km), each with equations for atmosphere, oceans, ice, and land.
  • Simulate winds, currents, rainfall, temperature, and pressure by solving physical equations of motion, energy, and mass.
  • Comprehensive representation of climate;
  • Simulate monsoon, El Niño, ocean currents; reproduce past climate trends.
  • Very resource-intensive; grid too coarse to capture local detail (cities, villages);
  • Uncertainty in clouds and aerosols.
Earth System Models (ESMs)

(1990s–present)
  • Advanced GCMs that integrate biogeochemical cycles (carbon cycle, vegetation, ocean chemistry, aerosols, land-use changes).
  • Show how human activities (deforestation, fossil fuels, pollution) interact with natural systems, feedback loops, and long-term climate.
  • Holistic view of climate–biosphere interactions;
  • Essential for IPCC reports and policy projections.
  • Extremely complex;
  • Uncertainties in carbon feedbacks, aerosols, and long-term ecological processes.
Regional Climate Models (RCMs)

(1990s–present)
  • High-resolution versions of GCMs, zoomed into specific regions (25–50 km grids).
  • Use downscaling techniques to provide localised forecasts of rainfall, temperature, droughts, and monsoons.
  • Useful for city- or country-level policy (flood risk, agriculture, urban heat);
  • Capture Indian monsoon and Himalayan glaciers better.
  • Dependent on GCM input;
  • Projections limited to chosen region;
  • Computationally intensive.

How accurate are Climate Models?

  • Strengths: Modern models predict sea-level rise, polar ice loss, temperature increases, and rainfall trends with high accuracy.
  • Validation: Predictions are compared with historical climate records to confirm reliability.

  • Limitations:

    • Lack of precise data on clouds, volcanic activity, El Niño events.
    • Limited accuracy for regional variations (e.g., urban floods, Indian monsoon extremes).
    • Less accuracy in Global South due to data scarcity and complex climate systems.
    • Grid resolution (100–250 km per cell) causes oversimplification of land–atmosphere interactions.
[UPSC 2025] The World Bank warned that India could become one of the first places where wet-bulb temperatures routinely exceed 35°C. Which of the following statements best reflect(s) the implication of the above-said report?

I. Peninsular India will most likely suffer from flooding, tropical cyclones and droughts.

II. The survival of animals including humans will be affected as shedding of their body heat through perspiration becomes difficult.

Select the correct answer using the code given below:

(a) I only      (b) II only      (c) Both I and II      (d) Neither I nor II

 

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Agricultural Sector and Marketing Reforms – eNAM, Model APMC Act, Eco Survey Reco, etc.

[pib] Centre approves National Pulses Mission

Prelims OnlySchemes | Agriculture | Mains Paper 3: Agriculture and related issues

Why in the News?

The Union Minister for Agriculture & Farmers’ Welfare and Rural Development has approved the National Pulses Mission (Mission for Atmanirbharta in Pulses).

About the National Pulses Mission:

  • Launch (2025): Approved by the Union Minister for Agriculture & Farmers’ Welfare and Rural Development to achieve self-sufficiency in pulses by 2030–31, improve nutrition, and raise farmer incomes.
  • Targets: Production to rise from 24.2 MT (2024–25) to 35 MT (2030–31); acreage 310 lakh ha, yield 1,130 kg/ha.
  • Coverage: 416 districts, with focus on rice fallows, improved seeds, intercropping, irrigation, and market linkages.
  • MSP Procurement: 100% assured for Tur, Urad, Masoor for four years under PM-AASHA Price Support Scheme, via NAFED/NCCF.
  • Framework: Under National Food Security Mission (NFSM); combines ICAR-led R&D with private sector inputs, processing, and storage.
  • Budget: ₹11,440 crore outlay up to 2030–31 for multi-year implementation.
  • Outcomes: Improved nutrition, soil fertility (nitrogen-fixing), stable prices, climate resilience, and rural employment.

Key Features:

  • Cluster-Based Approach: Targets high-potential regions, diversifies beyond traditional belts, reduces risks.
  • Market Infrastructure: 1,000 post-harvest units (dal mills, grading, packaging) with subsidies up to ₹25 lakh/unit.
  • Research & Extension: New high-yield, climate-resilient varieties; farmer training on nutrient, pest, and water management.
  • Risk Cover: Subsidies, insurance, and credit to reduce cultivation risks.
  • Market Reforms: Direct sales linkages, transparent logistics, MSP-backed procurement.
[UPSC 2020] With reference to pulse production in India, consider the following statements:

1. Black gram can be cultivated as both kharif and rabi crop.

2. Green-gram alone accounts for nearly half of pulse production.

3. In the last three decades, while the production of kharif pulses has increased, the production of rabi pulses has decreased.

(a) 1 only * (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3

 

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Roads, Highways, Cargo, Air-Cargo and Logistics infrastructure – Bharatmala, LEEP, SetuBharatam, etc.

[pib] BRO Project Swastik marks 65 years of service

Prelims Only | Economics | Mains Paper 3: Infrastructure: Energy, Ports, Roads, Airports, Railways Etc.

Why in the News?

Border Roads Organisation (BRO) Project Swastik celebrated its 65th Raising Day on October 01, 2025.

About Project Swastik:

  • Origin: Established in 1960 as Project DRAGON, renamed Project Swastik on 1 October 1963.
  • Organisation: A flagship initiative of the Border Roads Organisation (BRO) under the Ministry of Defence.
  • Mandate: Construction and maintenance of strategic roads, bridges, and tunnels in the high-altitude Himalayan terrain.
  • Area of Responsibility: Covers North and East Sikkim up to forward border areas, also parts of North Bengal. The region is prone to landslides, fragile geology (Phyllites, Schists), and extreme weather conditions.
  • Strategic Role: Provides vital support for Armed Forces mobility, disaster relief operations, and socio-economic connectivity for remote communities.

Major Accomplishments:

  • Road & Bridge Network: Built and maintained over 1,412 km of roads and 80 major bridges since inception.
  • Recent Achievements: In the last decade, completed 350 km of new roads, 26 bridges, and 1 tunnel, ensuring year-round access to forward areas.
  • Key Road Links: Developed lifelines like the Gangtok–Chungthang and Gangtok–Nathula roads, critical for defence and civilian movement.
  • Disaster Response: Effectively restored connectivity after Glacial Lake Outburst Floods (GLOFs), cloudbursts, and Teesta River floods. Widely praised during the 2023 Sikkim flash floods.

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Promoting Science and Technology – Missions,Policies & Schemes

SARAL tool to simplify Scientific Research Papers

Prelims Only | Science Tech | Mains Paper 3: S&T - Applications In Everyday Life

Why in the News?

The Anusandhan National Research Foundation (ANRF), India’s newest science funding agency, has launched a digital tool called SARAL (Simplified and Automated Research Amplification and Learning) to make scientific research more accessible.

What is Anusandhan National Research Foundation (ANRF)?

  • Establishment: Created under the ANRF Act, 2023, replacing the Science and Engineering Research Board (SERB).
  • Nature: Acts as India’s apex science funding and policy-making body.

  • Mission & Objectives: 

    • Raise India’s R&D spending from 0.7% to 2% of GDP by 2030.
    • Mobilise 70% private sector participation in research funding.
    • Promote interdisciplinary research across sciences, technology, health, agriculture, humanities, and social sciences.
    • Align research with Viksit Bharat 2047 and the National Education Policy (NEP).

  • Structure:

    • Chairperson: Prime Minister of India (ex-officio).
    • Vice Presidents: Union Ministers of Science & Technology and Education.
    • Member Secretary: Principal Scientific Advisor.
    • Guided by a Governing Council and Executive Council for policy and funding.

About SARAL:

  • Developer: Created by IIIT Hyderabad under the guidance of the Anusandhan National Research Foundation (ANRF).
  • Purpose: Designed to make complex research papers accessible to students, professionals, and the general public.
  • AI Use: Generates summaries in multiple formats such as slides, videos, posters, and podcasts.
  • Language Support: Available in 11 Indian languages, ensuring wider inclusivity in science communication.
  • Workflow: Users upload research papers (LaTeX, arXiv links, PDFs); AI divides into sections (Introduction, Methodology, Results, Discussion, Conclusion); it produces editable slides and video summaries.
  • Significance:
    • Democratises science by converting research into layman-friendly outputs.
    • Enhances science communication and outreach.
    • Builds awareness of cutting-edge research across disciplines.
[UPSC 2015] Which of the following statements is/are correct regarding National Innovation Foundation-India (NIF)?

1. NIF is an autonomous body of the Department of Science and Technology under the Central Government.

2. NIF is an initiative to strengthen the highly advanced scientific research in India’s premier scientific institutions in collaboration with highly advanced foreign scientific institutions.

Select the correct answer using the code given below:

(a) 1 only* (b) 2 only (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2

 

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