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  • Global Geological And Climatic Events

    La Soufriere volcanic eruption

    India Mapping | Enviro & Biodiversity | Mains Paper 1: Geographical Features & Their Location

    Sulphur dioxide (SO2) emissions from La Soufriere volcano eruption in the Caribbean have reached all the way to India.

    Why in news?

    • Its eruption has sparked fear of increased pollution levels in the northern parts of India and acid rain.
    • Volcanic plumes can cause aviation and air quality hazards.

    La Soufriere

    • It is an active stratovolcano on the Caribbean island of Saint Vincent in Saint Vincent and the Grenadines.
    • It is the highest peak in Saint Vincent and has had five recorded explosive eruptions since 1718.

    Impact of such eruptions

    • Volcanic emissions reaching the stratosphere can have a cooling effect on global temperatures.
    • The most significant climate impacts from volcanic injections into the stratosphere come from the conversion of sulphur dioxide to sulphuric acid, which condenses rapidly in the stratosphere to form fine sulphate aerosols.
    • The aerosols increase the reflection of radiation from the Sun back into space, cooling the Earth’s lower atmosphere or troposphere.

    Try this PYQ:

    Q.Which of the following adds/add carbon dioxide to the carbon cycle on the planet Earth?

    1. Volcanic action
    2. Respiration
    3. Photosynthesis
    4. Decay of organic matter

    Select the correct answer using the code given below:

    (a) 1 and 3 only

    (b) 2 only

    (c) 1, 2 and 4 only

    (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4

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  • New Species of Plants and Animals Discovered

    Tiki Formation in Madhya Pradesh

    Prelims Only | Science Tech | Mains Paper 3: Awareness in various sc and tech fields

    The Tiki Formation in Madhya Pradesh, a treasure trove of vertebrate fossils, has now yielded a new species and two genera of cynodonts, small rat-like animals that lived about 220 million years ago.

    Tiki Formation

    • The Tiki Formation is a Late Triassic geologic formation in Madhya Pradesh.
    • Dinosaur remains are among the fossils that have been recovered from the formation, although none have yet been referred to a specific genus.
    • Phytosaur remains attributable to the genus Volcanosuchus have also been found in the Tiki Formation.
    • The genera Tikiodon, Tikitherium and Tikisuchus and species Rewaconodon tikiensis, Hyperodapedon tikiensis and Parvodus tikiensis have been named after the Tiki Formation.

    Findings of the new study

    • The fossil teeth were studied for size, crown shape, structure of the cusps and compared with previously reported cynodonts.
    • Cynodonts are important in evolutionary studies as this group ultimately gave rise to the present-day mammals.
    • By studying their molar and premolar teeth, we see how they slowly evolved and modified.
    • Their crown shape shows that these animals are actually intermediate forms that are very near to the mammalian line of evolution.
    • Cynodonts and living mammals both belong to a group of egg-laying vertebrates (amniotes) called synapsids.
    • The close relationship of cynodonts with living mammals is seen in their bones.

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  • Cyber Security – CERTs, Policy, etc

    The march towards an equitable data economy

    op-ed snap | Science Tech | Mains Paper 3: Indian Economy

    The article explains the data governance norms we need to adopt to secure better societal outcomes.

    Whatsapp privacy issue

    • New terms of service circulated by WhatsApp, caused a stir among the user.
    • It informed users that data about chats with business accounts would be shared with Facebook.
    • These policies seemed unfair to India as they were not applicable to the European Union (EU), given their strong data protection policies.

    Acceptable levels of data exchange

    • Default norms provide power to the tech platforms to collect, analyse and monetize data with complete control.
    • This undergirds business models that seem undesirable for society—with harms to privacy and free speech.
    • Global discussions about alternatives to the “exchange of data for free services” are becoming nuanced.

    3 Norms in the data governance

    1) Recognition of individual and collective rights related to data

    • It was generally accepted that extraction of data to access free services was a fair exchange with individuals.
    • Emergence of existential threats related to privacy and democracy have highlighted the role of guaranteeing human and civil rights.
    • There has been significant global progress through regulations on individual data rights.
    • A United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD) report claims that 128 of 194 countries have put in place legislations for data protection and privacy.
    • However, this protection is insufficient as it is centered on individuals and does not account for safety of groups.
    • The next wave of data governance ideas will seek to protect collective harms and build on the foundation of individual agency and control.

    2) Data sovereignty

    • One-size-fits all global norms of data governance are changing and being replaced by region-specific ideas.
    • Greater acceptance for “data sovereignty” assertions across India and Europe is a welcome shift towards crafting governance that is respectful of local nuances and inclusive of civic participation.
    • The EU general data protection regulation (GDPR) had created an early lighthouse example.
    • On the other hand, the US has adopted a light regulation approach—there is no comprehensive country-wide data protection law.
    • Closer home, India is finalizing the contours of a country-wide and cross-sector personal data protection bill, which reflects local norms.

    3) Value creation for all stakeholders

    • So far, data economy has operated in a completely unregulated space, creating a “winner takes all” market, with concentrated profits and little contribution to local taxes.
    • A healthy economy requires value creation for all stakeholders.
    • As tech platforms take up the profitable role of acting as the gateway to all information and social connections, they have a greater accountability and responsibility to contribute to the economy.
    • India’s digital tax through the 2% “equalization levy” is an attempt to make the tech giants pay for revenues earned in India.

    Consider the question “What should be norms of data governance we must adopt for achieving better societal outcomes?”

    Conclusion

    Formal adoption of regulations and setting up of enforcement institutions will lead to meaningful progress in the right direction.

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  • A multipolarity, scripted by the middle powers

    op-ed snap | International Relations | Mains Paper 2: Bilateral, Regional and Global Groupings and agreements involving India

    Four middle powers: India, Japan, China and Turkey anchor the world to multipolarity. The article deals with this issue.

    New cold war

    • In respect of three crucial relationships, namely China, Russia and Iran, Mr. Biden is following in the footsteps of his predecessor.
    • Mr. Biden has also extended his firm backing for the “Indo-Pacific” and the associated alignment — the Quadrilateral Security Dialogue, or Quad for short.
    • The U.S. continues to view China as its principal adversary on the world stage and that it will use the Quad to challenge China in the Indo-Pacific.
    • The U.S.’s hostility for Russia goes back to the latter’s war with Ukraine and the occupation of Crimea in 2014, followed by allegations of Russian cyber-interference in the U.S. presidential elections of 2016.
    • U.S. animosity has encouraged China and Russia to solidify their relations.
    • The two countries have agreed to harmonise their visions under the Eurasian Economic Union sponsored by Russia and China’s Belt and Road Initiative (BRI).
    • This idea has now been subsumed under the ‘Greater Eurasian Partnership’ to which both are committed.
    • Thus, the new Cold War is now being reflected in a new geopolitical binary — the Indo-Pacific versus Eurasia.

    How middle powers can play an important role

    • Four nations, Japan, Iran, Turkey and India, which, as “middle powers”, have the capacity to project power regionally, build alliances, and support (or disrupt) the strategies
    • But all four seems to be already aligned.
    • Japan and India are part of the Quad and have substantial security ties with the U.S.
    • Iran has found strategic comfort with the Sino-Russian alliance.
    • Turkey, a NATO member, has found its interests better-served by Russia and China rather than the U.S. and its European allies.
    • So, why the uncertainty? The main reason is that, despite the allure, the four nations are not yet prepared to join immutable alliances.

    Why the middle powers are reluctant to join alliances

    1) India’s China concerns

    • India has been expanding defence ties with the U.S. since 2016, by massive defence purchases and agreements on inter-operability and intelligence-sharing and frequent military exercises, as also the elevation of the Quad to ministerial level.
    • This might have signalled to China that India was now irreversibly in the U.S. camp.
    • But China has a point: while the Quad has made India a valuable partner for the U.S. in the west Pacific, neither the U.S. nor the Quad can address the challenges it faces at its 3,500-kilometre land border with China. 
    • Moreover, the U.S.’s intrusive approach on human rights issues ensures that India will need to manage its ties with China largely through its own efforts while retaining Russia as its defence partner.

    2) Sino-Japan relations

    • Japan has an ongoing territorial dispute with China relating to the Senkaku Islands in the East China Sea.
    • But there is more to Sino-Japanese relations: in 2019, 24% of Japanese imports came from China, while 19% of its exports went to China, affirming the adage.

    3) Why Iran is reluctant

    • The crippling sanctions on Iran and the frequent threats of regime change make it a natural ally of the Sino-Russian axis.
    • However, its strategic culture eschews long-term security alignments.

    4) Why Turkey is reluctant to join

    • Turkey is steady distancing from its western partners and increasing geopolitical, military and economic alignment with Russia and China.
    • But Turkey still wishes to keep its ties with the U.S. intact and retain the freedom to make choices.
    • Its “New Asia” initiative involves the strengthening of east-west logistical and economic connectivity backed by western powers and China.

    Consider the question “What are the factors India need to consider as it deepens its involvement in the Quad?” 

    Conclusion

    As the clouds of the new Cold War gathers over the world, these four nations could find salvation in “strategic autonomy” — defined by flexible partnerships, with freedom to shape alliances to suit specific interests at different times.

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  • Insolvency and Bankruptcy Code

    How IBC is moving away from promotor averse approach

    op-ed snap | Economics | Mains Paper 3: Indian Economy

    The Insolvency and Bankruptcy Code was amended recently taking into account its creditor centric approach.

    Introducing pre-packs for MSMEs

    • IBC was amended last week, through an ordinance.
    • The amendment sought to address a structural weakness in India’s resolution architecture by introducing the concept of pre-packs for micro, small and medium enterprises (MSMEs).
    • The pre-packaged framework involves a privately negotiated contract between the promoters of a financially distressed firm and its financial creditors to restructure the company’s obligations.
    •  This contract is negotiated within the IBC architecture but before the commencement of insolvency proceedings.
    • Once accepted by creditors, the plan must be presented to the National Company Law Tribunal (NCLT) for approval.

    How this framework is different from the existing framework

    • A firm’s promoters could have submitted a resolution plan even after it enters the insolvency proceedings, subject to restrictions imposed under Section 29A which clarifies all those who are ineligible for submitting the resolution plan.
    • So, the difference in the new framework essentially boils down to the following.

    1) Control of the firm

    • Under the IBC, upon the initiation of insolvency proceedings, control of a firm is taken away from promoters, and a resolution professional is appointed.
    • Now, during the restructuring, the promoter, through the pre-pack, retains control over the firm.
    • So effectively, we have transitioned from a “creditor-in-control” model of resolution to a “debtor-in-control” model of restructuring.
    • This amendment, which creates a framework for restructuring, without the promoter losing control over the firm, addresses a lacuna in the IBC.

    2) Issue of price discovery

    • In this arrangement, the is an absence of an open bidding process, such as during the resolution phase.
    • This might raise questions over price discovery, especially if value maximisation for creditors is the yardstick to measure the efficacy of IBC.
    • This marks a fundamental change in the IBC framework.

    Why the changes were needed

    • The IBC, while it has strengthened the position of the creditors, had swung to an extreme.
    • The resolution architecture as it stood prior to this amendment was perceived as being too creditor-centric.
    • Wresting control from the “errant” promoter, comes with its own set of consequences.
    • The notion that all business failure is due to the connivance of promoters needs to be reconsidered.
    • Firms may be unable to pay their obligations simply because the economic cycle has turned.
    • Or projects have not materialised as expected.
    • Of the 2,422 cases closed since IBC came into being, 46.5 per cent of the firms have gone into liquidation, while a resolution plan has been accepted in only 13.1 per cent of the cases.
    • This indicates liquidation bias.
    • At a time when there aren’t enough buyers in the economy, the IBC process would lead to significant value destruction.

    How it will benefit both creditor and promotors

    • Promoters get to hold on to their firms, and exit the process with more manageable obligations, making this an attractive proposition.
    • For creditors, considering the liquidation bias in IBC, as long as the value of the restructured obligation is greater than the liquidation value it makes sense to choose this option.
    • Moreover, this entire process remains outside the restructuring framework of the central bank.
    • And, considering that the pre-packs encompass all financial creditors, as opposed to RBI’s restructuring schemes which deal only with banks.
    • This takes into account the concerns of other financial creditors as well.

    Consider the question “How far IBC has succeeded in improving the insolvency regime in India? How the concepts of pre-packs is different from the previous system?

    Conclusion

    This approach will help clarify issues, bring about greater certainty to the process. And, once the creases are ironed out, it will create a permanent mechanism for restructuring debts.

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  • Women empowerment issues – Jobs,Reservation and education

    State of World Population Report 2021

    IOCR | Indian Society | Mains Paper 1: Role Of Women & Women Organization

    The United Nations Population Fund’s (UNFPA) flagship State of World Population Report 2021 titled ‘My Body is My Own’ was recently launched.

    State of World Population Report 2021

    • The State of World Population report is UNFPA’s annual flagship publication.
    • It has been published yearly since 1978.
    • It highlights emerging issues in the field of sexual and reproductive health and rights, bringing them into the mainstream and exploring the challenges and opportunities they present for international development.

    Key findings of the 2021 report

    This is the first time a UN report has focused on bodily autonomy, defined as the power and agency to make choices about your body without fear of violence or having someone else decide for you.

    • The report measures both women’s power to make their own decisions about their bodies and the extent to which countries’ laws support or interfere with a woman’s right to make these decisions.
    • The data show a strong link between decision-making power and higher levels of education.

    The report shows that in countries where data are available:

    • Only 55 per cent of women are fully empowered to make choices over health care, contraception and the ability to say yes or no to sex.
    • Only 71 per cent of countries guarantee access to overall maternity care.
    • Only 75 per cent of countries legally ensure full, equal access to contraception.
    • Only about 80 per cent of countries have laws supporting sexual health and well-being.
    • Only about 56 per cent of countries have laws and policies supporting comprehensive sexuality education.

    In essence, hundreds of millions of women and girls do not own their own bodies. Their lives are governed by others.

    The report also documents many other ways that the bodily autonomy of women, men, girls and boys is violated, revealing that:

    • Twenty countries or territories have “marry-your-rapist” laws, where a man can escape criminal prosecution if he marries the woman or girl he has raped.
    • Forty-three countries have no legislation addressing the issue of marital rape (rape by a spouse).
    • More than 30 countries restrict women’s right to move around outside the home.
    • Girls and boys with disabilities are nearly three times more likely to be subjected to sexual violence, with girls at the greatest risk.

    Solutions: the power to say yes, the right to say no

    • The report shows how efforts to address abuses can lead to further violations of bodily autonomy.
    • For example, to prosecute a case of rape, a criminal justice system might require a survivor to undergo an invasive so-called virginity test.
    • Real solutions, the report finds, must take into account the needs and experiences of those affected.

    Indian scenario

    • In India, according to NFHS-4 (2015-2016), only about 12% of currently married women (15-49 years of age) independently make decisions about their own healthcare, while 63% decide in consultation with their spouse.
    • For a quarter of women (23%), it is the spouse that mainly takes decisions about healthcare.
    • Only 8% of currently married women (15-49 years) take decisions on the use of contraception independently, while 83% decide jointly with their spouse.
    • Information provided to women about the use of contraception is also limited — only 47% of women using a contraceptive were informed about the side effects of the method, and 54% of women were provided information about other contraceptives.

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  • Financial Inclusion in India and Its Challenges

    National Pension System (NPS)

    Schemes | Indian Society | Mains Paper 2: Government Scheme/Policies

    The National Pension System (NPS) will no longer compel investors to convert 40% of their accumulated retirement corpus into an annuity.

    An annuity is a long-term investment that is issued by an insurance company and is designed to help protect you from the risk of outliving your income. Through annuitisation, your purchase payments (what you contribute) are converted into periodic payments that can last for life.

    Why such a move?

    • Poor yields on annuities and high inflation are translating into negative returns.
    • Since annuities are taxable, deducting the tax and factoring in inflation means annuities are yielding negative returns.

    Try this PYQ:

    Q.Who among the following can join the National Pension System (NPS)?

    (a) Resident Indian citizens only

    (b) Persons of age from 21 to 55 only

    (c) All-State Government employees joining the services after the date of notification by the respective State Governments

    (d) All Central Governments Employees including those of Armed Forces joining the services on or after 1st April 2004

    National Pension Scheme (NPS)

    • NPS is a government-sponsored pension scheme. It was launched in January 2004 for government employees.
    • It was extended to all citizens of Indian on a voluntary basis from May 2009 and to corporates in December 2011 and to Non-Resident Indians in October 2015.
    • PFRDA is the statutory authority established by an enactment of the Parliament, to regulate, promote and ensure orderly growth of the NPS and pension schemes to which this Act applies.
    • The scheme allows subscribers to contribute regularly in a pension account during their working life.
    • On retirement, subscribers can withdraw a part of the corpus in a lump sum and use the remaining corpus to buy an annuity to secure a regular income after retirement.

    Who can join NPS?

    • Any Indian citizen between 18 and 60 years can join NPS.
    • The only condition is that the person must comply with know your customer (KYC) norms.
    • An NRI can join NPS. However, the account will be closed if there is a change in the citizenship status of the NRI.
    • Now, any Indian citizen, resident or non-resident and OCIs are eligible to join NPS till the age of 65 years.

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  • New Species of Plants and Animals Discovered

    Species in news: Azhdarchid Pterosaurs

    Prelims Only | Science Tech | Mains Paper 3: Awareness in various sc and tech fields

    Azhdarchid pterosaurs, the giant reptiles that flew in the skies nearly 65 million years ago, had necks longer than that of a giraffe (i.e. more than 6fts).

    What are pterosaurs?

    • Pterosaurs are reptiles that are close cousins of dinosaurs, the first animals after insects to evolve powered flight.
    • Some pterosaurs were as large as an F-16 fighter jet, while others were as small as a paper aeroplane.
    • Pterosaurs went extinct about 65-66 million years ago (end of the Cretaceous period) and while they did not leave any of their descendants behind.
    • One reason for this is that few pterosaurs lived in places where fossils tend to form, because of which their bones are preserved poorly.

    Revise the geological timescale from your NCERT textbook.

    Azhdarchid pterosaurs

    • They are one type of pterosaur and one of the distinguishing characteristics about them is how big they were, especially their long necks.
    • Some of these pterosaurs were the largest animals to have flown in the sky, with wingspans greater than 30 feet.
    • The name azhdarchid, as per a blog on Scientific American comes from Azhdarcho, a Central Asian form named by Russian ornithologist and palaeontologist in 1984.

    What have the researchers found?

    • Researchers involved in this study were curious about how the reptile’s long neck functioned and how it was able to support the pterosaur’s body, allowing them to capture and eat heavy prey animals.

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  • Digital India Initiatives

    [pib] National Internet Exchange of India (NIXI)

    PIB | Science Tech | Mains Paper 3: Awareness in various sc and tech fields

    The Ministry of Electronics & Information Technology (MeitY) has inaugurated three path-breaking initiatives for the National Internet Exchange of India (NIXI).

    What is NIXI?

    National Internet Exchange of India (NIXI) is a not-for-profit organization (section 8 of the Companies Act 2013) working since 2003 for spreading the internet infrastructure to the citizens of India through the following activities:

    1. Internet Exchanges through which the internet data is exchanged amongst ISP’s, Data Centers and CDNs.
    2. .IN Registry, managing and operation of .IN country-code domain and .भारत IDN domain for India.
    3. IRINN, managing and operating Internet protocol (IPv4/IPv6).

    Which are the three new initiatives?

    (1) IPv6 Expert Panel (IP Guru) (https://nixi.in):

    • IP Guru is a group to extend support to all the Indian entities who are finding it technically challenging to migrate and adopt IPv6.
    • In addition to this, the IPv6 expert group will help in identifying & hiring an agency that will help end customer by providing necessary technical support to adopt IPv6.
    • This panel will guide all such Indian entities and help in increasing IPv6 adoption.

    Note: An Internet Protocol (IP) address is a numerical label assigned to each device connected to a computer network that uses the Internet Protocol for communication. An IP address serves two main functions: host or network interface identification and location addressing.

    (2) NIXI Academy (https://training.nixi.in):

    • NIXI Academy is created to educate technical/non-technical people in India to learn and relearn technologies like IPv6 which are normally not taught in Educational Institutes.
    • NIXI academy comprises an IPv6 training portal which is developed with the help of various technical experts in order to provide mass training to the community.
    • The easy-to-use platform helps network operators and educators understand networking best practices, principles and techniques; manage Internet resources better; and use appropriate Internet technologies more effectively.

    (3) NIXI-IP-INDEX (https://ipv6.nixi.in):

    • NIXI has developed an IPv6 index portal for the Internet community.
    • NIXI-IP-INDEX portal will showcase the IPv6 adoption rate in India and across the world.
    • It can be used to compare the IPv6 Indian adoption rate with other economies in the world.
    • NIXI will populate this portal with web adoption in IPv6, IPv6 traffic etc. in the coming days.
    • This portal will motivate organisations to adopt IPv6, provide inputs for planning by technical organisations and research by academicians.

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  • Foreign Policy Watch: India-United States

    Navigation with permission

    op-ed snap | International Relations | Mains Paper 2: Bilateral, Regional and Global Groupings and agreements involving India

    The explains the issues involved in the recent incident in which US position on freedom of navigation under UNCLOS differed from India’s.

    Different positions

    • On April 7, the U.S.’s 7th Fleet Destroyer conducted a ‘Freedom of Navigation Operation’ inside India’s Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ).
    • This exercise was conducted without requesting India’s consent.
    • Moreover, the U.S. 7th Fleet noted in its press release that India’s requirement of prior consent is “inconsistent with international law”.
    • However, India asserted that the UN Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) “does not authorize other States to carry out in the Exclusive Economic Zone and on the continental shelf, military exercises or manoeuvres, in particular those involving the use of weapons or explosives, without the consent of the coastal state”. 
    • The question is, can countries carry out military exercises in another country’s EEZ and if yes, subject to what conditions?

    UNCLOS Provisions for EEZ

    • UN Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) binds all its signatories and customary international law binds all states, subject to exceptions like the doctrine of persistent objector.
    • As per the UNCLOS, EEZ is an area adjacent to the territorial waters of a coastal state.
    • Under UNCLOS, a sovereign coastal state has rights and duties relating to management of natural resources; establishment and use of artificial islands, installations and structures; marine scientific research; and protection of the marine environment.
    • India is a party to the UNCLOS while the U.S. is not.
    • Article 87 provides for freedom of the high seas under which all states have the freedom of navigation. 
    • Apart from that, states enjoy the freedom of overflight and of the laying of submarine cables and pipelines as well as other internationally lawful uses of the sea.
    •  However, the freedom of navigation is subject to the conditions laid down under the UNCLOS and other rules of international law.
    • In addition to it, Article 58 (3) stipulates another qualification: “In exercising their rights and performing their duties under this Convention in the exclusive economic zone, States shall have due regard to the rights and duties of the coastal State and shall comply with the laws and regulations adopted by the coastal State…”.

    So, what laws and regulation are adopted by India under Article 58 (3) of UNCLOS

    • The relevant Indian law in this regard is the Territorial Waters, Continental Shelf, Exclusive Economic Zone and Other Maritime Zones of India Act, 1976.
    • Section 7 sub-section 9 of this Act recognises the freedom of navigation of the ships of all States but makes them subject to the exercise of rights by India within the zone.
    • Article 310 of the UNCLOS does permit states to make declarations in order to explain the relationship between the Convention and their own laws.
    • The declaration by India in 1995 also states that India “understands that the provisions of the Convention do not authorize other States to carry out in the exclusive economic zone and on the continental shelf military exercises or manoeuvres.

    Way forward

    • Non-consensual military activities that hinder the lawful enjoyment of rights of coastal states need not be permissible.
    • Also, a coastal state is naturally concerned about military exercises and manoeuvres posing a risk to its coastal communities, its installations or artificial islands, as well as the marine environment.
    • Thus, any state which wishes to conduct such exercises must do so only in consultation with the coastal state since the coastal state is the best judge of its EEZ.
    • Both India and the U.S. should negotiate such concerns for the maintenance of international peace and security.

    Consider the question “What are the rights of coastal state on its Exclusive Economic Zone under UNCLOS? “

    Conclusion

    On a conjoint reading of Articles 58, 87 and 310, it can be argued that freedom of navigation cannot be read in an absolute and isolated manner.

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