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  • Microfinance Story of India

    Kisan Credit Card (KCC) Scheme

    Schemes | Agriculture | Mains Paper 3: Agriculture and related issues

    Why in the News?

    According to the RBI, bad loans in the Kisan Credit Card (KCC) Scheme segment increased by 42% over the last four years, reaching ₹97,543 crore by December 2024, up from ₹68,547 crore in March 2021.

    About the Kisan Credit Card (KCC) Scheme

    • The KCC Scheme is a government-backed credit initiative designed to provide timely and adequate credit to farmers for agricultural and allied activities.
    • Launched in 1998 on the recommendation of NABARD (R.V. Gupta Committee), the scheme aims to ensure easy access to institutional credit, reducing farmers’ dependency on moneylenders and informal credit sources.
    • Purpose of KCC:
      • Provides short-term credit for crop cultivation and post-harvest needs.
      • Supports working capital requirements for farm mechanization, dairy, poultry, fisheries, and other allied agricultural activities.
      • Helps meet household consumption needs of farmers.
      • Allows credit access for investment in agriculture-related businesses.
    • Credit and Repayment System:
      • Farmers can avail collateral-free loans up to ₹2 lakh.
      • Interest rates start as low as 4% per annum (with government interest subvention for timely repayment).
      • The loan limit was increased from ₹3 lakh to ₹5 lakh in Budget 2025-26.
      • Revolving credit system allows farmers to withdraw and repay as needed within the sanctioned limit.
      • Repayment schedules are linked to the crop harvesting cycle, ensuring no undue financial burden.
    • Implementation: Commercial Banks; Regional Rural Banks (RRBs); Small Finance Banks; Cooperative Banks.
    • Additional Benefits:
      • Comes with insurance coverage under the Pradhan Mantri Fasal Bima Yojana (PMFBY) to protect against crop loss.
      • Covers fisheries and animal husbandry farmers (since 2018-19).

    Successes and Limitations of the KCC Scheme:

    Successes Failures
    • Increased Financial Inclusion: 7.3 crore active accounts, reducing reliance on moneylenders.
    • Higher Agricultural Productivity:  Easy access to inputs like seeds, fertilizers, and machinery.
    • Increased Support: Interest subvention makes loans affordable; loan limit raised from ₹3 lakh to ₹5 lakh (Budget 2025-26).
    • Promoted Rural Development: Covers women farmers, Farmer Producer Organizations (FPOs), and non-farm activities.
    • Rising NPAs:  Discussed above.
    • Loan Misuse: Funds diverted for non-agricultural expenses, increasing defaults.
    • Low Financial Literacy: Many farmers unaware of repayment terms, leading to debt traps.
    • High Credit Dependency: Continuous borrowing without income growth raises financial risks.

    PYQ:

    [2020] Under the Kisan Credit Card scheme, short-term credit support is given to farmers for which of the following purposes?

    1. Working capital for maintenance of farm assets
    2. Purchase of combine harvesters, tractors and mini trucks
    3. Consumption requirements of farm households
    4. Post-harvest expenses
    5. Construction of family house and setting up of village cold storage facility

    Select the correct answer:

    (a) 1, 2 and 5 only

    (b) 1, 3 and 4 only

    (c) 2, 3, 4 and 5 only

    (d) 1, 2, 4 and 5

     

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  • International Space Agencies – Missions and Discoveries

    What are Collisionless Shock Waves?

    Prelims Only | Science Tech | Mains Paper 3: Awareness in various sc and tech fields

    Why in the News?

    A recent study published by Johns Hopkins University (USA) and Northumbria University (UK) reveals how Collisionless Shock Waves act as cosmic accelerators, helping subatomic particles gain ultra-high energy and travel vast distances in space.

    What are Collisionless Shock Waves?

    • Collisionless shock waves are disturbances in plasma (ionized gas) where energy transfer occurs without direct particle collisions, relying instead on electromagnetic forces.
    • They are found in supernova remnants, black hole disks, pulsars, magnetars, and planetary magnetospheres.
    • They act as natural cosmic accelerators, boosting electrons and other charged particles to ultra-high speeds.

    Key Findings from the Study

    • NASA’s MMS, THEMIS, and ARTEMIS missions observed an electron acceleration event near Earth’s bow shock on December 17, 2017.
    • Electrons in Earth’s foreshock region gained 500 keV of energy, reaching 86% of the speed of light, a huge increase from their usual 1 keV.
    • Diffusive shock acceleration (known for producing high-energy cosmic rays) requires electrons to already be moving at 50% of light speed before further acceleration can occur.
    • The study identifies how electrons receive this initial boost, a long-standing astrophysical mystery.
    • Scientists have long assumed that supernova explosions are the primary source of cosmic rays.
    • The recent study suggests that planetary magnetospheres interacting with stellar winds could also contribute to high-energy cosmic rays.

    How Shock Waves accelerate Particles without Collisions?

    • Unlike in solids, liquids, or gases, where energy is transferred via molecular collisions, plasma particles interact through electromagnetic fields.
    • This allows shock waves to accelerate electrons without direct contact.
    • Multi-Stage Acceleration Process:
      1. Plasma waves interact with electrons, imparting initial energy.
      2. Magnetic turbulence in the shock front causes electrons to spiral, further increasing their speed.
      3. Repeated interactions with plasma waves push electrons to relativistic speeds.
    • Role of Earth’s Bow Shock & Foreshock:
      • When the solar wind collides with Earth’s magnetosphere, it forms a shock wave.
      • The foreshock region ahead of this wave is highly turbulent, enabling efficient electron acceleration.

    PYQ:

    [2009] In the year 2008, which one of the following conducted a complex scientific experiment in which sub-atomic particles were accelerated to nearly the speed of light?

    (a) European Space Agency

    (b) European Organization for Nuclear Research (CERN)

    (c) National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA)

    (d) National Academy of Sciences, USA

     

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  • WTO and India

    [11th March 2025] The Hindu Op-ed: An India-U.S. trade agreement and the test of WTO laws

    op-ed snap | International Relations | Mains Paper 2: Bilateral, Regional and Global Groupings and agreements involving India

    PYQ Relevance:

    Q)  Quadrilateral Security Dialogue (Quad) is transforming itself into a trade bloc from a military alliance, in present times Discuss. (UPSC CSE 2020)

     

    Mentor’s Comment: UPSC mains have always focused on the Quadrilateral Security Dialogue (Quad) is transforming itself into a trade bloc  (2020) and WTO has to survive in the present context of ‘Trade War’ (2018).

    During Prime Minister Narendra Modi’s U.S. visit on February 13, 2025, India and the U.S. agreed to begin talks on a multi-sector Bilateral Trade Agreement (BTA) by fall 2025. As both countries are WTO members, the agreement must follow WTO rules. While details remain unclear, the agreement’s content matters more than its label.

    Today’s editorial discusses how the ongoing Bilateral Trade Agreement (BTA) negotiations may affect both countries. This information is useful for GS Paper 3 in the UPSC Mains exam.

    _

    Let’s learn!

    Why in the News?

    Since both the U.S. and India are members of the World Trade Organization, their trade agreements must follow WTO rules.

    What are the key legal challenges India and the U.S. may face while negotiating a Bilateral Trade Agreement (BTA) under WTO law?

    • Violation of the Most Favoured Nation (MFN) Principle: WTO law mandates that any trade advantage granted to one member must be extended to all members (Article I of GATT). A BTA providing preferential tariffs only to India or the U.S. may violate this principle.
      • Example: If the U.S. lowers tariffs on Indian textiles under the BTA without extending the same benefit to other WTO members like China, it breaches the MFN principle.
    • Meeting the “Substantially All Trade” Requirement: Article XXIV.8(b) of GATT requires that Free Trade Agreements (FTAs) must cover “substantially all trade.” A limited-scope BTA focusing only on select sectors (e.g., pharmaceuticals or agriculture) may not satisfy this condition.
      • Example: If the India-U.S. BTA only includes technology and defense products while excluding key areas like agriculture, it may not qualify as a valid FTA under WTO law.
    • Notification and Transparency Obligations: WTO members must notify the organization of any new regional trade agreements (RTAs) or BTAs and demonstrate compliance with Article XXIV of GATT. Failure to provide transparent schedules may lead to legal disputes.
      • Example: If India and the U.S. do not submit a clear implementation timeline for tariff reductions under an interim BTA, other WTO members could challenge the agreement.
    • Bound Tariff Commitments: Both countries have pre-committed to maximum tariff limits (bound tariffs) under WTO rules. Any preferential treatment exceeding these limits may violate their commitments.
      • Example: If India agrees to reduce tariffs on American agricultural imports below its bound tariff rates, it could be accused of breaching its WTO commitments.
    • Misuse of the “Interim Agreement” Clause: Article XXIV.5 allows “interim agreements” only if they lead to a full FTA within a reasonable period (usually 10 years). Using an interim BTA to delay full liberalization may face legal scrutiny.
      • Example: If the India-U.S. BTA remains a partial agreement for an extended period without progressing toward an FTA, it could be deemed a violation of WTO norms.

    Why is the “most favoured nation” (MFN) principle significant in evaluating the legality of the proposed India-U.S. BTA?

    • Prevents Discrimination Between Trading Partners: The MFN principle under Article I of GATT ensures that any trade advantage (e.g., lower tariffs) given to one WTO member must be extended to all members. A BTA offering exclusive benefits violates this core principle.
      • Example: If the U.S. reduces tariffs on Indian pharmaceuticals but does not extend the same reduction to other countries like Vietnam, it breaches the MFN rule.
    • Limits Preferential Bilateral Deals: WTO law only allows exceptions to the MFN rule through comprehensive trade agreements covering “substantially all trade” under Article XXIV of GATT. A narrowly focused BTA risks legal challenges.
      • Example: If India and the U.S. sign a BTA that only includes high-tech products while excluding major sectors like agriculture, it may not qualify for an MFN exemption.
    • Ensures Transparency and Fair Competition: The MFN principle promotes a transparent, rule-based trading system where no country receives hidden advantages, ensuring fair market access for all WTO members.
      • Example: If India provides exclusive tariff cuts on American dairy products without offering similar terms to New Zealand, it would violate WTO transparency obligations.
    • Prevents Trade Fragmentation: Upholding the MFN principle avoids trade fragmentation by ensuring consistent rules for all members. Bilateral deals that bypass MFN could undermine the multilateral trade system.
      • Example: If the U.S. grants Indian textiles preferential access through a BTA but not to countries like Bangladesh, it could distort global supply chains.
    • Requires WTO Notification and Review: Any departure from the MFN principle through a BTA must be notified to the WTO and subjected to legal scrutiny under Article XXIV to confirm its compliance.
      • Example: If the India-U.S. BTA is not notified to the WTO or lacks a clear transition plan toward an FTA, it may be legally contested by other members like China or the EU.

    How can the proposed BTA be structured as an “interim agreement” under Article XXIV of the GATT without violating WTO norms?

    • Commitment to Full Free Trade Area (FTA) or Customs Union: The BTA must outline a clear plan to eventually form a Free Trade Area (FTA) or Customs Union within a reasonable time frame (generally within 10 years).
      • Example: The India-Mauritius Comprehensive Economic Cooperation and Partnership Agreement (CECPA) started as an interim agreement with the goal of expanding into a broader trade framework.
    • Transparency and Notification to WTO: The parties must notify the WTO of the interim agreement and submit detailed information on trade coverage, timelines, and implementation steps for review by the Committee on Regional Trade Agreements (CRTA).
      • Example: The European Union (EU)-UK Trade and Cooperation Agreement was notified to the WTO during the Brexit transition, ensuring compliance with Article XXIV.
    • Non-Discriminatory Transition: The interim agreement must not create unjustifiable discrimination against other WTO members, and the removal of trade barriers should cover substantially all trade between the parties.
      • Example: The US-Mexico-Canada Agreement (USMCA) complies with this by covering a broad range of goods and services, ensuring that trade barriers are progressively reduced.

    Way forward: 

    • Ensure Comprehensive Coverage and Timely Transition: Design the BTA to cover substantially all trade sectors with a clear roadmap toward a full Free Trade Area (FTA) within the 10-year WTO guideline to comply with Article XXIV.
    • Enhance Transparency and Legal Compliance: Notify the WTO promptly, providing detailed schedules on tariff reductions and implementation timelines, ensuring non-discrimination and regular compliance reviews by the Committee on Regional Trade Agreements (CRTA).

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  • Higher Education – RUSA, NIRF, HEFA, etc.

    The Indian university and the search for a V-C 

    Explained | Polity | Mains Paper 2: Indian Constitution – historical underpinnings, evolution, features, amendments, significant provisions and basic structure

    Why in the News?

    Various groups have raised concerns about the Draft UGC Regulations, 2025, which outline qualifications for appointing and promoting university teachers and aim to maintain standards in higher education.

    What are the primary reservations expressed regarding the Draft UGC Regulations, 2025?

    • Reduced Role of State Executives in V-C Appointments: The draft regulations limit the State government’s involvement in the search-cum-selection process, despite State universities being funded and established by State legislatures. Example: In the Gambhirdan K. Gadhvi vs State of Gujarat (2019) case, the Supreme Court ruled that State executive members cannot be part of the V-C selection committee, reducing their influence.
    • Broadening of Eligibility Criteria for Vice-Chancellors: Expanding the eligibility to include individuals from public policy, government, and private sectors may dilute academic rigor and expertise. Example: Between 2010 and 2018, the UGC regulations required 10 years of professorship or equivalent academic experience, ensuring a focus on research-based qualifications.

    Why has the Supreme Court of India ruled against the involvement of the State executive in the selection process of Vice-Chancellors?

    • Ensuring Compliance with UGC Regulations: The Court upheld the UGC’s 2018 regulations, which specify that only a UGC representative, not a State executive member, should be included in the search-cum-selection committee. Example: In Professor (Dr.) Sreejith P.S vs Dr. Rajasree M.S. (2022), the Court invalidated the V-C’s appointment because the selection process did not follow UGC norms.
    • Preventing Arbitrary Appointments: The Court held that allowing State executives to influence the selection process could lead to biased or politically motivated appointments, compromising merit-based selection. Example: In Dr. Premachandran Keezhoth vs The Chancellor, Kannur University (2023), the Court declared the V-C appointment void due to the involvement of the State executive, reinforcing the need for an independent selection process.
    • Preserving Autonomy and Neutrality: The Court emphasized that the Vice-Chancellor’s appointment process should be free from political or administrative influence to maintain the academic institution’s autonomy and impartiality. Example: In Gambhirdan K. Gadhvi vs State of Gujarat (2019), the Court ruled that State executive members cannot be part of the selection committee to prevent undue influence.

    Who are the key stakeholders affected by the proposed changes in the search-cum-selection process?

    • State Governments and State Universities: The reduced role of State executives limits their ability to shape the leadership of State-funded universities, affecting regional educational priorities and innovation. Example: State governments argue that universities play a critical role in addressing local development needs, which may be overlooked if the selection process is centralized.
    • University Governance Bodies: University executive bodies lose direct influence over the V-C selection, reducing their ability to align leadership with institutional goals and academic vision. Example: Central University statutes follow a similar model where the Chancellor, UGC, and university bodies are key decision-makers, excluding executive government officials.
    • Academic and Non-Academic Professionals: The broadened eligibility criteria open leadership positions to individuals from non-academic backgrounds, changing the traditional focus on academic excellence. Example: The draft regulations allow candidates with experience in public policy or industry, which some argue may dilute the focus on academic scholarship.

    Which options should be suggested to balance the State executive’s concerns? (Way forward)

    • State Nominee with Specific Criteria: Permit the State executive to nominate one member to the search-cum-selection committee, provided the nominee is a distinguished academic with no active government role. Example: Similar to the Union Public Service Commission (UPSC) guidelines, the nominee could be a retired academic leader who is free from political affiliations.
    • Increased Consultation Mechanism: Introduce a pre-selection consultation phase where the State executive provides inputs on regional needs without directly influencing the final selection. Example: The university executive could hold formal discussions with the State to ensure the selected V-C aligns with local educational and developmental goals.

    Mains PYQ:

    Q The quality of higher education in India requires major improvement to make it internationally competitive. Do you think that the entry of foreign educational institutions would help improve the quality of technical and higher education in the country. Discuss.  (UPSC IAS/2015)

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  • Economic Indicators and Various Reports On It- GDP, FD, EODB, WIR etc

    Income levels of salaried class have stagnated in recent years

    Explained | Economics | Mains Paper 3: Issues relating growth and development, employment

    Why in the News?

    According to PLFS reports, employment in India is increasing, but the real wages of salaried workers have remained unchanged since 2019.

    What are the key reasons behind the stagnation of real wages for salaried workers in India since 2019?

    • Inflation Outpacing Wage Growth: Rising consumer prices (CPI) have eroded the purchasing power of salaries despite nominal wage increases. For example, Real wages for salaried workers in India were 1.7% lower in the June 2024 quarter compared to the June 2019 quarter (PLFS data).
    • Excess Labour Supply and Declining Returns to Education: An oversupply of qualified workers has reduced the premium for higher education, limiting salary growth. For example, the share of self-employed workers increased from 53.5% in 2019-20 to 58.4% in 2023-24, indicating a shift from salaried roles due to a lack of opportunities.
    • Depressed Private Sector Investment: Reduced corporate investment leads to slower job creation and wage stagnation. For example, India’s private sector investment-to-GDP ratio declined from 28% in 2011-12 to 21.1% in 2022-23 (Reserve Bank of India).
    • Policy Shocks (Demonetisation and GST Impact): Economic disruptions from demonetisation (2016) and GST (2017) weakened small and medium enterprises (SMEs), affecting formal employment. For example, Formal employment fell, and salaried employment as a share of total workers dropped from 22.9% in 2019-20 to 21.7% in 2023-24 (PLFS data).
    • Shift Toward Informal and Contractual Work: Companies increasingly rely on temporary and gig workers, offering lower pay and fewer benefits. For example, Casual labour wages increased by 12.3% (real terms) between 2019 and 2024, while salaried wages stagnated, reflecting a rise in informal work.

    Why is the increase in wages for casual labour not considered a net positive for the economy?

    • Lower Productivity Contribution: Casual labour typically involves low-skilled, irregular work with limited productivity gains. While wages may rise, the overall economic output does not grow proportionately.
      • For example, the agriculture sector, which employs a large share of casual labour, contributed only 16% to India’s GDP in 2023-24 despite employing over 45% of the workforce (Economic Survey 2023-24).
    • Informal Nature of Work: Casual jobs lack social security, health benefits, and job stability, leading to long-term economic insecurity despite wage increases.
      •  In India, 93% of the workforce remains in the informal sector with minimal social protection, contributing to economic vulnerability (ILO report, 2023).
    • Wage-Price Spiral Risk: Rising wages in low-skilled sectors can increase the cost of goods and services, driving inflation without improving living standards.
      • For instance, wage increases for casual farm labour contribute to higher food prices, intensifying retail inflation (CPI rose by 7.44% in July 2024, RBI).
    • Limited Skill Development and Upward Mobility: Casual work offers fewer opportunities for training or career advancement, trapping workers in low-wage cycles despite nominal wage growth.
      •  The Periodic Labour Force Survey (2023-24) shows that only 2.4% of India’s workforce received formal vocational training, limiting skill-based upward mobility.
    • Depressed Consumption and Savings Rates: Casual labourers typically earn subsistence-level wages, leaving little room for savings or significant consumption, which hampers long-term economic growth.
      • Household savings as a share of GDP declined from 23.6% in 2011-12 to 18.1% in 2022-23, reflecting weak wage-driven consumption (RBI report).

    When did real wages for self-employed workers begin to recover after the pandemic?

    Real wages for self-employed workers in India began to recover after the pandemic in the quarters. Despite this recovery, as of the June 2024 quarter, real wages remained 1.5% lower than in the June 2019 quarter.

    • Rural vs. Urban Disparities:
      • Rural Areas: In rural regions, self-employed workers experienced a 3.02% increase in real wages during the same period.
      • Urban Areas: Conversely, urban self-employed workers saw a decline of 5.2% in real wages compared to pre-pandemic levels.

    How have policy decisions like demonetization and the implementation of GST affected wage growth and employment patterns? 

    • Disruption of Informal and Small-Scale Enterprises: Both demonetisation and GST disrupted cash-dependent small and medium enterprises (SMEs), leading to job losses and reduced wage growth in the informal sector. Example: The share of salaried workers declined from 22.9% in 2019-20 to 21.7% in 2023-24 (PLFS data), indicating a shift away from formal employment.
    • Shift Toward Informal and Gig Work: Policy shocks accelerated the transition from stable salaried jobs to informal, gig-based, and self-employed work, which generally offers lower pay and fewer benefits. Example: The share of self-employed workers increased from 53.5% in 2019-20 to 58.4% in 2023-24, reflecting a rise in informal employment (PLFS data).
    • Slower Wage Growth and Employment Stagnation: Compliance burdens from GST and cash shortages from demonetisation constrained business operations, leading to slower wage increases across sectors. Example: Real wages for salaried workers were 1.7% lower in June 2024 compared to June 2019 (PLFS data), indicating stagnant wage growth despite economic recovery.

    Way forward: 

    • Enhance Formal Employment and Skill Development: Promote labour-intensive sectors and incentivize formal job creation through targeted tax benefits and reduced compliance burdens.
    • Strengthen Social Security and Wage Policies: Implement comprehensive social protection schemes for informal workers to ensure income stability and healthcare benefits.

    Mains PYQ:

    Q Besides the welfare schemes, India needs deft management of inflation and unemployment to serve the poor and the underprivileged sections of the society. Discuss. (UPSC IAS/2022)

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  • Defence Sector – DPP, Missions, Schemes, Security Forces, etc.

    India second-largest arms importer after Ukraine

    Prelims Only | Security Issues | Mains Paper 3: Various Security Forces, Agencies & Their Mandates

    Why in the News?

    India remained the second-largest arms importer, despite a 9.3% decline in imports between 2015-19 and 2020-24 a/c to the Stockholm International Peace Research Institute (SIPRI) Report.

    About SIPRI

    • The SIPRI is an independent organization established in 1966, based in Stockholm, Sweden, conducting research on conflict, arms control, and disarmament.
    • SIPRI provides comprehensive data on global arms imports, exports, and military expenditures, tracking defense trends and geopolitical conflicts worldwide.
    • It analyzes ongoing wars, nuclear proliferation, cybersecurity threats, and environmental security, offering policy recommendations for international peace and stability.
    • SIPRI publishes flagship reports such as the SIPRI Yearbook, Arms Transfers Database, and Military Expenditure Database, which are widely used by governments, researchers, and policymakers.

    India’s Arms Imports: Trends and Shifts

    • India remained the world’s second-largest arms importer, despite a 9.3% decline in imports from 2015-19 to 2020-24.
    • Russia accounted for 36% of India’s arms imports in 2020-24, significantly LOWER than 55% in 2015-19 and 72% in 2010-14.
    • India has reduced dependence on Russia and increased arms deals with France, the U.S., and Israel.
    • India became France’s largest arms importer (28%), with 36 Rafale fighter jets and six Scorpene submarines already contracted.
    • India is finalizing agreements for 26 Rafale-M jets and three additional Scorpene submarines.

    Global Arms Trade Highlights

    • Ukraine – The Largest Importer: Due to the ongoing war, Ukraine’s arms imports surged nearly 100 times in 2020-24 compared to 2015-19.
      • The U.S. accounted for 45% of Ukraine’s imports, followed by Germany (12%) and Poland (11%).
    • U.S. dominance in exports: The U.S. expanded its global arms market share to 43%, reinforcing its position as the top exporter.
    • Russia’s decline: Russian arms exports fell by 64%, dropping to 7.8% of global exports, behind France (9.6%).
    • European rearmament: European arms imports surged by 155% in response to rising security threats from Russia.
    • Pakistan’s growing imports: Pakistan’s arms imports grew by 61%, with China supplying 81% of its weapons, up from 74% in 2015-19.
    • China’s self-reliance: For the first time since 1990-94, China dropped out of the top 10 arms importers, reflecting its expanding domestic defense industry.
    • Italy’s rise in arms exports: Italy climbed from 10th to 6th place, with a 4.8% share of global arms exports.

    PYQ:

    [2020] What is the significance of Indo-US defence deals over Indo-Russian defence deals? Discuss with reference to stability in the Indo-Pacific region.

     

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  • Police Reforms – SC directives, NPC, other committees reports

    Preventive Detention is a ‘Draconian’ measure: SC

    Prelims Only | Polity | Mains Paper 2: Indian Constitution – historical underpinnings, evolution, features, amendments, significant provisions and basic structure

    Why in the News?

    The Supreme Court recently ruled against the Preventive Detention of a couple in Nagaland, emphasizing that constitutional safeguards must be strictly followed, and preventive detention cannot override fundamental rights.

    Court’s Key Observations: Preventive Detention as a ‘Draconian Measure’

    • Violation of Rights: The court ruled that depriving individuals of liberty without trial requires strict adherence to legal safeguards.
    • Lack of Justification: Authorities failed to prove that the detainees posed a credible future threat, rendering the detention unjustified.
    • Language Barrier: Detention orders were in English, a language the detainees did not understand, violating their right to be informed in an accessible manner.

    What is Preventive Detention?

    • Preventive detention is the detention of an individual without trial to prevent them from engaging in activities that may threaten national security, public order, or foreign relations.
    • Unlike punitive detention, it aims to prevent future crimes rather than punish past offenses.
    • Under Article 22 of the Constitution, preventive detention is allowed but with safeguards:
      • Time Limit: Maximum three months, extendable only if an Advisory Board (comprising High Court judges) approves.
      • Rights of the Detainee: Must be informed of reasons for detention (unless against public interest) and given the right to challenge it.
      • Judicial Review: Courts can strike down unjustified detentions.
    • Major Preventive Detention Laws:
      • Public Safety Act (PSA), 1978: Used in J&K; detention up to two years.
      • National Security Act (NSA), 1980: Up to one year for threats to national security.
      • Prevention of Illicit Traffic in Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances Act (PITNDPS Act), 1988: For drug trafficking cases.
      • Conservation of Foreign Exchange and Prevention of Smuggling Activities Act (COFEPOSA), 1974: For economic offenses & smuggling.

    Supreme Court’s Landmark Rulings

    • Ameena Begum Case (2023): Preventive detention is an exception, not a routine measure.
    • Ankul Chandra Pradhan Case (1997): It aims to prevent threats, not punish individuals.
    • Harikisan vs Maharashtra (1962): Detention orders must be in a language the detainee understands.
    • Gold Smuggling Case (2024): Authorities must consider bail conditions before imposing detention.

    PYQ:

    [2021] With reference to India, consider the following statements:

    1. Judicial custody means an accused is in the custody of the concerned magistrate and such an accused is locked up in a police station, not in jail.
    2. During judicial custody, the police officer in charge of the case is not allowed to interrogate the suspect without the approval of the court.

    Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

    (a) 1 only
    (b) 2 only
    (c) Both 1 and 2
    (d) Neither 1 nor 2

     

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  • Indian Army Updates

    Exercise Khanjar-XII

    Prelims Only | Security Issues | Mains Paper 3: Various Security Forces, Agencies & Their Mandates

    Why in the News?

    The 12th edition of the India-Kyrgyzstan Joint Special Forces Exercise KHANJAR-XII is set to be held in Kyrgyzstan.

    About Exercise KHANJAR-XII

    • KHANJAR-XII is the 12th edition of the India-Kyrgyzstan Joint Special Forces Exercise, aimed at enhancing counter-terrorism and special operations capabilities.
    • It is a bilateral military exercise held annually since 2011, alternately hosted by India and Kyrgyzstan.
    • The 2025 edition is being conducted in Kyrgyzstan.
    • Participants:
      • Indian Contingent: Parachute Regiment (Special Forces).
      • Kyrgyzstan Contingent: Kyrgyz Scorpion Brigade.
    • The primary objective is to strengthen military cooperation, improve joint operational capabilities, and enhance interoperability between the two nations’ Special Forces.

    Key Features:

    • Counter-Terrorism Focus: Training in urban and high-altitude warfare to counter modern security threats.
    • Special Forces Interoperability: Strengthening coordination in joint military operations.
    • Mountain Warfare & Survival Skills: Enhancing operational effectiveness in challenging terrains.
    • Military Technology Exchange: Sharing expertise on weapons systems, surveillance, and intelligence gathering.
    • Reinforcing India’s Central Asia Outreach: Strengthening India’s engagement with Central Asian nations under its Connect Central Asia policy.

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  • Hunger and Nutrition Issues – GHI, GNI, etc.

    What is Minimum Dietary Diversity (MDD) Indicator?

    Prelims Only | Governance | Mains Paper 1: Poverty & Development Issues

    Why in the News?

    The United Nations Statistical Commission has introduced a new global indicator on Minimum Dietary Diversity (MDD) to monitor progress towards Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 2: Zero Hunger.

    About Minimum Dietary Diversity (MDD) Indicator 

    • The MDD indicator measures whether individuals consume a variety of foods within a 24-hour period to assess dietary quality.
    • It tracks progress toward Sustainable Development Goal 2 (Zero Hunger) and helps identify micronutrient deficiencies in populations.
    • It was adopted by the United Nations Statistical Commission at its 56th session (March 4-7, 2025, New York) and developed by Switzerland, FAO, UNICEF, and WHO.
    • The indicator records whether an individual has consumed at least 5 out of 10 food groups in the last 24 hours.
    • It is measured for children (6-23 months old) and women of reproductive age (15-49 years) to ensure adequate nutrition.
    • 10 Food Groups: It monitors intake from grains, white roots and tubers, pulses, nuts and seeds, milk products, meat, poultry and fish, eggs, dark green leafy vegetables, vitamin A-rich fruits and vegetables, and other vegetables and fruits.
    • Significance:
      • It addresses hidden hunger, malnutrition, and non-communicable diseases by promoting nutrient-rich diets.
      • The indicator strengthens long-term diet monitoring and ensures dietary diversity remains a global priority beyond 2030.

    SDG 2: Zero Hunger – The Larger Goal

    • Adopted in 2015, SDG 2 aims to eliminate hunger and promote sustainable agriculture.
    • Recognizes interconnections between food security, rural development, and nutrition.
    • Hunger remains a global crisis:
      • 757 million people faced hunger in 2023 (nearly 10% of the world population).
      • One in nine people worldwide sleeps hungry each night.
      • 20 million people are at immediate risk of famine in South Sudan, Somalia, Yemen, and Nigeria.

     

    PYQ:

    [2016] Which of the following is/are the indicator/indicators used by IFPRI to compute the Global Hunger Index Report?

    1. Undernourishment
    2. Child stunting
    3. Child mortality

    Select the correct answer using the code given below:

    (a) 1 only

    (b) 2 and 3 only

    (c) 1, 2 and 3

    (d) 1 and 3 only

     

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  • Judicial Reforms

    [10th March 2025] The Hindu Op-ed: Closing the gender gap in the higher judiciary

    op-ed snap | Polity | Mains Paper 2: Executive & Judiciary

    PYQ Relevance:

    Q)  Discuss the desirability of greater representation to women in the higher judiciary to ensure diversity, equity and inclusiveness. (UPSC CSE 2021)

     

    Mentor’s Comment: UPSC mains have always focused on the women in the higher judiciary (2021), and appointment of judges of higher judiciary (2017).

    Women in law have made significant progress in India over the past 100 years. Cornelia Sorabji became the first woman lawyer to practice in 1924. Since then, the number of women lawyers has increased, with many becoming Senior Advocates and judges in lower courts. However, their representation in the higher judiciary remains very low.

    Today’s editorial highlights the reasons for the low representation of women in the Indian judiciary. This content is useful for GS Papers 1 and 2 in the UPSC Mains exam.

    _

    Let’s learn!

    Why in the News?

    The gender gap in India’s judiciary is evident in the low representation of women, especially in higher courts.

    What is the status of women in the Indian Judiciary? 

    • Supreme Court: Women make up about 9.3% of judges in the Supreme Court, with only a few women judges currently serving.
    • High Courts: As of August 2024, women constitute about 14% of High Court judges, with only 106 women judges out of a total of 754 judges across all High Courts. There are only two women Chief Justices among all High Courts.
    • Subordinate Judiciary: Women have a higher representation in subordinate courts, constituting about 36.3% of judges as of recent data.

    What are the main reasons for the underrepresentation of women in the higher judiciary in India?

    • Systemic Gender Bias and Stereotypes: Women are often viewed as less capable of handling complex legal matters or leadership roles. Example: Justice Indira Banerjee, a former Supreme Court judge, highlighted how women must work harder to prove their competence compared to male counterparts.
    • Opaque Collegium System: The collegium lacks transparency in the selection process and does not prioritize gender diversity. Example: Since 2021, 28 judges have been appointed to the Supreme Court, but none of them have been women.
    • Limited Senior Women Advocates: Fewer women reach the level of Senior Advocate, which reduces the pool of candidates for higher judicial positions. Example: Only one woman, Justice Indu Malhotra, has been elevated directly from the Bar to the Supreme Court in its history.
    • Delayed Appointments and Age Disparity: Women are appointed to the Bench later than men, limiting their tenure and chances of becoming Chief Justices. Example: The average appointment age for women is 53 years, while for men, it is 51.8 years.
    • Government’s Selective Confirmation: Women’s names recommended by the collegium are more likely to be delayed or rejected by the government. Example: Since 2020, nine women were recommended for High Court appointments, but five of these names were rejected.

    What are the steps taken by the Indian government?

    • Reservation for Women in Lower Judiciary: Several states like Bihar, Rajasthan, and Andhra Pradesh have introduced 30-35% reservations for women in the lower judiciary to encourage female participation at the entry level. Example: Bihar introduced a 35% reservation for women in judicial services to increase their representation.
    • Promotion of Gender Sensitization: The government supports initiatives to train judges and judicial staff on gender sensitivity and equality. Example: The National Judicial Academy conducts gender sensitization workshops for judicial officers.
    • Encouragement of Collegium Recommendations: The government has urged the collegium to consider gender diversity when recommending names for judicial appointments. Example: The Law Minister has emphasized the need for more women judges in parliamentary discussions.
    • Increased Representation in Policy Discussions: The government includes women’s voices in law commissions and judicial reform committees. Example: Justice R. Banumathi was part of the committee on criminal law reforms focusing on gender issues.

    How can the collegium system be reformed to ensure greater transparency and gender diversity in judicial appointments? 

    • Establish Clear and Transparent Selection Criteria: Implement publicly available guidelines specifying the qualifications, experience, and evaluation methods for judicial appointments. Example: The United Kingdom’s Judicial Appointments Commission uses clear, published criteria to promote transparency and diversity in judicial selection.
    • Mandate Gender Representation in Recommendations: Introduce a formal quota or commitment to ensuring that at least one-third of the recommended candidates are women. Example: Countries like Canada follow a diversity mandate to ensure that judicial appointments reflect gender and ethnic representation.
    • Open Application Process for Judicial Aspirants: Allow eligible lawyers to apply for judgeship through a transparent process rather than relying solely on collegium nominations. Example: South Africa invites applications publicly and conducts open interviews, ensuring broader participation, including women candidates.

    Way forward: 

    • Institutionalize Gender Diversity in Judicial Appointments: Implement a binding policy requiring the collegium to prioritize gender diversity, ensuring a minimum percentage of women in judicial recommendations. This can be reinforced by periodic audits and public reports on gender representation.
    • Mentorship and Capacity Building for Women Lawyers: Establish structured mentorship programs to support women lawyers in advancing to senior positions and encourage their participation in judicial roles. This should include targeted training for leadership and judicial skills to expand the pool of qualified women candidates.

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