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  • Child Rights – POSCO, Child Labour Laws, NAPC, etc.

    Child Marriage in India 

    Prelims Only | Social Justice | Mains Paper 2: Schemes For Vulnerable Sections

    Why in the News?

    The Government of India has intensified efforts to eliminate child marriage through the Bal Vivah Mukt Bharat (BVMB) campaign, with targets to reduce prevalence by 10 percent by 2026 and make India child marriage free by 2030 in line with SDG 5.3.

    What is Child Marriage

    • Any marital union where
      • Female is below 18 years, or
      • Male is below 21 years
    • Considered a violation of human rights and a barrier to health, education, and gender equality

    Historical Evolution of Laws in India

    • Reform movement led by Raja Rammohan Roy, Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar, and Jyotirao Phule
    • Age of Consent Act, 1891: First legal intervention against early marriage
    • Child Marriage Restraint Act 1929 (Sarda Act): Minimum age fixed at 14 for girls and 18 for boys
    • Amendments of 1948 and 1978: Raised age to 18 for girls and 21 for boys
    • Prohibition of Child Marriage Act 2006: Shift from restraint to prohibition, protection, and punishment

    Current Legal Framework

    • Prohibition of Child Marriage Act 2006
      • Child marriages are voidable
      • Void if involving force, trafficking, or deceit
      • Provides for Child Marriage Prohibition Officers
    • Bharatiya Nyaya Sanhita 2023
      • Sexual relations with a wife below 18 constitute rape
    • POCSO Act 2012
      • Sexual activity within child marriage treated as aggravated penetrative sexual assault

    Current Trends and Data

    • NFHS 5 (2019 to 21): 23 percent of women aged 20 to 24 were married before 18
    • Significant decline compared to earlier decades but still widespread
    • High prevalence regions: West Bengal, Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, Central and Eastern India.

    Prelims Pointers

    • Child marriage is a criminal offence
    • PCMA 2006 focuses on prevention and protection
    • POCSO overrides personal laws
    • Elimination target aligned with SDG 5.3
    [2020] In the context of Indian history, the Rakhmabai case of 1884 revolved around: 

    1. women’s right to gain education 

    2. age of consent 

    3. restitution of conjugal rights 

    Select the correct answer using the code given below: 

    (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3

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  • Health Sector – UHC, National Health Policy, Family Planning, Health Insurance, etc.

    Spina Bifida in India  

    Prelims Only | Science Tech | Mains Paper 3: Achievements Of Indians In S&T

    Why in the News?

    India continues to report one of the highest global burdens of Spina Bifida, despite strong scientific evidence that pre conception folic acid intake can prevent more than 70 percent of cases.

    What is Spina Bifida

    • A congenital neural tube defect
    • Occurs when the spinal cord and its protective coverings fail to develop properly
    • Develops during early pregnancy, usually within the first 28 days after conception
    • Leads to lifelong disability of varying severity
    • Non communicable and Non infectious

    Causes

    • Caused by abnormal closure of the neural tube
    • Inadequate folic acid intake before and during early pregnancy
    • Poor maternal nutrition and anaemia
    • Unplanned pregnancies without micronutrient supplementation
    • Possible genetic susceptibility combined with environmental factors

    Treatment and Management

    • Early surgical repair: Closure of the spinal defect soon after birth to prevent infection
    • Hydrocephalus management: Use of ventriculo peritoneal shunt to drain excess fluid
    • Rehabilitation care: Long term physiotherapy and occupational therapy
    • Orthopaedic interventions: Corrective surgeries, braces or casts for skeletal deformities

    Prevention

    • Daily folic acid supplementation before conception and during early pregnancy
    • Food fortification and maternal nutrition programmes
    • Awareness about planned pregnancies
    • Integration with maternal health schemes

    Prelims Pointers

    • Spina bifida is a neural tube defect
    • Neural tube closes within 28 days of conception
    • Folic acid deficiency is the most important risk factor
    • Prevention is more effective than post birth treatment
    [2023] Consider the following statements in the context of interventions being undertaken under Anaemia Mukt Bharat Strategy: 

    1. It provides prophylactic calcium supplementation for pre-school children, adolescents and pregnant women. 

    2. It runs a campaign for delayed cord clamping at the time of child-birth

    3. It provides for periodic deworming to children and adolescents

    4. It addresses non-nutritional causes of anaemia in endemic pockets with special focus on malaria, hemoglobinopathies and fluorosis. 

    How many of the statements given above are correct? 

    (a) Only one (b) Only two (c) Only three (d) All four

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  • Goods and Services Tax (GST)

    [9th January 2026] The Hindu OpED: GSDP share as criterion for central-State transfers

    op-ed snap | Economics | Mains Paper 3: Effects Of Liberalization On The Economy, Changes In Industrial Policy and their effects on Industrial Growth

    PYQ Relevance

    [UPSC 2020] Explain the rationale behind the Goods and Services Tax (Compensation to States) Act, 2017. How has COVID-19 impacted the GST compensation fund and created new federal tensions?

    Linkage: COVID-19 exposed structural weaknesses in the GST compensation mechanism.

    This intensified Centre-State fiscal tensions and revived debates on fair and transparent transfer mechanisms in India’s federal framework.

    Mentor’s Comment

    Debates on fiscal federalism in India often oscillate between equity and efficiency. The article examines whether Gross State Domestic Product (GSDP) can be a fair and reliable basis for sharing Central tax revenues among States, especially in the post-GST era where tax attribution has become complex.

    Why in the News

    The article gains significance amid ongoing debates on Central-State fiscal relations, especially after the implementation of GST, which has weakened the direct link between tax collection and the place of economic activity. The issue is critical because ₹75.12 lakh crore was transferred to States between 2020-21 and 2024-25, and the method used to distribute this amount affects State fiscal autonomy and perceived fairness. A key finding is the very high correlation (0.99) between actual transfers and GSDP, compared to a much weaker link with Finance Commission devolution, making GSDP a stronger alternative measure.

    Introduction

    India’s system of fiscal transfers relies heavily on the recommendations of successive Finance Commissions, which distribute Central tax revenues through tax devolution, grants-in-aid, and Centrally Sponsored Schemes (CSS). However, the post-GST tax regime has disrupted the traditional linkage between tax collection location and economic value creation, raising questions about whether existing criteria adequately capture States’ real contribution to national revenues.

    Why is tax collection an unreliable indicator of State-level contribution?

    1. GST structure: Breaks the link between the location of production and the location of tax collection due to destination-based taxation.
    2. Corporate taxation: Attributes tax payments to the registered office location rather than where economic activity occurs.
    3. Multi-State operations: Dilutes State-wise attribution due to labour migration, inter-State supply chains, and inter-corporate transactions.
    4. Example distortion: Automobile manufacturers pay taxes where offices are registered, not necessarily where factories operate; plantation companies record profits centrally despite dispersed production.
    5. Outcome: Direct tax figures reflect collection points, not value creation.

    Why does GSDP emerge as a credible proxy for tax accrual?

    1. Economic base representation: Captures the size and intensity of economic activity within a State.
    2. Uniform tax base assumption: Assumes broadly similar tax administration efficiency across States.
    3. Empirical validation: Correlation between GSDP and GST collections stands at 0.75 for 2023-24.
    4. High correlation with transfers: Correlation of 0.91 between GSDP and total Central tax transfers.
    5. Policy neutrality: Avoids contentious attribution disputes inherent in GST accounting.

    How do actual transfers align with GSDP shares?

    1. Overall transfers: ₹75.12 lakh crore transferred during 2020-25, including FC devolution, grants, and CSS.
    2. High-alignment States:
      1. Uttar Pradesh: 15.81% transfer share vs 16.85% population share.
      2. Maharashtra: High tax contribution (40.3%) but only 6.64% of transfers, reflecting redistribution.
    3. Mismatch States:
      1. Bihar: Receives 8.65% transfers despite only 4.66% GSDP share.
      2. West Bengal: 6.96% GSDP share vs 6.69% transfers.
    4. Interpretation: Transfers broadly track economic output, not tax collections.

    How does the equity-efficiency trade-off emerge in fiscal transfers?

    1. Redistributive bias: FC criteria prioritize equity over efficiency by favoring population and income distance.
    2. Regional disparities: Persist due to differential expenditure needs and fiscal capacity.
    3. Efficiency trade-off: GSDP-based transfers better reflect contribution but reduce redistributive scope.
    4. Evidence: Correlation between GSDP and FC devolution shares is only 0.58, indicating weak alignment.
    5. Outcome: GSDP balances fairness and efficiency more transparently than current metrics.

    Which States gain or lose under a pure GSDP-based system?

    1. Major gainers: Tamil Nadu and Karnataka: High production but lower tax attribution due to GST mechanics.
    2. Major losers: Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Madhya Pradesh: Benefit currently from redistributive weights.
    3. Exception States: Haryana, Karnataka, Maharashtra: GSDP share lower than tax collection due to tax concentration effects.
    4. Inference: GSDP corrects distortions arising from centralized tax accounting.

    Conclusion

    The debate on using GSDP as a basis for Central-State transfers highlights the need to realign India’s fiscal federal framework with the realities of the post-GST economy. While redistribution remains essential for equity, greater reliance on GSDP can improve transparency, efficiency, and trust by linking transfers more closely with economic activity. A calibrated approach, combining GSDP-based devolution with targeted grants, offers a balanced pathway to strengthen cooperative federalism.

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  • ISRO Missions and Discoveries

    ISRO and the next big challenge

    Explained | Science Tech | Mains Paper 3: Achievements Of Indians In S&T,Awareness in various sc and tech fields

    Why in the News

    ISRO’s recent string of successes, routine PSLV launches, Chandrayaan-3’s lunar landing, Aditya-L1’s solar orbit insertion, and the India-US NISAR mission has raised expectations sharply. Now for the first time, India’s challenge is no longer technological proof-of-concept but institutional maturity. Furthermore, India’s space programme is preparing for multiple high-complexity missions in parallel, including Gaganyaan, Chandrayaan-4, and the Next Generation Launch Vehicle (NGLV).

    Why is ISRO’s recent success described as “raising the bar”?

    1. Mission Reliability: Sustained success of the Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle has made reliable access to orbit almost routine.
    2. Planetary Achievement: Chandrayaan-3’s soft landing on the Moon in August 2023 placed India among a small group of lunar-landing nations.
    3. Solar Science Capability: Aditya-L1’s successful halo orbit insertion in January 2024 added a dedicated solar observatory to ISRO’s portfolio.
    4. International Collaboration: Launch of the NASA-ISRO Synthetic Aperture Radar (NISAR) mission demonstrated high-value global scientific cooperation.

    What fundamental shift can be identified in ISRO’s challenge?

    1. Institutional Transition: Moves focus from individual scientific feats to sustained organisational performance.
    2. Parallel Complexity: Requires simultaneous execution of human spaceflight, deep-space missions, and commercial launches.
    3. Expectation Management: Makes failure costlier as public, political, and international scrutiny increases.

    How does mission parallelisation strain ISRO’s existing systems

    1. Human Spaceflight Load: Gaganyaan preparation consumes engineering, testing, and safety-certification bandwidth.
    2. Science Programme Pressure: Planetary, solar, and Earth-observation missions compete for limited skilled manpower.
    3. Launch Vehicle Bottlenecks: GSLV and future NGLV development face cadence and scale constraints.

    Why are industrial capacity and regulatory clarity critical for ISRO’s next phase?

    1. Industrial Capacity: Current supplier base lacks depth to absorb shocks or scale production without delays.
    2. Supply Chain Fragility: Over-reliance on ISRO facilities makes anomalies system-wide bottlenecks.
    3. Regulatory Ambiguity: Absence of a clear space law creates uncertainty around liability, insurance, and commercial risk allocation.

    What role does the private space ecosystem play in this transition?

    1. Commercial Dependence: Private launch providers remain reliant on ISRO infrastructure and expertise.
    2. Institutional Separation: IN-SPACe and NSIL must evolve from facilitation bodies to autonomous regulatory and commercial entities.
    3. Routine Operations: Private participation is necessary to make launches, manufacturing, and satellite services routine rather than exceptional.

    Why is governance reform central to ISRO’s next phase?

    1. Legal Authority: ISRO lacks statutory backing for authorisation, dispute resolution, and commercial oversight.
    2. Regulatory Burden: Ad-hoc decisions persist due to absence of a comprehensive space law.
    3. Systemic Resilience: Institutionalised processes are required to reduce dependence on individual leadership or mission-specific improvisation.

    Conclusion

    ISRO’s future success depends on its ability to transform from a mission-centric organisation into a mature space institution, supported by industrial depth, legal clarity, and governance reform. The decisive test is whether India’s space programme can make complexity routine without diluting reliability.

    PYQ Relevance

    [UPSC 2016] Discuss India’s achievements in the field of Space Science and Technology. How has the application of this technology helped India in its socio-economic development?

    Linkage: This PYQ tests understanding of India’s space capabilities and their role in national socio-economic development. The article advances this by highlighting the need to move from mission successes to institutional sustainability, regulatory clarity, and routine execution to sustain long-term benefits.

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  • Climate Change Negotiations – UNFCCC, COP, Other Conventions and Protocols

    Despite patchy record, US climate exit will still pinch

    Explained | International Relations | Mains Paper 2: Bilateral, Regional and Global Groupings and agreements involving India

    Why in the News?

    The USA formally exited the UNFCCC framework and associated climate institutions following Donald Trump’s return to the presidency, completing a process initiated during his first term. This move reverses post-2021 re-engagement. This creates a quantified emissions gap toward 2030 targets, and transfers leadership space to China. Furthermore, this makes it a significant departure from prior multilateral climate engagement.

    Why is the US withdrawal from the climate regime significant despite its mixed record?

    1. Institutional Influence: The US shaped global climate action through bodies such as the IPCC, International Solar Alliance, and International Renewable Energy Agency, enabling coordination, research, and monitoring.
    2. Scientific Capacity: Ensured global access to climate modelling, emissions tracking, and data-collection networks critical for mitigation planning.
    3. Policy Signalling: Anchored climate ambition through participation rather than absolute emissions outcomes.

    How does this decision disrupt global emissions reduction efforts?

    1. Mitigation Gap: US withdrawal contributes to a shortfall that pushes global emissions beyond pathways needed to meet 2030 targets.
    2. Burden Redistribution: Places disproportionate pressure on developing countries to compensate for reduced ambition.
    3. Credibility Deficit: Weakens enforcement norms within the Paris Agreement framework.

    What are the consequences for India’s decarbonisation pathway?

    1. External Pressure: Increases international expectations on India to deliver faster emissions reductions.
    2. Technology Access: Affects collaboration on clean energy research and innovation platforms.
    3. Investment Climate: Risks slowing capital inflows for renewable infrastructure dependent on global policy certainty.

    How does US disengagement alter global climate leadership dynamics?

    1. Strategic Vacuum: Creates space for China to dominate renewable manufacturing, supply chains, and deployment.
    2. Economic Leverage: Strengthens China’s position in equipment, infrastructure, and financing ecosystems.
    3. Geopolitical Shift: Transfers normative leadership in climate governance away from Western institutions.

    What does the withdrawal mean for climate finance and multilateral commitments?

    1. Finance Gap: Reduces availability of concessional funding for mitigation and adaptation.
    2. Institutional Weakening: Undermines credibility of collective responsibility frameworks.
    3. Operational Uncertainty: Affects ongoing funding mechanisms for developed and developing countries.

    Why is the impact larger than US domestic emissions alone?

    1. Systemic Role: The US functioned as a coordinator, funder, and standard-setter.
    2. Network Effects: Withdrawal disrupts global research, verification, and compliance systems.
    3. Long-Term Costs: Creates structural weaknesses that outlast the current political cycle.

    Conclusion

    The US climate exit, despite its inconsistent mitigation record, weakens global climate governance by eroding institutional capacity, financing mechanisms, and leadership credibility. For India, the withdrawal raises decarbonisation pressures while simultaneously constraining access to capital and technology, underscoring the fragility of voluntary multilateral climate regimes.

    PYQ Relevance

    [UPSC 2019] “Too little cash, too much politics, leaves UNESCO fighting for life’. Discuss the statement in the light of US’ withdrawal and its accusation of the cultural body as being ‘ anti- Israel bias’.

    Linkage: The UNESCO PYQ illustrates how US withdrawal and politicisation weaken multilateral institutions through funding gaps and credibility loss. Similarly, the US exit from the climate regime undermines UNFCCC effectiveness, shifts leadership space to China, and increases the burden on developing countries like India.

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  • Climate Change Negotiations – UNFCCC, COP, Other Conventions and Protocols

    US Withdraws from UNFCCC and IPCC

    Prelims Only | International Relations | Mains Paper 2: Bilateral, Regional and Global Groupings and agreements involving India,Effect Of Policies & Politics Of World On India’S Interests

    Why in the News?

    US President Donald Trump has signed a presidential memorandum withdrawing the United States from 66 international organisations, including the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) and the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). This makes the US the first country to formally exit the UNFCCC.

    United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC)

    The UNFCCC is the foundational global treaty that governs international cooperation on climate change. It provides the legal and institutional framework under which global climate negotiations take place.

    Established

    • Adopted in 1992 at the Rio Earth Summit
    • Entered into force in 1994
    • Nearly universal membership among UN countries

    Key role

    • Organises annual Conference of Parties (COP) climate negotiations
    • Hosts the Paris Agreement, which aims to limit global warming
    • Establishes systems for
      • Emissions reporting
      • Transparency and accountability
      • Climate finance mechanisms
      • Carbon markets and rule making

    Legal implications of US withdrawal

    • Withdrawal takes effect one year after formal notice
    • Exit from UNFCCC automatically means exit from the Paris Agreement
    • US will no longer be a Party to COP negotiations
    • Can attend meetings only as an observer, without bargaining rights

    Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)

    The IPCC is the UN body that assesses and synthesises global scientific research on climate change, its impacts, and mitigation and adaptation options.

    Functions

    • Produces comprehensive assessment reports
    • Provides scientific benchmarks for climate negotiations
    • Informs global and national climate policy

    Impact of US exit

    • Reduces US influence over global climate science assessments
    • Limits formal nomination of US experts to IPCC author teams
    • US scientists may still contribute as reviewers or through non government nominations
    [2009] The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) is an international treaty drawn at: 

    (a) United Conference on the Human Environment, Stockholm, 1972 

    (b) UN Conference on Environment and Development, Rio de Janeiro, 1992 

    (c) World Summit on Sustainable Development, Johannesburg, 2002 

    (d) UN Climate Change Conference, Copenhagen, 2009

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  • Climate Change Impact on India and World – International Reports, Key Observations, etc.

    Doomsday Glacier Destabilisation and the Future of Antarctic Ice Sheets

    Prelims Only | Enviro & Biodiversity | Mains Paper 3: Conservation, Environmental Pollution & Degradation, Eia

    Why in the News?

    A recent scientific study has revealed increasing fracturing in the Thwaites Glacier, also known as the Doomsday Glacier, indicating how large parts of the Antarctic ice sheets could collapse in the future. The findings were published in the Journal of Geophysical Research: Earth Surface.

    Thwaites Glacier (Doomsday Glacier)

    The Thwaites Glacier is a massive glacier in West Antarctica that drains ice from the West Antarctic Ice Sheet into the Amundsen Sea. It is one of the fastest changing glacier systems on Earth.

    Why it is called the Doomsday Glacier

    • Complete collapse could raise global sea levels by about 65 cm
    • Acts as a gateway glacier whose destabilisation can trigger wider ice sheet collapse
    • Focus area: Thwaites Eastern Ice Shelf (TEIS), a floating extension of the glacier

    Pinning point and shear zone

    • TEIS is attached to an undersea ridge called a pinning point
    • Pinning points slow ice flow but also cause compression and fracturing
    • Upstream of the pinning point lies a shear zone where ice deforms intensely

    Fracture patterns observed

    • Ice fracturing occurred in two stages
      • Long fractures parallel to ice flow
      • Smaller fractures perpendicular to ice flow
    • Annual fracture length increased sharply
      • From about 165 km in 2002
      • To about 335 km in 2022

    Consequences of fracturing

    • Breakdown of the shear zone accelerates ice flow
    • Faster ice flow increases ice discharge into the ocean
    • Raises risk of destabilisation of the entire West Antarctic Ice Sheet

    Prelims Pointers

    • Thwaites Glacier is located in West Antarctica
    • Known as the Doomsday Glacier due to sea level rise potential
    • Complete melt could raise sea levels by about 65 cm
    • Study used satellite and GPS data over two decades
    • West Antarctic Ice Sheet is a global climate tipping element
    [2021] With reference to the water on the planet Earth, consider the following statements: 

    1. The amount of water in the rivers and lakes is more than the amount of groundwater

    2. The amount of water in polar ice caps and glaciers is more than the amount of groundwater

    Which of the statements given above is/are correct? 

    (a) 1 only (b) 2 only (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2

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  • Roads, Highways, Cargo, Air-Cargo and Logistics infrastructure – Bharatmala, LEEP, SetuBharatam, etc.

    India Becomes First Nation to Commercially Produce Bio Bitumen

    Prelims Only | Science Tech | Mains Paper 3: Achievements Of Indians In S&T

    Why in the News?

    India has become the first country in the world to commercially produce bio bitumen, according to Union Minister for Road Transport and Highways Nitin Gadkari. The announcement highlights India’s push towards sustainable infrastructure and green alternatives in road construction.

    Bio Bitumen

    Bio bitumen is an eco friendly binding material used in road construction. It is produced from renewable biological sources instead of petroleum based crude derivatives.

    Raw materials used

    • Vegetable oils
      • Crop stubble and agricultural residue
      • Other forms of organic and agro waste

    Economic significance

    • With 15 percent blending, India can save nearly ₹4,500 crore in foreign exchange
      • Lowers import bill for petroleum based bitumen
      • Opens new income streams for farmers through agro waste supply
      • Generates rural employment and livelihood opportunities

    Prelims Pointers

    • India is the first nation to commercially produce bio bitumen
      • Bio bitumen is made from renewable biological sources
      • Used in road construction as a binding material
      • Helps reduce stubble burning and crude oil imports
      • Contributes to circular economy and sustainable development
    [2011] In the Union Budget 2011-12, a full exemption from the basic customs duty was extended to the bio-based asphalt (bioasphalt). What is the importance of this material? 

    1. Unlike traditional asphalt, bio-asphalt is not based on fossil fuels

    2. Bioasphalt can be made from non-renewable resources

    3. Bioasphalt can be made from organic waste materials

    4. It is eco-friendly to use bioasphalt for surfacing of the roads

    Select the correct answer using the code given below: 

    (a) 1, 2 and 3 only (b) 1, 3 and 4 only (c) 2 and 4 only (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4

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  • Foreign Policy Watch: India-Bangladesh

    India Bangladesh Ganga Water Sharing Treaty (1996)

    Prelims Only | International Relations | Mains Paper 2: Bilateral, Regional and Global Groupings and agreements involving India

    Why in the News?

    Senior officials from the Union Jal Shakti Ministry visited Farakka Barrage as the India–Bangladesh Ganga Water Sharing Treaty is set to expire in December 2026, ahead of renewal discussions between India and Bangladesh.

     About 

    • A bilateral treaty governing the sharing of Ganga (Ganges) river waters between India and Bangladesh during the dry season, with regulated releases at Farakka Barrage in West Bengal
    • Signed on 12 December 1996
    • Valid for 30 years
    • Renewable by mutual consent
    • Downstream monitoring at Hardinge Bridge in Bangladesh

    Background

    • Dry season water disputes date back to the 1950s
    • Interim arrangements were signed in 1977, 1982, and 1985
    • The 1996 treaty introduced a stable, rule based and long term framework for cooperation

    Key features

    • Ten day sharing schedule (January to May): Water allocation based on a formula using historical average flows from 1949 to 1988
    • Low flow consultation clause: If river flow falls below 50,000 cusecs in any ten day period, immediate bilateral consultation is required
    • Minimum release assurance: India ensures downstream releases, allowing limited withdrawals up to 200 cusecs for reasonable uses between Farakka and the Bangladesh border
    • Joint Committee mechanism: Equal representation from both countries. Daily monitoring at Farakka and Hardinge Bridge. Annual reports on implementation and dispute resolution
    • Review and renewal: Review every five years or earlier if necessary. Renewal only by mutual agreement.
    [2017] With reference to river Teesta, consider the following statements: 

    1. The source of river Teesta is the same as that of Brahmaputra but it flows through Sikkim. 

    2. River Rangeet originates in Sikkim and it is a tributary of river Teesta

    3. River Teesta flows into Bay of Bengal on the border of India and Bangladesh

    Which of the statements given above is/ are correct? 

    (a) 1 and 3 only (b) 2 only (c) 2 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3

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  • International Space Agencies – Missions and Discoveries

    White dwarf system

    Prelims Only | Science Tech | Mains Paper 3: Achievements Of Indians In S&T,Awareness in various sc and tech fields

    Why in the News?

    NASA’s Imaging X-ray Polarization Explorer (IXPE) has, for the first time, probed the internal structure of a white dwarf binary system by studying X ray polarisation. Observations of EX Hydrae revealed unexpected details about gas flows, magnetic accretion, and reflected X ray emission.

    Significance of IXPE observations

    • Enabled estimation of the height of hot accretion columns.
    • Detected X rays reflected off the white dwarf surface, a first for such systems.
    • Provided direct evidence to test theories of accretion physics, magnetic fields, and extreme states of matter.

    White Dwarf System

    A white dwarf system usually consists of a white dwarf and a companion star bound in a binary system. Matter from the companion is pulled towards the white dwarf due to its strong gravity.

    How it forms

    • A Sun like star exhausts nuclear fuel and sheds outer layers as a planetary nebula.
    • The leftover dense core becomes a white dwarf.
    • In binary systems, gas from the companion star accretes onto the white dwarf.
    • EX Hydrae belongs to a class called intermediate polars, where a moderate magnetic field partially disrupts the accretion disc and channels gas along magnetic field lines.

    Key characteristics

    • Extreme density: Mass comparable to the Sun, radius similar to Earth.
    • Degenerate matter: Supported by electron degeneracy pressure based on the Pauli Exclusion Principle, not fusion.
    • High energy emissions: Infalling gas heats to tens of millions of degrees, producing X rays.
    • Magnetic accretion: Gas flows in columns rising thousands of kilometres above the surface.
    • Chandrasekhar limit: Maximum stable mass about 1.4 times the Sun.

    Prelims Pointers

    • IXPE studies X ray polarisation, not imaging alone.
    • EX Hydrae is an intermediate polar type white dwarf system.
    • Accretion driven X ray emission occurs due to magnetic channeling.
    • White dwarfs are supported by electron degeneracy pressure.
    [2009] Who of the following scientists proved that the stars with mass less than 1.44 times the mass of the Sun end up as White Dwarfs when they die? 

    (a) Edwin Hubble 

    (b) S. Chandrashekhar 

    (c) Stephen Hawking 

    (d) Steven Weinberg

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