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Type: IOCR

  • Health Sector – UHC, National Health Policy, Family Planning, Health Insurance, etc.

    Global Health Security Index, 2021

    IOCR | Governance | Mains Paper 2: Health & Education

    Note4Students

    From UPSC perspective, the following things are important:

    Prelims level: Global Health Security Index, 2021

    Mains level: Health security

    Countries across all income levels remain dangerously unprepared to meet future epidemic and pandemic threats, according to the new 2021 Global Health Security (GHS) Index.

    About GHS Index

    • The GHS Index is the first comprehensive assessment and benchmarking of health security and related capabilities across the 195 countries that make up the States Parties to the International Health Regulations.
    • It is a project of the Johns Hopkins Centre for Health Security, the Nuclear Threat Initiative (NTI) and the Economist Intelligence Unit (EIU) and was first launched in October 2019.
    • It assesses countries across 6 categories, 37 indicators, and 171 questions using publicly available information.
    • It benchmarks health security in the context of other factors critical to fighting outbreaks, such as political and security risks, the broader strength of the health system, and country adherence to global norms.

    Parameters assessed

    The report is based on a questionnaire of 140 questions, organized across 6 categories, 34 indicators, and 85 sub-indicators. The six categories are:

    1. Prevention: Prevention of the emergence or release of pathogens
    2. Detection and Reporting: Early detection and reporting for epidemics of potential international concern
    3. Rapid Response: Rapid response to and mitigation of the spread of an epidemic
    4. Health System: Sufficient and robust health system to treat the sick and protect health workers
    5. Compliance with International Norms: Commitments to improving national capacity, financing plans to address gaps, and adhering to global norms
    6. Risk Environment: Overall risk environment and country vulnerability to biological threats

    Global performance

    • In 2021, no country scored in the top tier of rankings and no country scored above 75.9, the report showed.
    • The world’s overall performance on the GHS Index score slipped to 38.9 (out of 100) in 2021, from a score of 40.2 in the GHS Index, 2019.
    • This, even as infectious diseases are expected to have the greatest impact on the global economy in the next decade.
    • Some 101 countries high-, middle- and low-income countries, including India, have slipped in performance since 2019.

    Indian scenario

    • India, with a score of 42.8 (out of 100) too, has slipped by 0.8 points since 2019.
    • Three neighboring countries — Bangladesh, Sri Lanka and Maldives — have improved their score by 1-1.2 points.

    Conclusion

    • Health emergencies demand a robust public health infrastructure with effective governance.
    • The trust in government, which has been a key factor associated with success in countries’ responses to COVID-19, is low and decreasing, the index noted.

     

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  • Poverty Eradication – Definition, Debates, etc.

    World Inequality Report, 2022

    IOCR | Economics | Mains Paper 3: Inclusive Growth & Issues

    Note4Students

    From UPSC perspective, the following things are important:

    Prelims level: World Inequality Report

    Mains level: Rich vr Poor divide in India

    As per the ‘World Inequality Report 2022’, India is among the most unequal countries in the world, with rising poverty and an ‘affluent elite.’

    World Inequality Report

    • This report is published by Mr. Lucas Chancel, the co-director of the World Inequality Lab of the Paris School of Economics.
    • It was coordinated by famed French economist Thomas Piketty.

    Key highlights of the report

    (1) Income divide

    • The report highlights that the top 10% and top 1% in India hold 57% and 22% of the total national income respectively while the bottom 50% share has gone down to 13%.
    • The average national income of the Indian adult population is Rs 2,04,200.
    • The bottom 50% earns 20 times more than the top 10%.

     (2) Decline in public wealth

    • The report notes that the share of public wealth across countries has been on a decline for decades now.
    • Public assets typically include public buildings housing administrations, schools, universities, hospitals, and other public services.

    (3) Inequality during Colonial India

    • Going back in time, the report shows that the income inequality in India under the British colonial rule (1858-1947) was very high, with a top 10% income share around 50%.
    • After independence, due to socialist-inspired five-year plans, this share was reduced to 35-40%.
    • Owing to poor post-Independence economic conditions, India embarked upon deregulation and loosening controls in the form of liberalization policies.

    (4) Wealth inequality

    • The average household wealth in India is around Rs 9,83,010.
    • The bottom 50% of the nation can be seen to own almost nothing, with an average wealth of Rs 66,280 or 6% of the total pie.
    • The middle class is relatively poor with an average wealth of Rs 7,23,930 or 29.5% of the total.
    • The top 10% owns 65% of the total wealth, averaging Rs 63,54,070 and the top 1% owns 33%, averaging Rs 3,24,49,360.

    (5) Gender Inequality

    • Gender inequality in India is also considered on the higher end of the spectrum.
    • The share of female labor income share in India is equal to 18% which is significantly lower than the average in Asia (21%, excluding China) & is among the lowest in the world.
    • Although, the number is slightly higher than the average share in the Middle East (15%).
    • However, a significant increase has been observed since 1990 (+8 p.p.) but it has been insufficient to lift women’s labor income share to the regional average.

    (6) Poor States, wealthy population

    • Countries across the world have become richer over the past 40 years, but their governments have become significantly poorer.
    • The report shows that the share of wealth held by public actors is close to zero or negative in rich countries, meaning that the totality of wealth is in private hands.
    • Following the pandemic, governments borrowed the equivalent of 10-20% of GDP, essentially from the private sector.

    (7) Issue over data availability

    • The report goes on to say that over the past three years, the quality of inequality data released by the government has seriously deteriorated.
    • This has made it particularly difficult to assess recent inequality changes.

    Conclusions from the report

    (1) Wealth is mostly inherited and has a snowball effect

    • People accumulate wealth across generations through inheritance.
    • It has a snowball effect, wherein successive generations will gain more, but in their concentrated section.
    • More capital incentivizes banks to lend. This is why the rich section’s wealth grows faster.

    (2) Wealth management is necessary

    • Public wealth has been declining for two reasons:
    1. First, governments have been privatizing assets and natural resources at low costs.
    2. Second, governments contract debt to the private sector, making it richer.
    • Without assets, governments have low resources to invest and to mitigate climate change impacts, particularly in the energy sector.
    • Currently, governments have more debts than assets. This calls for strategic management of the economy.

     

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  • G20 : Economic Cooperation ahead

    India joins G20’s Troika

    IOCR | International Relations | Mains Paper 2: Bilateral, Regional and Global Groupings and agreements involving India

    Note4Students

    From UPSC perspective, the following things are important:

    Prelims level: G20, G7 and its members

    Mains level: Not Much

    India has joined the G20 ‘Troika’with Indonesia and Italy.

    G20 Troika

    • Troika refers to the top grouping within the G20 that consists of the current, previous and incoming presidencies — Indonesia, Italy and India.
    • With this move, India has started the procedure for taking over the G20 presidency.

    Significance of the move

    • India will assume the G20 presidency on December 1, 2022 from Indonesia, and will convene the G20 Leaders’ Summit for the first time in India in 2023.
    • Indonesia took over the G20 presidency this year.

    Do you know?

    A Sherpa is the personal representative of a head of state or head of government who prepares an international summit, such as the annual G7 and G20 summits.

    About G20 Countries

    • Formed in 1999, the G20 is an international forum of the governments and central bank governors from 20 major economies.
    • Collectively, the G20 economies account for around 85 percent of the Gross World Product (GWP), 80 percent of world trade.
    • The members of the G20 consist of 19 individual countries plus the European Union (EU).
    1. The 19 member countries of the forum are Argentina, Australia, Brazil, Canada, China, France, Germany, India, Indonesia, Italy, Japan, Mexico, Russia, Saudi Arabia, South Africa, South Korea, Turkey, United Kingdom and the United States.
    2. The European Union is represented by the European Commission and by the European Central Bank.
    • India has been a member of the G20 since its inception in 1999.

     

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  • OBOR Initiative

    EU unveils Global Gateway Project

    IOCR | International Relations | Mains Paper 2: Effect Of Policies & Politics Of World On India’S Interests

    Note4Students

    From UPSC perspective, the following things are important:

    Prelims level: Global Gateway Project

    Mains level: Countering projects against Chinese BRI

    The European Union has unveiled a project called ”Global Gateway” that is worth 300 billion euros ($340 billion). The project is being seen as a response to China’s Belt and Road strategy.

    Global Gateway Project

    • It is the initiative Build Back Better World and the European Global Gateway that are reinforcing each other.
    • The bloc will mobilize the financial aid in public and private infrastructure investment around the world.
    • It is an offshoot of a plan by G7 countries to offer developing countries an alternative to Belt and Road.
    • The project will probably extend the remit of the European Fund for Strategic Investment, or create a similar institution, which can act as a guarantor for riskier investments in the ‘Global South’.
    • The EU has indicated it especially wants to compete for infrastructure development projects in Africa.

    About Belt and Road Initiative

    • The Belt and Road is a flagship project of Chinese President Xi Jinping that was launched in 2013.
    • Beijing has invested $139.8 billion in the project which is the centerpiece of Chinese foreign policy.
    • BRI aims to develop land and sea infrastructure to better connect China to Asia, Europe and Africa for trade and development, and it has found many partners around the world.

     

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  • Tobacco: The Silent Killer

    WHO Framework Convention on Tobacco Control (FCTC)

    IOCR | International Relations | Mains Paper 2: Bilateral, Regional and Global Groupings and agreements involving India

    Note4Students

    From UPSC perspective, the following things are important:

    Prelims level: Framework Convention on Tobacco Control (FCTC), WHO

    Mains level: Not Much

    The World Health Assembly (WHA) took the historic decision to form a global treaty to “strengthen pandemic prevention, preparedness and response”.

    Significance of the launch

    • The launch of putting together this accord is the second such initiative taken under Article 19.
    • The first initiative was the WHO Framework Convention on Tobacco Control (FCTC), which came into effect in 2005.

    About FCTC

    • The Framework Convention on Tobacco Control (FCTC) is the world’s first modern-day global public health treaty.
    • It is also the first treaty negotiated under the auspices of the World Health Organization (WHO).
    • The treaty entered into force in February 2005.
    • It was signed by 168 of the 192 WHO member states and more than 180 WHO member states have become parties to the convention.

    Highlights of the FCTC

    The FCTC provides an internationally coordinated response to combating the tobacco epidemic and sets out specific steps for governments addressing tobacco use, including:

    • Adopting tax and price measures to reduce tobacco consumption
    • Banning tobacco advertising, promotion and sponsorship
    • Creating smoke-free work and public spaces
    • Putting prominent health warnings on tobacco packages
    • Combating illicit trade in tobacco products

     

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  • Iran’s Nuclear Program & Western Sanctions

    What is the Iran Nuclear Deal?

    IOCR | International Relations | Mains Paper 2: Important International Institutions

    Note4Students

    From UPSC perspective, the following things are important:

    Prelims level: JCPOA

    Mains level: US sanctions on Iran

    As Iran has refused to hold direct talks with the U.S., European officials will shuttle between the Iranian and American delegations, exchanging talking points and seeking common ground over the nuclear deal.

    Do you know how the enmity between Iran and the US came into reality?  We hope you have watched the Argo (2012) movie for sure!

    Context

    • After a gap of five months, Iran, Russia, China and the European countries resumed negotiations in Vienna to revive the 2015 nuclear agreement, known as the Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action (JCPOA).
    • The 2015 JCPOA agreement sought to cut Iran off a possible path to a nuclear bomb in return for lifting of economic sanctions.

    What is JCPOA?

    • The Iran nuclear agreement, formally known as the JCPOA is a landmark accord reached between Iran and several world powers, including the United States, in July 2015.
    • Under its terms, Iran agreed to dismantle much of its nuclear program and open its facilities to more extensive international inspections in exchange for billions of dollars’ worth of sanctions relief.

    Expected outcomes of the deal

    • Curb on nuclear program: Proponents of the deal said that it would help prevent a revival of Iran’s nuclear weapons program.
    • Increasing regional engagement: It would thereby reduce the prospects for conflict between Iran and its regional rivals, including Israel and Saudi Arabia.

    Background of the JCPOA

    • Iran had previously agreed to forgo the development of nuclear weapons as a signatory to the Nuclear Nonproliferation Treaty, which has been in force since 1970.
    • However, after the overthrow of the Pahlavi dynasty in 1979, Iranian leaders secretly pursued this technology.
    • In 2007, U.S. intelligence analysts concluded that Iran halted its work on nuclear weapons in 2003 but continued to acquire nuclear technology and expertise.
    • Prior to the JCPOA, the P5+1 had been negotiating with Iran for years, offering its government various incentives to halt uranium enrichment.

    Issues with the deal

    (1) US withdrawal

    • The deal has been in jeopardy since President Donald Trump withdrew the US from it in 2018.
    • In retaliation for the US, Iran resumed some of its nuclear activities.

    (2) Iran’s insistence over sanctions removal

    • In 2021, President Joe Biden said the US will return to the deal if Iran comes back into compliance, though Iran’s leaders have insisted that Washington lift sanctions first.
    • Iran now has indicated that he will take a harder line than his predecessor in nuclear negotiations.

    Who are the participants?

    • The JCPOA, which went into effect in January 2016, imposes restrictions on Iran’s civilian nuclear enrichment program.
    • At the heart of negotiations with Iran were the five permanent members of the UN Security Council (China, France, Russia, the United Kingdom, and the United States) and Germany—collectively known as the P5+1.
    • The European Union also took part. Israel explicitly opposed the agreement, calling it too lenient.
    • Some Middle Eastern powers, such as Saudi Arabia, said they should have been consulted or included in the talks because they would be most affected by a nuclear-armed Iran.

    What did Iran agree to?

    • Nuclear restrictions: Iran agreed not to produce either the highly enriched uranium or the plutonium that could be used in a nuclear weapon.
    • Monitoring and verification:  Iran agreed to eventually implement a protocol that would allow inspectors from the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), the United Nations’ nuclear watchdog.

    What did the other signatories agree to?

    • Sanctions relief: The EU, United Nations, and United States all committed to lifting their nuclear-related sanctions on Iran. However, many other U.S. sanctions on Iran, some dating back to the 1979 hostage crisis, remained in effect.
    • Weapons embargo: The parties agreed to lift an existing UN ban on Iran’s transfer of conventional weapons and ballistic missiles after five years if the IAEA certifies that Iran is only engaged in civilian nuclear activity.

    How has the deal affected Iran’s economy?

    • Prior to the JCPOA, Iran’s economy suffered years of recession, currency depreciation, and inflation, largely because of sanctions on its energy sector.
    • With the sanctions lifted, inflation slowed, exchange rates stabilized, and exports—especially of oil, agricultural goods, and luxury items­—skyrocketed as Iran regained trading partners, particularly in the EU.
    • After the JCPOA took effect, Iran began exporting more than 2.1 million barrels per day (approaching pre-2012 levels, when the oil sanctions were originally put in place).

     

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  • International Space Agencies – Missions and Discoveries

    Matosinhos Manifesto for accelerated use of space in Europe

    IOCR | Science Tech | Mains Paper 3: Awareness in various sc and tech fields

    Note4Students

    From UPSC perspective, the following things are important:

    Prelims level: Matosinhos Manifesto

    Mains level: Not Much

    The European Space Agency (ESA) has approved a Matosinhos Manifesto to accelerate the use of space in Europe.

    Matosinhos Manifesto

    • At the Intermediate Ministerial Meeting that was held in Matosinhos, Portugal.
    • The Council of Ministers unanimously adopted this resolution that lays down a vision for the continent in terms of maintaining and expanding its activities in space.
    • The large-scale nature and fast pace of the climate crisis and other challenges means that no European nation will be able to effectively address them alone.

    The manifesto defines three “accelerators” to further advance Europe’s space ambitions:

    1. The first of these accelerators is for the ESA to start working towards the “Space for a Green Future”
    2. The second accelerator is called “Rapid and Resilient Crisis Response” to support governments to act decisively on crises facing Europe, from flooding and storms to wildfires
    3. The third accelerator mentioned in the resolution is “Protection of Space Assets”, whose objective is to safeguard ESA astronauts and assets from interference by space debris and space weather

    A brief history of the ESA

    • The ESA is an intergovernmental organization that was formed in 1975 with the aim of developing Europe’s space capabilities.
    • The organization has 22 member states — Austria, Belgium, the Czech Republic, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Ireland, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Norway, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland and the UK.
    • Slovenia, Latvia and Lithuania are Associate Members.

     

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  • Global State of Democracy Report, 2021

    IOCR | Polity | Mains Paper 2: Indian Constitution – historical underpinnings, evolution, features, amendments, significant provisions and basic structure

    Note4Students

    From UPSC perspective, the following things are important:

    Prelims level: Global State of Democracy Report, 2021

    Mains level: Decline of Democracy

    The number of countries moving towards authoritarianism in 2020 was higher than that of countries going in the other direction, towards democracy, a/c to the Global State of Democracy (GSD) Report, 2021.

    Note: The Global Democracy Index is released by the Economic Intelligence Unit (EIU). One may get confused over this two.

    About GSD Report

    • The GSD report is released by the International Institute for Democracy and Electoral Assistance (International-IDEA).
    • The International-IDEA, is an inter-governmental organization supporting democracy, is chaired by Australia and includes India as a member-state.
    • The report aims to influence the global debate and analyses current trends and challenges to democracy, exacerbated by the Covid-19 pandemic.
    • It offers specific policy recommendations to spark new and innovative thinking for policymakers, governments and civil society organizations supporting democracy.

    GSD framework

    Highlights of the report

    • The US and three members of the European Union (EU) [Hungary, Poland and Slovenia] have also seen concerning democratic declines.
    • The pandemic has prolonged this existing negative trend into a five-year stretch, the longest such period since the start of the third wave of democratization in the 1970s.
    • Democratically elected Governments, including established democracies, are increasingly adopting authoritarian tactics.
    • This democratic backsliding has often enjoyed significant popular support.

    India’s performance

    • The report highlighted the case of Brazil and India as “some of the most worrying examples of backsliding.
    • India is the backsliding democracy with the most democratic violations during the pandemic.
    • Violations include- Harassment, arrests and prosecution of human rights defenders, activists, journalists, students, academics and others critical of the government or its policies; internet obstructions etc.

    Resilient democracies

    • The report pointed out that many democracies had proved to be resilient to the pandemic.
    • Despite pandemic restrictions on campaigning and media, the electoral component of democracy has shown remarkable resilience.
    • Countries around the world learned to hold elections in exceedingly difficult conditions and they rapidly activated special voting arrangements to allow citizens to continue exercising their democratic rights.

    Democracy is good. I say this because other systems are worse.

    –  Jawaharlal Nehru

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  • Nuclear Diplomacy and Disarmament

    Iran invites UN nuclear body chief to Tehran for talks

    IOCRPrelims Only | International Relations | Mains Paper 2: Important International Institutions

    Note4Students

    From UPSC perspective, the following things are important:

    Prelims level: Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT), IAEA

    Mains level: Nuclear disarmament

    Iran has invited the head of the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) for talks after the UN official expressed concern over a lack of contact with Iranian authorities.

    What is IAEA?

    • The IAEA is an international organization that seeks to promote the peaceful use of nuclear energy and to inhibit its use for any military purpose, including nuclear weapons.
    • As the preeminent nuclear watchdog under the UN, the IAEA is entrusted with the task of upholding the principles of the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT) of 1970.
    • It was established as an autonomous organization on July 29, 1957, at the height of the Cold War between the U.S. and the Soviet Union.
    • Though established independently of the UN through its own international treaty, the agency reports to both the UN General Assembly and the UNSC.

    IAEA Missions

    The IAEA is generally described as having three main missions:

    • Peaceful uses: Promoting the peaceful uses of nuclear energy by its member states,
    • Safeguards: Implementing safeguards to verify that nuclear energy is not used for military purposes, and
    • Nuclear safety: Promoting high standards for nuclear safety

    What are its safeguards?

    • Safeguards are activities by which the IAEA can verify that a State is living up to its international commitments not to use nuclear programs for nuclear weapons purposes.
    • Safeguards are based on assessments of the correctness and completeness of a State’s declared nuclear material and nuclear-related activities.
    • Verification measures include on-site inspections, visits, and ongoing monitoring and evaluation.

    Basically, two sets of measures are carried out in accordance with the type of safeguards agreements in force with a State.

    1. Verifying state reports of declared nuclear material and activities.
    2. Verifying the non-diversion of declared nuclear material and providing assurances as to the absence of undeclared nuclear material and activities in a State.

    Try this question from CSP 2020:

    Q.In India, why are some nuclear reactors kept under “IAEA Safeguards” while others are not?

    (a) Some use Uranium and others use thorium.

    (b) Some use imported uranium and others use domestic supplies.

    (c) Some are operated by foreign enterprises and others are operated by domestic enterprises.

    (d) Some are State- owned and others are privately-owned.

     

    Post your answers here.

     

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    Back2Basics: Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT)

    • The NPT is a landmark international treaty whose objective is to prevent the spread of nuclear weapons and weapons technology, to promote cooperation in the peaceful uses of nuclear energy.
    • The Treaty represents the only binding commitment in a multilateral treaty to the goal of disarmament by the nuclear-weapon States.
    • Opened for signature in 1968, the Treaty entered into force in 1970.
    • India is one of the only five countries that either did not sign the NPT or signed but withdrew, thus becoming part of a list that includes Pakistan, Israel, North Korea, and South Sudan.
    • India always considered the NPT as discriminatory and had refused to sign it.

     

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  • Foreign Policy Watch: India-United States

    Will U.S. sanction India for S-400 purchase?

    IOCR | International Relations | Mains Paper 2: Bilateral, Regional and Global Groupings and agreements involving India

    Note4Students

    From UPSC perspective, the following things are important:

    Prelims level: S-400 Triumf system

    Mains level: India's assertion for Strategic Autonomy

    The arrival of the $5.4-billion Russian long-range surface-to-air missile defence shield “S-400” is expected next month, which is likely to generate more international headlines.

    About S-400

    • The S-400 is known as Russia’s most advanced long-range surface-to-air missile defence system, capable of destroying hostile strategic bombers, jets, missiles and drones at a range of 380-km.

    US reservations against S-400 purchase

    • The US has made it clear that the delivery of the five S-400 systems is considered a “significant transaction”.
    • Such deals are considered under its Countering America’s Adversaries Through Sanctions Act (CAATSA) of 2017.
    • It could trigger sanctions against Indian officials and the Government.

    About CAATSA

    • The CAATSA is designed to ensure that no country is able to increase military engagement with Iran, North Korea and Russia without facing deterrent punitive action from the US.
    • The sanctions are unilateral, and not part of any United Nations decision, and therefore no country is bound to accept them.
    • Section 231 says the President shall impose no fewer than five different sanctions on any Government that enters into a significant defence or intelligence deal with Russia.
    • Section 235 lists 12 options, including stopping credit lines from US and international banks such as the IMF, blocking sales of licensed goods and technology, banning banks, manufacturers and suppliers, property transactions and even financial and visa sanctions on specific officials.
    • However, the law also empowers the President to waiver sanctions or delay them if the waiver is in the US’s “vital national security interests”.

    Has the US used CAATSA before for S-400 sales?

    • The US has already placed sanctions on China and Turkey for purchase of the S-400.
    • The sanctions included denial of export licences, ban on foreign exchange transactions, blocking of all property and interests in property within the US jurisdiction and a visa ban.

    Types of sanctions laid

    • In 2020, the US sanctioned its NATO partner Turkey, which it had warned about CAATSA sanctions for years, besides cancelling a deal to sell Ankara F-35 jets.
    • The sanctions on Turkey’s main defence procurement agency, also included a ban on licences and loans, and blocking of credit and visas to related officials.

    Likely impacts after India’s purchase

    • The Biden administration has no firm indication on where it leans on India’s case.
    • However, several senators (US parliamentarians) have called upon the Biden administration to consider a special waiver for India.
    • This is on account of India’s importance as a defence partner, and as a strategic partner on US concerns over China and in the Quad.
    • Other US leaders thinks that giving a waiver to India would be the wrong signal for others seeking to go ahead with similar deals.

    Why is the S-400 deal so important to India?

    • Security paradigm: S-400 is very important for India’s national security considerations due to the threats from China, Pakistan and now Afghanistan.
    • Air defence capability: The system will also offset the air defence capability gaps due to the IAF’s dwindling fighter squadron strength.
    • Russian legacy: Integrating the S-400 will be much easier as India has a large number of legacy Russian air defence systems.
    • Strategic autonomy: For both political as well as operational reasons, the deal is at a point of no return.

    Conclusion

    • The deal is a way for the Government to assert its strategic autonomy.
    • India had earlier agreed to stop buying Iranian oil over the threat of sanctions in 2019, a move that caused India both financial and reputational damage.
    • Not giving in to the US’s unilateral sanctions would be one way to restore some of that.

     

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