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Type: Prelims Only

  • ISRO Missions and Discoveries

    Chandrayaan-4, Venus orbiter gets approval from Cabinet

    Prelims Only | Science Tech | Mains Paper 3: Awareness in various sc and tech fields

    Note4Students

    From UPSC perspective, the following things are important:

    Prelims level: Chandrayaan 4, Venus Orbiter Mission

    Why in the News?

    The Union Cabinet approved the expansion of the Chandrayaan-4 mission, Venus Orbiter Mission (Shukrayaan Misison), Gaganyaan, the development of India’s first space station (the Bharatiya Antariksh Station), and NextGen launch vehicles.

    About Chandrayaan-4 Mission

    • Chandrayaan-4 is the fourth mission in India’s Chandrayaan program (2003).
    • The mission is currently under conceptualisation and expected to launch around 2027.
    • Aims: To develop technology for a successful moon landing and ensure a safe return to Earth.
    • The mission will be launched in two phases onboard two LVM3 rockets.
    • It will collect lunar samples for analysis on Earth.

    About Venus Orbiter Mission (VOM)

    • The VOM, also called Shukrayaan-1, is an upcoming ISRO mission targeting a 2028 launch. 
    • The mission aims to study Venus’ surface, atmosphere, volcanic activity, and solar wind interactions with its ionosphere.
    • It will have a mission duration of 4 years.
    • The spacecraft will operate in an elliptical orbit, with distances of 60,000 km at apoapsis and 500 km at periapsis.
    • Its payload has a capacity of 100 kg, is powered by 500 watts, and will feature Indian and international instruments for comprehensive analysis.
    • For the mission’s payload and technology, collaborations with NASA, CNES (France), and Russia have been established.

    PYQ:

    [2016] The Mangalyaan launched by ISRO:

    1. is also called the Mars Orbiter Mission
    2. made India the second country to have a spacecraft orbit the Mars after USA
    3. made India the only country to be successful in making its spacecraft orbit the Mars in its very first attempt

    Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

    (a) 1 only
    (b) 2 and 3 only
    (c) 1 and 3 only
    (d) 1, 2 and 3

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  • Fertilizer Sector reforms – NBS, bio-fertilizers, Neem coating, etc.

    Ammonium Nitrate imports cause concern                                                                       

    Prelims Only | Science Tech | Mains Paper 3: Awareness in various sc and tech fields

    Note4Students

    From UPSC perspective, the following things are important:

    Prelims level: Ammonium Nitrate

    Why in the News?

    • Ammonium Nitrate (AN) imports from Russia have sharply increased affecting domestic fertilizer companies in India.
      • The import of Ammonium Nitrate is concerning due to increased dependence on foreign supply, price disparity impacting domestic industries, and potential risks to national energy and security.

    What is Ammonium Nitrate?

    • Ammonium Nitrate (NH₄NO₃) is a nitrogen-rich, white, crystalline chemical compound.
    • It is soluble in water and commonly used in various industries.
    • Uses:
      • It is widely used as a fertilizer in agriculture.
      • It serves as a component for anaesthetic gases and cold packs.
      • It is also a key ingredient in commercial explosives used for mining and construction.
    • Ammonium nitrate is classified as an oxidizing substance under Grade 5.1 by the United Nations.
    • India’s Regulations:
      • AN is regulated under The Ammonium Nitrate Rules, 2012, and its manufacture or use requires a license.
      • The Explosives Act, 1884 defines ammonium nitrate as any compound with more than 45% AN by weight.
      • Storage Restrictions: Storing large quantities of AN in populated areas is illegal in India.
      • For manufacturing, companies need an industrial license under the Industrial Development and Regulation Act, 1951.

    Why is it a Cause of Concern?

    • Ammonium Nitrate is a primary component in explosive mixtures like ANFO (Ammonium Nitrate Fuel Oil).
    • Though not explosive on its own, it becomes highly dangerous when mixed with detonators like RDX or TNT.
    • It has been used in Improvised Explosive Devices (IEDs) by terrorist groups.
    • Accidents involving AN, like the Beirut port explosion in 2020, have raised serious concerns about its storage and handling.
    • Its widespread use in fertilizers leads to concerns about environmental impact, especially when mishandled.
    • Improper storage in populated areas can result in devastating accidents, which is why stringent regulations are in place to control its use, storage, and transport.

    PYQ:

    [2015] What can be the impact of excessive/inappropriate use of nitrogenous fertilizers in agriculture?

    1. Proliferation of nitrogen-fixing microorganisms in soil can occur.

    2. Increase in the acidity of soil can take place.

    3. Leaching of nitrate to the ground-water can occur.

    Select the correct answer using the codes given below:

    (a) 1 and 3 only

    (b) 2 only

    (c) 2 and 3 only

    (d) 1, 2 and 3

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  • Climate Change Negotiations – UNFCCC, COP, Other Conventions and Protocols

    COP29 in Baku, Azerbaijan

    Prelims Only | Enviro & Biodiversity | Mains Paper 3: Conservation, Environmental Pollution & Degradation, Eia

    Note4Students

    From UPSC perspective, the following things are important:

    Prelims level: COP29

    Why in the News?

    COP29 is set to be hosted by Azerbaijan from November 11 to 22. It has a central focus on finalising a agreement on Climate Finance Action Fund (CFAF) particularly for the post-2025 period.

    Proposals by Azerbaijan:

    Azerbaijan has included key proposals in the COP29 Action Agenda, such as:

    • Increasing global energy storage capacity by six times by 2030.
    • Promoting a global market for green hydrogen.
    • Ensuring the carbon footprint from digitisation and data centres is kept to a minimum.

    About the Climate Finance Action Fund (CFAF):

    • The CFAF will be capitalised with contributions from fossil fuel producing countries
    • It will be headquartered with its secretariat in Baku, Azerbaijan.
    • It will rely on voluntary contributions from fossil-fuel producing countries and companies.
    • Azerbaijan, a major petroleum economy, will make the first contribution to kickstart the fund.
    • Fossil-fuel producing countries and companies will have the option to make annual contributions, either as a fixed sum or based on production volumes.
    • The funds will be divided equally:
      • 50% will go toward climate projects in developing countries.
      • 50% will support developing nations in implementing national climate action plans.
    • The fund will become operational once it reaches a minimum corpus of $1 billion.
    • At least 10 countries must commit to being shareholders for the fund to start.
    • 20% of the revenues generated from investments will be deposited in a Rapid Response Funding Facility (2R2F) providing highly concessional and grant-based support.

    What did Paris Agreement of 2015 said on Climate Finance?

    • Under the Paris Agreement (2015), developed countries are obligated to raise at least $100 billion annually to aid developing nations in their fight against climate change.
      • This amount is expected to increase after 2025.
    • Negotiations have been slow, and countries are still debating the quantum of finance that industrialised nations should provide.

     

    PYQ:

    [2016] With reference to the Agreement at the UNFCCC Meeting in Paris in 2015, which of the following statements is/are correct?

    1. The Agreement was signed by all the member countries of the UN, and it will go into effect in 2017.
    2. It aims to limit the greenhouse gas emissions so that the rise in average global temperature by the end of this century does not exceed 2ºC or even 1.5ºC above pre-industrial levels.
    3. Developed countries acknowledged their historical responsibility in global warming and committed to donate $1000 billion a year from 2020 to help developing countries to cope with climate change.

    Select the correct answer using the code given below:

    (a) 1 and 3 only
    (b) 2 only
    (c) 2 and 3 only
    (d) 1, 2 and 3

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  • Section 2 of the Indian Flag Code (2002)

    Prelims Only | Polity | Mains Paper 2: Indian Constitution – historical underpinnings, evolution, features, amendments, significant provisions and basic structure

    Note4Students

    From UPSC perspective, the following things are important:

    Prelims level: Indian Flag Code

    Why in the News?

    The Bihar Police arrested some miscreants for waving India’s national flag with distorted Ashok Chakra/Dhammachakra.

    Significance of Ashok Chakra:

    • Symbolism: Represents righteousness, justice, and the path of virtue, urging citizens to uphold moral values.
    • Legacy of Dhamma: Reflects Emperor Ashoka’s principles of peace, non-violence, and welfare, after his embrace of Buddhism.
    • Compassion for all: Derived from the Dhammachakra, it represents the Buddhist philosophy of ethical living and compassion.
    • Unity and Progress: The circular design symbolizes unity and continuous development, emphasizing national harmony and forward movement.

    About Flag Code of India, 2002:

    Details
    Objective To regulate the display, usage, and respect for the Indian National Flag by citizens, organizations, and the government.
    Basisi Article 51 ‘A’ contained in Part IV A i.e. Fundamental Duties asks: To abide by the constitution and respect its ideals and institutions, the National Flag and the National Anthem in clause (a).
    Structure The Flag Code is divided into three parts:

    1. Part I: General provisions related to the display of the national flag by all.
    2. Part II: Display of the flag by government bodies.
    3. Part III: Display of the flag by public, private organizations, and educational institutions.
    Material of Flag
    • The national flag should be made of hand-spun and hand-woven wool, cotton, silk, or khadi bunting.
    • However, polyester and machine-made flags were allowed under amendments in 2021.
    Prohibitions (Section 2.2)
    • Not be used as a drapery, costume, or uniform.
    • Not be used for commercial purposes or as a receptacle.
    Display Guidelines (Section 2.1)
    • Must be hoisted respectfully, always ensuring that the saffron band is on top when displayed vertically.
    • Should never touch the ground or be used as decoration.
    Amendments In 2022, rules were amended to allow the national flag to be flown both during the day and night, as long as it is hoisted in a dignified manner.
    Penalties Disrespect or misuse of the national flag is punishable under the Prevention of Insults to National Honour Act, 1971.

     

    PYQ:

    [2008] What is the number of spokes in the Dharmachakra in the National Flag of India?

    (a) 16

    (b) 18

    (c) 22

    (d) 24

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  • Innovations in Sciences, IT, Computers, Robotics and Nanotechnology

    How good are Modern Telescopes?

    Prelims Only | Science Tech | Mains Paper 3: Awareness in various sc and tech fields

    Note4Students

    From UPSC perspective, the following things are important:

    Prelims level: Telescopes

    Why in the News?

    Modern telescopes, both on Earth and in space, expand our understanding of the universe by gathering and focusing light from distant celestial bodies, revealing cosmic secrets.

    Modern Telescopes: Everything you need to know

    Primary Functions and Features
    Purpose  • Telescopes serve as windows into space, revealing distant celestial bodies and helping explore the universe.
    • Their primary function is to gather more light than the human eye can, making faint objects visible.
    Types 1. Reflecting Telescopes:
    • Use mirrors to focus light and create images.
    • Most common in large observatories due to the use of parabolic mirrors, which prevent light scattering and offer clear images.
    2. Refracting Telescopes:
    • Use lenses to bend and focus light (Concave and Convex lenses used)
    • Limited by lens size, with a maximum of about 1 meter (e.g., Yerkes Observatory). Large lenses may sag, distorting the image.
    Primary purpose  • Telescopes are designed to collect more light than the human eye.
    • The light-gathering ability is proportional to the size of the aperture (opening).
    • Example: A small 70mm telescope collects 118 times more light than the human eye.

    Features of Telescopes
    Brightness and Magnitude • Celestial objects’ brightness is measured in apparent magnitude (lower numbers = brighter).
    • Examples: Sun (-26.78), Venus (-4.92), Sirius (-1.46), Andromeda Galaxy (+3.44).
    • Small telescopes can detect objects with magnitudes up to +11.2, which are 100 times fainter than what the human eye can see.
    Resolution and Detail • The resolution of a telescope determines how much detail it can show.
    • A small telescope can resolve details 1.47 arcseconds apart (40 times more detail than the human eye, which resolves details 60 arcseconds apart).

    Why are Telescopes set up on Mountains?
    Mountaintop benefits • High-altitude observatories are set up to reduce atmospheric distortion, which affects image quality (e.g., stars twinkling).
    • Space telescopes, like Hubble, are entirely above the atmosphere and provide clear, undistorted images.
    Adaptive Optics • Ground-based telescopes use adaptive optics to correct atmospheric distortions.
    • Lasers create artificial stars, and the telescope adjusts its mirrors to reduce twinkling.

    About the New Segmented Mirrors
    Overcoming Mirror Limitations • Large mirrors (over 8.5 meters) can sag under their own weight.
    • Segmented mirrors solve this by using smaller sections to create larger, effective mirrors (e.g., Extremely Large Telescope (ELT) with a 39.3-meter aperture).
    Notable Telescopes  • Large Binocular Telescope (LBT): Two 8.4-meter mirrors, combined aperture of 11.9 meters.
    • Extremely Large Telescope (ELT): Under construction in Chile, it will have a 39.3-meter aperture.
    • Subaru Telescope (Hawaii): Captured objects with a magnitude of +27.7, 100 million times fainter than what the human eye can see.

     

    PYQ:

    [2015] In the context of modern scientific research, consider the following statements about ‘IceCube’, a particle detector located at South Pole, which was recently in the news:

    1. It is the world’s largest neutrino detector, encompassing a cubic kilometre of ice.

    2. It is a powerful telescope to search for dark matter

    3. It is buried deep in the ice.

    Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

    (a) 1 only

    (b) 2 and 3 only

    (c) 1 and 3 only

    (d) 1, 2 and 3 only

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  • Oil and Gas Sector – HELP, Open Acreage Policy, etc.

    Government scraps Windfall Tax on Crude Oil

    Prelims Only | Economics | Mains Paper 3: Indian Economy

    Note4Students

    From UPSC perspective, the following things are important:

    Prelims level: Windfall Tax

    Why in the News?

    The Government of India has scrapped the windfall tax on crude oil, which was previously set at ₹1,850 per tonne.

    What is Windfall Tax?

    Details
    Definition A higher tax levied on companies that earn unexpected and extraordinary profits due to external factors.
    Purpose To capture a portion of excess profits from industries benefiting from global price surges, such as oil.
    Imposition in India Imposed as a Special Additional Excise Duty (SAED) on crude oil production and exports of diesel, petrol, and aviation turbine fuel (ATF).
    Dynamic Tax Rate Revised every 15 days based on international oil prices in the preceding fortnight.
    First Imposed July 1, 2022, during the Russia-Ukraine conflict and post-COVID recovery.
    Application Applies to domestically produced crude oil and exports of diesel, petrol, and ATF.
    Reasons for Imposing
    • Sharp rise in global oil prices due to external factors like the Russia-Ukraine war.
    • Capture supernormal profits of energy companies for public welfare.
    Benefits
    • Generates revenue for public welfare schemes.
    • Ensures fair distribution of profits from market volatility.
    • Stabilizes fuel prices during inflation or supply chain disruptions.

     

    India’s Crude Oil Trade:

    • India is the 3rd largest oil consumer globally, following the US and China.
    • The country relies on imports for 85% of its oil needs, with this dependence expected to increase due to declining domestic production.
    • Russia has become India’s top oil supplier, with imports surging to 1.53 million barrels per day (bpd) in January 2024.
    • Russia (1st) > Iraq (2nd) > Saudi Arabia (3rd)> UAE (4th) – Crude oil export to India 

     

    PYQ:

    [2020] The term ‘West Texas Intermediate’, sometimes found in news, refers to a grade of:

    (a) Crude oil

    (b) Bullion

    (c) Rare earth elements

    (d) Uranium

    [2017] Petroleum refineries are not necessarily located nearer to crude oil producing areas, particularly in many of the developing countries. Explain its implications. (250 words)

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  • BRICS Summits

    Turkey bids to join BRICS

    Prelims Only | International Relations | Mains Paper 2: Bilateral, Regional and Global Groupings and agreements involving India

    Note4Students

    From UPSC perspective, the following things are important:

    Prelims level: BRICS-11, New members of BRICS

     

    Why in the News?

    • Turkey has officially applied to join the BRICS group after Russia supported its entry. Russia is set to hold the BRICS Summit in Kazan from October 22 to 24, 2024.
      • Malaysia and Thailand had also expressed their interest in joining the expanded BRICS group of emerging economies.

    Turkey’s Geopolitical Position:

    • Joining BRICS could signify Turkey’s foreign policy shift, possibly distancing the country further from its long-standing ambition to join the European Union (EU).
    • Turkey has faced Western criticism for its purchase of Russian S-400 defence systems, its ties with Russia, and its stance on sanctions.
      • Ankara is positioning itself as a middle power that can balance relationships between the West and the Global South.

    What is BRICS?

    Details
    Members BRICS (Brazil, Russia, India, China, South Africa)
    Origin Coined by economist Jim O’Neill in 2001 as BRIC, formalised as BRICS in 2010
    Formation First meeting of BRIC Foreign Ministers in 2006. South Africa was invited to join BRIC in December 2010
    Global share of BRICS
    • Population: 41%
    • GDP: 24%
    • Global trade: 16%
    Chairmanship Rotated annually among members, following sequence B-R-I-C-S
    India’s Hosting Hosted the 2021 BRICS Summit
    Key Initiatives
    • New Development Bank (NDB) established in 2014: Approved 70 infrastructure and sustainable development projects
    • Contingent Reserve Arrangement signed in 2014: Aims to forestall short-term balance of payments pressures and strengthen financial stability
    • Customs agreements signed for trade facilitation
    • BRICS Remote Sensing Satellite Constellation initiated in 2021: Involves six existing satellites developed by members
    Expansion
    • Egypt, Ethiopia, Iran, Saudi Arabia, and the United Arab Emirates joined as new full members on January 1, 2024.
    • Argentina refused to join the BRICS group in 2024
    • Malaysia, Thailand and Turkey have bid for its membership.

     

    PYQ:

    [2014] With reference to a grouping of countries known as BRICS, consider the following statements:

    1. The First Summit of BRICS was held in Rio de Janeiro in 2009.

    2. South Africa was the last to join the BRICS grouping.

    Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

    (a) 1 only

    (b) 2 only

    (c) Both 1 and 2

    (d) Neither 1 nor 2

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  • Start-up Ecosystem In India

    [pib] BHASKAR Platform for India’s Startup Ecosystem

    Prelims Only | Economics | Mains Paper 3: Effects Of Liberalization On The Economy, Changes In Industrial Policy and their effects on Industrial Growth

    Note4Students

    From UPSC perspective, the following things are important:

    Prelims level: BHASKAR Platform

    Why in the News?

    The Department for Promotion of Industry and Internal Trade (DPIIT), under the Ministry of Commerce and Industry, has launched the BHASKAR platform.

    About BHASKAR Platform

    Details
    Platform Name Bharat Startup Knowledge Access Registry (BHASKAR)
    Launched By Department for Promotion of Industry and Internal Trade (DPIIT), Ministry of Commerce and Industry
    Objective To strengthen India’s startup ecosystem by centralizing resources and facilitating collaboration
    Target Audience Startups, investors, mentors, service providers, and government bodies
    Key Features
    • Networking and Collaboration: Connects startups, investors, and mentors, enabling interaction across sectors.
    • Centralized Access to Resources: Provides instant access to critical tools, knowledge, and resources for startups, enhancing decision-making and growth.
    • Personalized BHASKAR IDs: Each stakeholder (startup, investor, mentor) receives a unique ID for tailored interactions and services.
    • Enhanced Discoverability: Users can easily search and find relevant resources, collaborators, and opportunities using powerful search features.
    • Access to Funding Opportunities: Facilitates connections between startups and potential investors for funding.
    • Global Outreach: Supports cross-border collaborations and fosters India’s global presence in the innovation ecosystem.
    Impact
    • Promotes innovation, entrepreneurship, and job creation
    • Enhances India’s status as a global leader in startups

    Growth of the Startup Ecosystem

    • As of May 2023, India boasts over 99,000 officially recognized startups, making it the third-largest startup ecosystem globally. This growth reflects an increase from 84,012 startups in 2022 and a notable rise from just 452 in 2016.
    • The ecosystem has also produced 108 unicorns, startups valued at over $1 billion, collectively worth approximately $340.80 billion

    PYQ:

    [2015] “Success of ‘Make in India’ program depends on the success of ‘Skill India’ programme and radical labour reforms.” Discuss with logical arguments.

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  • Wildlife Conservation Efforts

    Cheetah Action Plan (CAP)

    Prelims Only | Enviro & Biodiversity | Mains Paper 3: Conservation, Environmental Pollution & Degradation, Eia

    Note4Students

    From UPSC perspective, the following things are important:

    Prelims level: Cheetah Action Plan (CAP)

    Cheetah

    Why in the News?

    The Cheetah Action Plan (CAP) which aimed to introduce African cheetahs into India’s Open Natural Ecosystems (ONEs), is completing its two years.

    About Cheetah:

    • The cheetah is a fast-running big cat, and there are two types of Cheetahs globally:
      • African (savannahs, arid mountains, and hilly deserts)
      • Asiatic (desert and semi-desert areas only in Iran)
    • Cheetahs live in three main groups: females with cubs, male coalitions, and solitary males. They hunt during the day, preferring dawn and dusk.
    • The global cheetah population was 6,500 mature individuals (IUCN, 2021).
    • IUCN Status: Vulnerable (Globally) and Critically Endangered (Asiatic Cheetah)

    Cheetah Reintroduction in India:

    • In India, cheetahs disappeared in the early 1950s due to hunting and the loss of their habitat.
    • Cheetahs (i.e. Southeast African Cheetah) from Namibia were reintroduced in Kuno National Park(MP) under the Project Cheetah.
    • This area was deemed a habitat parallel to Maasai Mara (National Park) in Kenya, suitable for cheetahs.

    Current Issues:

    • Despite the initial excitement, all of these cheetahs remain in captivity at Kuno.
    • Unfortunately, no cheetahs are currently roaming freely in the wild, raising concerns about the success of the reintroduction efforts.

    What is Project Cheetah?

    • Aim: To conserve threatened species and restore ecosystem functions. It is spearheaded by the National Tiger Conservation Authority (NTCA).
    • The plan involves partnering with other countries to conserve cheetahs, enhancing conservation and eco-tourism in India’s dry forests.
    • The population should reach Kuno National Park’s capacity in 15 years, needing sustained support.
    • Sunset Clause: The concept of a sunset clause in the context of Project Cheetah refers to the long-term criteria (at least 30-40 years) for establishing a viable cheetah population in India.

    PYQ:

    [2012]  Consider the following: (2012)

    1. Black-necked crane
    2. Cheetah
    3. Flying squirrel
    4. Snow leopard

    Which of the above are naturally found in India?

    (a) 1, 2 and 3 only
    (b) 1, 3 and 4 only
    (c) 2 and 4 only
    (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4

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  • Global Geological And Climatic Events

    Typhoon Yagi

    Prelims Only | Enviro & Biodiversity | Mains Paper 3: Disaster Management

    Note4Students

    From UPSC perspective, the following things are important:

    Prelims level: Typhoon Yagi

    Why in the News?

    India has launched Operation Sadbhav to provide humanitarian assistance to Southeast Asian countries affected by Typhoon Yagi, including Vietnam, Laos and Myanmar.

    Typhoon Yagi: Origin and Impact 

    • Typhoon Yagi began as a tropical storm in the western Philippine Sea on September 1, 2024.
      • Yagi, which means goat or the constellation of Capricornus in Japanese.
    • It made landfall in the Philippines but intensified again due to warm waters in the South China Sea, reaching Category 3 winds by September 4.
    • Yagi further strengthened to a Category 5 typhoon with peak winds of 260 kmph, making it one of only four Category 5 storms recorded in the South China Sea.
    • Although downgraded to a tropical depression, it continued to bring heavy rains and floods to Myanmar and other areas.

    What are Typhoons?

    • A Typhoon is a type of tropical cyclone that forms in the northwestern part of the Pacific Ocean, particularly affecting East Asia, Southeast Asia, and parts of Oceania.
    • They are characterized by strong winds, heavy rain, and can cause severe flooding, storm surges, and damage to infrastructure.

    Key Features of Typhoons:

    • Formation Region: Typhoons form in the Northwestern Pacific Ocean, primarily between 100°E and 180°E.
    • Wind Speed: To be classified as a typhoon, sustained winds must exceed 119 km/h.
    • Structure: Like hurricanes, typhoons have a central eye (calm area) surrounded by a violent eyewall where the strongest winds and heaviest rains occur.
    • Season: Typhoons typically occur from May to October, with a peak from August to September.

    Global Terminology:

    • Typhoon: Northwest Pacific Ocean.
    • Hurricane: North Atlantic, Central and Eastern North Pacific Oceans.
    • Cyclone: South Pacific and Indian Ocean.

     

    PYQ:

    [2020] Consider the following statements:

    1. Jet streams occur in the Northern Hemisphere only.

    2. Only some cyclones develop an eye.

    3. The temperature inside the eye of a cyclone is nearly 10ºC lesser than that of the surroundings.

    Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

    (a) 1 only

    (b) 2 and 3 only

    (c) 2 only

    (d) 1 and 3 only

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