Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Pangong Lake
Why in the News?
The Indian Army has installed a statue of Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj on the bank of Pangong lake at an altitude of 14,300 feet, a region that is close to the Line of Actual Control (LAC) with China in the eastern Ladakh sector.
About Pangong Lake (Pangong Tso)
- Its name is derived from the Tibetan term “Pangong Tso,” meaning “high grassland lake.” It is an endorheic (landlocked) lake with no outflow.
- Location & Size:
- Spans 134 km, divided between India (1/3) and the Tibetan Autonomous Region (2/3).
- Situated at an altitude of 4,350 meters, covers 604 sq. km, and is 5 km wide at its broadest point.
- Water & Climate:
- Brackish water that completely freezes in winter.
- The lake’s color shifts with sunlight and weather, displaying shades of blue, green, and red.
- Wildlife: Acts as a breeding ground for Bar-Headed Geese, Brahmini Ducks, and Radix freshwater snails.
- Strategic Importance: Located in the Chushul approach, a key route for potential Chinese offensives, and was a major site of conflict during the 1962 war.
Political Features:
- Border & Control: Lies on the Ladakh-China border, with the Line of Actual Control (LAC) passing through it.
- Contested Terrain: The northern bank is a hotspot due to differing boundary perceptions; China has built roads highlighting the lake’s strategic value.
- 1999 Incident: During Operation Vijay, China constructed a 5-km road inside Indian territory.
- 2020 Standoff:
- Began on May 5, 2020, following a clash in the Pangong Lake area.
- Disengagement on the north and south banks concluded in 2021.
- On October 21, 2024, India and China resolved the final friction points (Demchok, Depsang), ending a four-and-half-year border standoff.
PYQ:
[2020] Siachen Glacier is situated to the
(a) East of Aksai Chin
(b) East of Leh
(c) North of Gilgit
(d) North of Nubra Valley |
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Exercise SURYA KIRAN
Why in the News?
The Indian Army contingent has departed for Nepal to participate in the 18th edition of the Battalion-Level Joint Military Exercise SURYA KIRAN.
About the Exercise Surya Kiran
- Exercise Surya Kiran is a bilateral joint military exercise conducted annually between India and Nepal since 2011.
- The 18th edition is being held in Saljhandi, Nepal, from 31st December 2024 to 13th January 2025.
- It alternates between India and Nepal as the host nation.
- The Indian Army contingent, consisting of 334 personnel, is led by a battalion from the 11th Gorkha Rifles.
- The Nepal Army contingent is represented by the Srijung Battalion.
- The exercise aims to enhance interoperability in areas like jungle warfare, counter-terrorism operations in mountainous terrains, and humanitarian assistance under the United Nations Charter.
Features and Significance
- Strengthens combat readiness in jungle warfare and counter-terrorism.
- Facilitates the exchange of ideas, experiences, and best practices between the armies of both nations.
- Reinforces the strong cultural and historical ties shared by India and Nepal.
- Prepares both nations to address shared security challenges effectively.
PYQ:
[2024] Which of the following statements about the Exercise Mitra Shakti-2023 is/ are correct?
- This was a joint military exercise between India and Bangladesh.
- It commenced in Aundh (Pune).
- Joint response during counter-terrorism operations was a goal of this operation.
- Indian Air Force was a part of this exercise.
Select the answer using the code given below:
(a) 1, 2 and 3
(b) 1 and 4
(c) 1 and 4
(d) 2, 3 and 4 |
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Marine Heat Waves (MHWs)
Why in the News?
The 2014-2016 Pacific marine heatwave (MHW) killed over four million common murres (Uria aalge) (IUCN: Least Concerned) in Alaska. A study published in Science revealed that this event marked the largest recorded vertebrate die-off linked to warming oceans.
About Marine Heat Waves (MHWs)
|
Details |
| What is it? |
- As per the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), prolonged periods of sea surface temperatures rising 3 to 4°C above average for at least five consecutive days.
- IMD defines a marine heat wave (MHW) as a period when the sea’s temperature is above the 90th percentile(seasonally varying threshold) for at least 5 consecutive days.
- Can last from weeks to years, depending on intensity and extent.
- Frequency: Increasing in both occurrence and intensity due to climate change.
- Identified as one of the most significant stressors on global marine ecosystems, causing large-scale disruptions.
|
| Key Observations on MHWs |
2014-2016 Pacific MHW:
- Caused the death of over 4 million common murres (Uria aalge) in Alaska, the largest vertebrate die-off linked to warming oceans.
- Highlighted rapid and severe population declines in marine birds and a lack of ecosystem recovery even years later.
- Increasing frequency and intensity are reshaping ecosystems, creating new survival challenges for marine species.
- Evidence of shifts in marine environments, disrupting population dynamics.
|
| Impacts of MHWs |
On Ecosystems:
- Mass Mortality: Loss of habitat-forming species like kelps and corals, degrading ecosystems.
- Trophic Cascades: Displacement of lower-trophic species and reduced ecosystem productivity.
On Marine Species:
- Reduced breeding success and increased mortality.
- Example: 2014–2016 Pacific MHW killed half the common murre population in Alaska.
On Biodiversity:
- Loss of key predators disrupts food webs.
- Threatened species face survival challenges due to limited adaptability.
|
PYQ:
[2020] With reference to Ocean Mean Temperature (OMT), which of the following statements is/are correct?
- OMT is measured up to a depth of 26ºC isotherm which is 129 meters in the south-western Indian Ocean during January-March.
- OMT collected during January-March can be used in assessing whether the amount of rainfall in monsoon will be less or more than a certain long term mean.
Select the correct answer using the code given below:
(a) 1 only
(b) 2 only
(c) Both 1 and 2
(d) Neither 1 nor 2 |
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: ISRO SpaDEx PSLV-C60 Launch
Why in the News?
ISRO’s PSLV will launch 2 satellites, SDX01 and SDX02, into a 476-km circular orbit in the first week of January to conduct the Space Docking Experiment (SpaDEx), marking India’s entry into the elite group of nations capable of mastering Space Docking.
What is PSLV-C60 SpaDeX Mission?
- The PSLV-C60 SpaDeX Mission is a landmark mission aimed at demonstrating in-space docking and undocking technology.
- This mission would position India as the fourth country in the world to master space docking, following the US, Russia, and China.
- Objective:
- To demonstrate the docking, undocking, and rendezvous capabilities of two satellites in low-Earth orbit (LEO).
- Facilitate power transfer between docked spacecraft, an essential capability for future space missions.
- Satellites: (Each weighing 220kg.)
- SDX01 (Chaser): Equipped with a High-Resolution Camera (HRC).
- SDX02 (Target): Carries a Miniature Multispectral Payload (MMX) and a Radiation Monitor (RadMon).
- Configuration:
- The satellites will be launched using the Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle (PSLV-C60) in a core-alone (CA) configuration, meaning without strap-on boosters.
- They will be placed in a 476-km circular orbit with an inclination of 55°.
- Post-Docking:
- After the docking demonstration, the satellites will continue standalone missions for two years, conducting imaging, natural resource monitoring, and radiation environment studies.
- Significance: It is a strategic step towards several ambitious space objectives, including:
- Preparing for the Gaganyaan human spaceflight program
- Enabling Chandrayaan-4 lunar sample return missions
- Developing the Bharatiya Antariksh Station (BAS), India’s proposed space station35
What is Space Docking?
- Space docking refers to the process where two spacecraft in orbit rendezvous and physically connect to form a single entity. It is a highly complex and precise maneuver essential for advanced space missions.
- Key Steps of Space Docking:
- Rendezvous: Involves bringing two spacecraft into the same orbit with minimal distance and velocity difference.
- Docking: Establishing a mechanical connection between the spacecraft using specialized docking systems.
- Power and Resource Sharing: Once docked, the spacecraft can transfer power, fuel, or crew to support joint operations.
|
PYQ:
[2018] With reference to India’s satellite launch vehicles, consider the following statements:
- PSLVs launch satellites useful for Earth resources monitoring whereas GSLVs are designed mainly to launch communication satellites.
- Satellites launched by PSLV appear to remain permanently fixed in the same position in the sky, as viewed from a particular location on Earth.
- GSLV Mk III is a four-staged launch vehicle with the first and third stages using solid rocket motors; and the second and fourth stages using liquid rocket engines.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
(a) 1 only
(b) 2 and 3
(c) 1 and 2
(d) 3 only |
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Real Effective Exchange Rate (REER)
Why in the News?
The rupee has been hitting record lows against the US dollar but has simultaneously reached an all-time high in real effective terms. In November 2024, the Real Effective Exchange Rate (REER) index of the rupee touched 108.14, strengthening by 4.5% during the year, according to the RBI.
What is Effective Exchange Rate (EER)?
- The Effective Exchange Rate (EER) measures the value of a currency relative to a basket of currencies from its major trading partners.
- EER is a weighted average of exchange rates, reflecting the importance of each trading partner in a country’s total foreign trade.
- Nominal Effective Exchange Rate (NEER):
- NEER is the weighted average of a currency’s exchange rates with the currencies of its trading partners.
- It does not adjust for inflation, representing only nominal changes in currency value.
- Higher NEER: Indicates the domestic currency has appreciated compared to the basket of currencies.
- Real Effective Exchange Rate (REER):
- REER adjusts NEER for inflation differentials between the country and its trading partners.
- It measures the real purchasing power of a currency, providing insights into its competitiveness in international trade.
- The base year for REER in India is 2015-16, set at 100.
- REER > 100: Indicates an overvalued currency, making exports less competitive.
- REER < 100: Indicates an undervalued currency, making exports more competitive.
How does it impact Exports?
REER provides a real measure of currency competitiveness, adjusted for inflation:
- REER > 100 (Overvalued Currency):
- Exports suffer, as Indian goods and services become expensive in global markets.
- Imports rise, as foreign goods become cheaper in comparison.
- May lead to a widening trade deficit.
- REER < 100 (Undervalued Currency):
- Exports thrive, as Indian goods and services are priced more competitively in global markets.
- Imports decrease, as foreign goods become relatively expensive.
- Improves the trade surplus and supports domestic industries.
PYQ:
[2022] With reference to the Indian economy, consider the following statements:
- An increase in Nominal Effective Exchange Rate (NEER) indicates the appreciation of rupee.
- An increase in the Real Effective Exchange Rate (REER) indicates an improvement in trade competitiveness.
- An increasing trend in domestic inflation relative to inflation in other countries is likely to cause an increasing divergence between NEER and REER.
Which of the above statements are correct?
(a) 1 and 2 only
(b) 2 and 3 only
(c) 1 and 3 only
(d) 1, 2 and 3 |
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Parker Solar Probe
Why in the News?
The Parker Solar Probe has reached 6.1 million km from the Sun’s surface — the closest any human-made object has ever been. At this distance, if the Earth and Sun were 1 meter apart, the probe would be 4 cm from the Sun.
What is the Parker Solar Probe?
|
Details |
| About |
- A NASA mission launched on August 12, 2018, as part of the “Living With a Star” program to study the Sun’s corona and solar winds.
- Named after Eugene Parker, the first NASA mission named after a living researcher.
- Size: Comparable to a small car.
- Instruments: Equipped with four instruments to study electric and magnetic fields, plasma, and high-energy particles.
- Completed 21 orbits around the Sun and uses Venus flybys to gradually get closer to the Sun.
|
| How did it manage to come so close to the Sun? |
On December 24, 2024, it reached 6.1 million km from the Sun’s surface, the closest any human-made object has been.
Technologies:
- Heat Shield: A 4.5-inch carbon-composite shield withstands temperatures up to 1,377°C while keeping instruments stable at 29.4°C.
- Venus Flybys: Gravitational assists from Venus gradually reduced the orbit.
- Speed: Travels at 6,92,000 km/h, making it the fastest human-made object.
|
| Significance of the Mission |
- Scientific Contributions: Provides insights into why the Sun’s corona is much hotter than its surface and the origins of solar winds.
- Practical Implications: Improves predictions of space weather events that affect satellites, power grids, and communications on Earth.
- Technological Feat: Demonstrates advanced spacecraft engineering to withstand extreme solar conditions.
|
PYQ:
[2010] In the context of space technology, what is “Bhuvan”, recently in the news?
(a) A mini satellite launched by ISRO for promoting the distance education in India
(b) The name given to the next Moon Impact Probe, for Chandrayaan-II
(c) A geoportal of ISRO with 3D imaging capabilities of India
(d) A space telescope developed by India |
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: H-1B Visa
Why in the News?
The US President-elect Donald Trump has expressed support for H-1B Visas but emphasized balancing immigration policies with protecting American jobs.
About H-1B Visa Program
|
Details |
| What is it? |
- Allows U.S. employers to hire foreign workers for specialty occupations requiring:
- High expertise.
- A bachelor’s degree or higher.
- Administered by the U.S. Department of Labor to address skill shortages in the U.S. workforce.
- Employment under H-1B is temporary but renewable.
|
| Key Features |
- Purpose: Provides access to specialized talent unavailable domestically.
- Annual Cap: 65,000 new H-1B visas + 20,000 for workers with U.S. master’s degrees or higher.
- Exemptions: Workers in higher education institutions, non-profits, or government research organizations are not subject to the cap.
|
| How does it benefit in Indians? |
- Indians account for the largest group of H-1B beneficiaries (72.3% in FY 2023, ~2.79 lakh approvals).
- Fields:
- 65% employed in computer-related occupations.
- Others include architecture/engineering (9.5%) and education (6%).
- Median Compensation: $118,000 annually in 2023.
Trends and Policy Changes:
1. Admission Trends:
• Pre-COVID rise (2018: 5.70 lakh; 2019: 6.01 lakh).
• COVID-19 decline (2020: 3.68 lakh; 2021: 1.48 lakh).
• Post-COVID recovery (2022: 4.10 lakh; 2023: 7.55 lakh).
2. Denial Rates:
• Increased during Trump era (2016: 6%; 2018: 24%).
• Declined to 4% by 2021 and stabilized at 2% in 2022.
• High denials during Trump’s term were often overturned upon appeal. |
PYQ:
[2020] Indian diaspora has a decisive role to play in the politics and economy of America and European Countries’. Comment with examples. |
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Upper Siang; Brahmaputra River; Three Gorges Dam
Why in the News?
China has announced the construction of world’s largest dam on the Brahmaputra River (known as Yarlung Zangbo in Tibet), sparking concerns in India and Bangladesh, the lower riparian states.
About the Dam
- This project is part of China’s 14th Five-Year Plan (2021-2025) and its long-term development strategy through 2035.
- The dam will be constructed in the lower reaches of the Yarlung Zangbo River in Tibet, near the Indian border.
- It is situated at a massive gorge in the Himalayas, where the river takes a U-turn to flow into Arunachal Pradesh and then to Bangladesh.
- Its investment exceeds $137 billion, dwarfing any other infrastructure project, including China’s Three Gorges Dam.
| Three Gorges Dam: It is a hydroelectric gravity dam that spans the Yangtze River near Sandouping in Yiling District, Yichang, Hubei province, central China, downstream of the Three Gorges. |
What are the concerns associated with the Dam Construction?
- Geopolitical Control: China’s ability to regulate water flow raises fears of disruption and misuse during conflicts.
- Environmental Impact: Risks to biodiversity, sediment flow, and downstream ecosystems in a fragile Himalayan zone.
- Seismic Hazards: The dam’s location on a tectonic plate boundary increases earthquake risks.
- Livelihood Disruption: Potential harm to agriculture, fishing, and local communities dependent on the river.
- Transparency Issues: Limited data sharing and unilateral decisions heighten distrust among riparian states.
PYQ:
[2011] The Brahmaputra, Irrawady and Mekong rivers originate in Tibet and flow it through narrow and parallel mountain ranges in their upper reaches. Of these rivers, Brahmaputra makes a “U” turn in its course to flow into India. This “U” turn is due to:
(a) Uplift of folded Himalayan series
(b) Syntaxial bending of geologically young Himalayas
(c) Geo-tectonic disturbance in the tertiary folded mountain chains
(d) Both (A) and (B) above |
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Communist Party of India (CPI) and its contributions
Why in the News?
December 26, 2024, marks the 100th foundation day of the Communist Party of India (CPI). The CPI has played a pivotal role in India’s freedom struggle, social reforms, and political evolution.
About the Communist Party of India (CPI)
- Reasons for Formation:
- Founded on December 26, 1925, at the Kanpur Conference, inspired by the 1917 Russian Revolution.
- Earlier efforts included the Tashkent group (1920) led by M.N. Roy and Abani Mukherji, supported by the Comintern (Communist International).
- Faced early repression through cases like:
- Kanpur Bolshevik Conspiracy Case (1924).
- Meerut Conspiracy Case (1929–1933).
- Dissatisfaction with Gandhian methods and moderate nationalism.
- Inspiration from the Soviet Revolution (1917) and global socialist movements.
- Split (1964):
- Ideological rift during the Cold War over alignment with the Soviet Union or China.
- Led to the creation of the Communist Party of India (Marxist) or CPI(M).
Prominent Leaders and Key Contributions
- Prominent Leaders:
- M.N. Roy (1920s): Founder of the Tashkent group; advocated socialism and anti-colonialism.
- Abani Mukherji (1920s): Drafted the Indian Communist Manifesto.
- S.A. Dange (1924): Founding CPI member; labour leader implicated in the Kanpur Conspiracy Case.
- Muzaffar Ahmed (1920s): Mobilized workers and peasants; key figure in AITUC (1920).
- Shaukat Usmani (1920s–1930s) and M. Singaravelu (1925): Early CPI activists.
- Key Contributions:
- Demand for Poorna Swaraj (1927):
- Advocated for complete independence, influencing the Indian National Congress (INC).
- Workers and Peasants Movements (1920s–1950s):
- Mobilized workers through AITUC (1920) and peasants through All India Kisan Sabha (1936).
- Led uprisings like the Telangana Rebellion (1946–1951).
- Opposition to British Rule (1920s–1947):
- Organized strikes and protests during the Quit India Movement (1942).
-
- In the First Lok Sabha (1952–57), CPI was the single largest opposition party.
- In 1957, CPI won the state elections in Kerala, becoming the first democratically elected communist government in independent India.
| Note: The All India Trade Union Congress (AITUC), India’s oldest trade union federation, was founded in 1920 by Lala Lajpat Rai and others in Bombay to represent India at the ILO (International Labour Organisation). |
PYQ:
[2018] Consider the following events:
- The first democratically elected communist party government was formed in a State in India.
- India’s then largest bank, ‘Imperial Bank of India’, was renamed ‘State Bank of India’.
- Air India was nationalised and became the national carrier.
- Goa became a part of independent India.
Which of the following is the correct chronological sequence of the above events?
(a) 4 – 1 – 2 – 3
(b) 3 – 2 – 1 – 4
(c) 4 – 2 – 1 – 3
(d) 3 – 1 – 2 – 4 |
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Ken-Betwa Link Project
Why in the News?
PM Modi laid the foundation stone of the Ken-Betwa River Linking National Project, the first project under the National Perspective Plan (NPP) for interlinking rivers, conceptualized in 1980. The project would submerge over 10 per cent of the core area of the Panna Tiger Reserve.
About the Ken-Betwa Link Project (KBLP):
| About |
- Objective: Transfer water from the Ken River to the Betwa River, both tributaries of the Yamuna.
- Ken-Betwa Canal: Envisages a 221 km canal (including a 2-km tunnel) for water diversion.
- Submergence area: Jhansi, Banda, Lalitpur and Mahoba districts of UP and Tikamgarh, Panna and Chhatarpur districts of MP.
- It’s the first interlinking project under the National Perspective Plan (1980).
- Targeted completion within 8 years, as per the Ministry of Jal Shakti.
|
| Key Components |
- It will irrigate 10.62 lakh ha (8.11 lakh ha in MP and 2.51 lakh ha in UP) and provide drinking water to ~62 lakh people.
- Power Generation: Aims for 103 MW of hydropower and 27 MW of solar power.
Phases:
- Phase-I: Construction of Daudhan Dam, related tunnels, canal, and powerhouses.
- Phase-II: Building of Lower Orr Dam, Bina Complex Project, and Kotha Barrage.
Daudhan Dam:
-
- Foundation stone laid in December 2024 by PM Narendra Modi.
- 2,031 m in length and 77 m in height, submerging ~9,000 ha across 10 villages.
- Construction contract awarded to NCC Ltd.
|
| Geographical Features of Ken and Betwa River |
Ken River: Rises near Ahirgawan in Madhya Pradesh, flows through Bundelkhand, joins the Yamuna near Chilla village in UP.
Betwa River: Originates in the Vindhya Range (near Hoshangabad, MP), also flows through Bundelkhand, and meets the Yamuna at Hamirpur (UP).
- Both rivers traverse hilly and plateau regions of Bundelkhand, often facing drought-like conditions.
- Both are highly seasonal; flows depend largely on monsoon rainfall.
|
| Significance |
- Water Scarcity Mitigation: Aims to alleviate drought-like conditions in Bundelkhand by ensuring year-round irrigation.
- Enhanced Agriculture: 10.62 lakh ha of farmland to benefit, improving crop yields and farm income.
- Drinking Water Supply: Targets ~62 lakh people in MP and UP, improving public health.
- Energy Generation: A total of 130 MW (103 MW hydropower + 27 MW solar), boosting renewable energy capacity in rural areas.
- Bundelkhand Development: Expected to spur socio-economic growth, reduce rural distress and migration, and aid industrial expansion.
- Template for Future Projects: As the first interlinking project under the National Perspective Plan, its success could pave the way for additional river-linking schemes nationwide.
|
PYQ:
[2020] The interlinking of rivers can provide viable solutions to the multi-dimensional inter-related problems of droughts, floods, and interrupted navigation. Critically examine. |
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: AIMC system and its features
Why in the News?
- The Ministry of Road Transport & Highways (MoRTH) is moving toward large-scale use of Automated & Intelligent Machine-aided Construction (AIMC) for National Highway projects.
- AIMC will provide real-time data at each stage of road construction, which will be sent directly to stakeholders, including MoRTH.
About Automated & Intelligent Machine-aided Construction (AIMC) System
|
Details |
| What is it? |
- A technology-driven approach for road and infrastructure projects, employing advanced machinery (GPS, sensors, real-time data tools) to automate and monitor construction tasks.
- Integrates machine automation, real-time data reporting, and precision engineering to enhance quality and speed of highway construction.
- In India, explored by the Ministry of Road Transport & Highways (MoRTH) to reduce project delays and ensure consistent construction quality.
|
| Features of the System |
- GPS-Aided Equipment: Motor graders, intelligent compactors, and stringless pavers use GPS/digital designs for precise alignment and compaction.
- Automated Surveys: Drones or sensor-fitted machinery capture topographical data, enabling continuous verification of design parameters.
- Real-Time Documentation: Every stage (embankment, subgrade, sub-base, paving) is monitored and instantly shared with stakeholders.
- Integrated Software Platforms: Centralized software creates a digital twin of the site for analytics and alerts.
- Adaptive Workflows: Machines can operate 24/7, guided by digital models and real-time data.
- Precision & Safety Controls: AI-driven predictive maintenance and automated tasks reduce worker risk.
|
| Significance of the System |
- Faster Project Completion: Real-time monitoring cuts down manual checks and paperwork, expediting construction.
- Improved Quality & Precision: Sensor-based feedback loops align construction closely with design specifications.
- Real-Time Data Sharing: Construction progress and quality metrics are instantly communicated, enabling immediate corrective actions.
- Reduced Human Error: Automated machinery limits inconsistencies from manual oversight.
- Better Accountability: Detailed digital records promote transparency and performance tracking.
- Cost-Efficiency: Minimizes delays and rework, lowering overall project expenses.
|
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Maharashtra Prisons and Correctional Services Act, 2024
Why in the News?
The Maharashtra Legislative Assembly passed the Maharashtra Prisons and Correctional Services Act, 2024, aiming to modernize and reform the State’s prison system. It is based on the Model Prisons Bill, 2023, issued by the Government of India (GoI).
Maharashtra Prisons and Correctional Services Act, 2024: Key Highlights :
- Repeal of Outdated Acts:
- The Prisons Act, 1894, the Prisoners Act, 1900, and the Transfer of Prisoners Act, 1950 stand repealed.
- The new legislation consolidates laws related to regulation of prisons, correctional services, and prisoners in Maharashtra.
- Establishment of High-Security Prison in Mumbai:
- Plans are underway to construct a high-security, multi-storey prison with advanced surveillance measures, akin to international standards like Alcatraz in San Francisco.
- Features include fortified walls, electronic tracking, power fencing, watchtowers, and 24×7 CCTV coverage.
- Land parcels for the new Mumbai jail have already been identified.
- Special Categories of Prisons:
- Special Prisons for high-risk inmates.
- Open and Semi-Open Prisons to facilitate rehabilitation.
- Open Colonies designed for reintegration of inmates with society.
- Temporary Prisons for certain categories of offenders.
- Gender-Sensitive Facilities:
- Separate cells and wards for women inmates with provisions for pre- and post-natal care.
- Special child-care areas (Balwadis) for children staying with mothers in prison.
- Dedicated enclosures and healthcare for transgender inmates.
- Rehabilitation, Skill Development, and Welfare:
- Mandatory libraries, sports facilities, yoga, and recreation for inmates.
- Work-based compensation and opportunities to sell inmate-produced goods at on-site outlets.
- Borstal institutions for young offenders, focusing on education and skill-building.
- Early Release and Monitoring:
- A system of parole and furlough for good behavior, with electronic tracking.
- A special committee under district collectors to support bail bond funding for indigent undertrial prisoners (noting that 1,600 accused are still in jail due to lack of funds).
- Detention Centre in Mumbai:
- The State plans to establish a detention centre in Mumbai. The Brihanmumbai Municipal Corporation (BMC) has been tasked to identify land for the project.
About Model Prison Act, 2023
- It replaces the colonial-era Prisons Act, 1894, aiming to modernise prison laws and align them with contemporary standards.
- It shifts emphasis from mere detention to reform and reintegration of inmates.
- It serves as a model document for states, since ‘Prisons’ is a State List subject in India.
- It merges relevant provisions of older legislations (e.g., Prisoners Act, 1900 and Transfer of Prisoners Act, 1950).
- It strives to bring India’s prison system in line with international best practices and human rights norms.
- Key features include:
- Specialised Jails: Provides for high-security, open, and semi-open prisons to manage different categories of inmates.
- Rehabilitation Measures: Emphasises vocational training, skill development, counselling, and educational programs to facilitate inmates’ reintegration.
- Legal Aid & Incentives: Outlines provisions for legal assistance, along with parole, furlough, and premature release for good conduct.
- Use of Technology: Encourages CCTV, video conferencing, and e-monitoring systems to enhance transparency and security within prisons.
- Inclusive Accommodation: Mandates separate facilities for women, transgender persons, and other special categories, ensuring safety and dignity.
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Present Prison System: Key Findings of the Supreme Court’s Centre for Research and Planning Report
- The occupancy rate stood at 131.4% as of December 2022, with 75.8% of inmates being undertrials.
- This highlights a pressing need for measures to reduce congestion and expedite trials.
Initiatives taken:
- Modernization of Prisons Project (2021–26): The government provides financial assistance to States and Union Territories to implement advanced security measures in prisons.
- Aims to support reformation and rehabilitation efforts for inmates through various correctional programs.
- Model Prison Manual (2016): Offers detailed guidelines on the legal rights of inmates, including access to free legal services.
- Modernization of Prisons Scheme (2002–03): Introduced to improve living conditions in prisons, address the welfare of inmates, and enhance the working environment for prison staff.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Mitochondria, mtDNA
Why in the News?
Recent research indicates that age-related losses in our cell’s mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA)—specifically, deletion mutations—could be a major driver of aging. These mutations, once they accumulate, reduce the mitochondrion’s ability to produce energy (ATP), causing cell and tissue dysfunction.
What are Mitochondria?
- Mitochondria generate most of the cell’s energy (hence called the Powerhouse) in the form of ATP (adenosine triphosphate).
- They originated from free-living bacteria absorbed by ancient single-celled organisms, retaining a fraction of their own DNA (mtDNA).
- Unlike nuclear DNA, mitochondria have their own circular DNA, though limited in size.
- Humans inherit mitochondria exclusively from the mother’s egg; sperm-contributed mitochondria are generally not passed on.
- They have a double membrane: a relatively permeable outer membrane and a highly folded inner membrane (cristae) that maximizes surface area for energy production.
- Their inner compartment, the mitochondrial matrix, houses mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA), ribosomes, and enzymes for the Krebs cycle (citric acid cycle) and fatty acid β-oxidation.
- Mitochondria help regulate intracellular calcium levels, which is crucial for various signalling pathways.
- They play a role in apoptosis (programmed cell death) by releasing factors such as cytochrome c when the cell is under severe stress.
Functions of DNA, mRNA, and the gene:
- DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid):
- Blueprint of Life: Houses genetic instructions in the form of a sequence of bases (A, T, G, C).
- Chromosomal Structure: In the nucleus, it is organized into 23 pairs of chromosomes in humans, each carrying numerous genes.
- Base-Pairing: Two DNA strands form a double helix via base-pair bonding (A-T, G-C).
- Gene:
- Functional Unit of DNA: A stretch of DNA containing instructions (a few thousand base-pairs) for making proteins or functional RNA.
- Expression: When active, a gene is ‘read’ and transcribed into mRNA.
- mRNA (Messenger RNA):
- Intermediate Molecule: Carries the gene’s instructions from the DNA (in the nucleus) to the cytoplasm.
- Protein Synthesis: Ribosomes read mRNA sequences, translating them into specific proteins.
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Functions of the Mitochondrial Genome (mtDNA):
- Encodes Key Mitochondrial Proteins:
- The mtDNA has 13 protein-coding genes crucial for mitochondrial energy production (ATP synthesis).
- It also encodes 24 non-coding genes (like rRNAs and tRNAs), essential for mitochondrial protein synthesis.
- Energy Production:
- mtDNA-encoded proteins form part of the electron transport chain, where most ATP is produced.
- Distinct Inheritance Pattern:
- Inherited exclusively from the mother.
- Each cell contains multiple mitochondria, each with multiple copies of mtDNA.
- Implication in Aging and Disease:
- Age-related mutations (deletions, chimeric genes) in mtDNA can lead to functional decline in tissues like muscle and brain.
- Loss of intact mtDNA reduces ATP generation, contributing to cellular and tissue ageing.
PYQ:
[2021] In the context of hereditary diseases, consider the following statements:
- Passing on mitochondrial diseases from parent to child can be prevented by mitochondria replacement therapy either before or after in vitro fertilization of the egg.
- A child inherits mitochondrial diseases entirely from mother and not from father.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
(a) 1 only
(b) 2 only
(c) Both 1 and 2
(d) Neither 1 nor 2 |
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: BIMSTEC
Why in the News?
Delegates recently represented India at the 24th BIMSTEC Senior Officials’ Meeting (SOM) virtually hosted by Thailand.
Key highlights of 24th BIMSTEC Senior Officials’ Meeting
- The discussions focused on priority areas including sustainable development, regional connectivity, security, and people-to-people exchanges.
- Several documents, such as Plans of Action for cooperation, new cooperation mechanisms, and collaboration with external partners, were finalized.
- The meeting also discussed issues related to the upcoming 6th BIMSTEC Summit.
About BIMSTEC
- The BIMSTEC is a regional organization with 7 member states: Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Myanmar, Nepal, Sri Lanka, and Thailand.
- Established in 1997, its primary aim is to foster multifaceted technical and economic cooperation among the countries bordering the Bay of Bengal.
- The region encompasses a population of around 1.5 billion and has a combined GDP of over USD 3.8 trillion.
- Origin:
- Founded in 1997 through the Bangkok Declaration, the organization initially included four member nations under the name BIST-EC (Bangladesh, India, Sri Lanka, and Thailand Economic Cooperation).
- Later in 1997, Myanmar joined, prompting a renaming to BIMST-EC.
- Nepal and Bhutan were admitted in 2004, leading to the current name: Bay of Bengal Initiative for Multi-Sectoral Technical and Economic Cooperation (BIMSTEC).
- Key Features
- Establishes BIMSTEC as a legal entity, enabling it to engage more formally with other international organizations.
- Outlines objectives focused on building trust and friendly relations among member states and promoting economic development and social progress in the Bay of Bengal region.
- Defines a clear framework for regular meetings at various levels: the Summit, Ministerial, and Senior Officials’ levels.
- Allows for the possibility of new members and observer states, ensuring future growth and broader cooperation.
- Streamlines cooperation into 7 sectors, each led by one member state:
- Bangladesh: Trade, investment, and development
- Bhutan: Environment and climate change
- India: Security (including energy)
- Myanmar: Agriculture and food security
- Nepal: People-to-people contacts
- Sri Lanka: Science, technology, and innovation
- Thailand: Connectivity
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Significance of BIMSTEC for Indo-Pacific Goals
- Maritime Connectivity: BIMSTEC unites Bay of Bengal states, strengthening maritime ties that are crucial for an open and inclusive Indo-Pacific.
- Regional Bridge: It links South Asia and Southeast Asia, aligning closely with India’s “Act East” policy and fostering broader Indo-Pacific integration.
- Security Cooperation: Focus on collaborative efforts in maritime security (e.g., counter-piracy, disaster management) supports a stable and secure Indo-Pacific.
- Economic Integration: By promoting trade, investment, and infrastructure development, BIMSTEC bolsters economic growth and connectivity in the Indo-Pacific region.
- Synergy with Other Frameworks: Its emphasis on connectivity, security, and economic cooperation complements initiatives such as ASEAN and the Indian Ocean Rim Association, collectively advancing Indo-Pacific objectives.
PYQ:
[2022] Do you think that BIMSTEC is a parallel organisation like the SAARC? What are the similarities and dissimilarities between the two? How are Indian foreign policy objectives realized by forming this new organisation? |
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Internal Justice Council (IJC)
Why in the News?
Justice Madan B Lokur, retired judge of the Supreme Court of India, has been appointed as the Chairperson of the United Nations Internal Justice Council (IJC).
Justice Lokur’s Legacy:
- Justice Lokur served on the Supreme Court of India from June 2012 to December 2018, delivering landmark judgments across diverse areas of law.
- In August 2019, he was appointed to the non-resident panel of the Supreme Court of Fiji and reappointed for another three-year term in January 2022.
- His notable judgments include:
- Electoral Disqualification on Religious Grounds (January 2017): Authored a concurring opinion in a seven-judge bench ruling disqualifying electoral candidates for seeking votes based on religion, race, caste, or other identity markers.
- Raising the Age of Consent in Marriages (October 2017): Alongside Justice Deepak Gupta, ruled to raise the age of consent within marriages to 18 years, bolstering child protection laws.
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About UN Internal Justice Council (IJC):
| Establishment |
-
- Established in 2009 to reform and strengthen the UN’s internal justice system.
- Ensures the system operates effectively, impartially, and transparently, addressing workplace disputes within the UN.
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| Overview and Structural Mandate |
Mandate:
- Safeguards the independence and integrity of the internal justice system.
- The IJC is responsible for overseeing the administration of the UN’s internal justice system.
- It supervises:
- Office of Staff Legal Assistance (OSLA)
- UN Dispute Tribunal (UNDT)
- UN Appeals Tribunal (UNAT)
- Recommends measures to ensure judicial independence and efficiency in dispute resolution.
Composition:
- 5 members: 2 tribunal judges (from UNDT and UNAT), two staff representatives, and one external legal expert.
- Chairperson is selected by consensus and appointed by the UN Secretary-General.
- Members serve a four-year term, renewable once.
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| Powers, Functions, and Jurisdiction |
Judicial Appointments:
- Recommends candidates for UNDT and UNAT judge positions based on merit and judicial competence.
- Proposes a shortlist for final selection by the Secretary-General.
Oversight and Accountability:
- Monitors tribunal functioning to ensure fairness and transparency.
- Identifies and addresses systemic issues, proposing improvements.
Judicial Independence:
- Protects the impartiality of tribunal judges and safeguards judicial integrity.
- Advocates for institutional protections against external influence.
Advisory Role:
- Provides expert advice on internal justice reform.
- Evaluates tribunal processes to enhance efficiency and accessibility for UN staff.
Scope of Jurisdiction:
- Covers grievances related to administrative decisions, employment conditions, and workplace disputes brought forward by UN staff worldwide.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Measles, Mumps, and Rubella (MMR) vaccine
Why in the News?
Tamil Nadu Government has requested the Centre to consider including the Measles, Mumps, and Rubella (MMR) vaccine in the Universal Immunisation Programme (UIP) due to surge in the Mumps cases across the State.
Tamil Nadu’s UIP currently offers 11 vaccines protecting against 12 vaccine-preventable diseases, including:
- Tuberculosis, diphtheria, pertussis, hepatitis B, haemophilus influenzae, tetanus, poliomyelitis, measles, rubella, rota virus, pneumococcal, and Japanese encephalitis (in 14 endemic districts).
- The Measles-Rubella (MR) vaccine was added to the UIP in April 2017, but mumps is yet to be included.
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About Mumps Disease
- Mumps is a contagious viral infection caused by the mumps virus, primarily affecting the salivary glands, leading to swelling near the ears (parotitis), fever, headache, and muscle aches.
- It spreads through respiratory droplets or direct contact with saliva.
- While often mild, complications can include orchitis (testicular inflammation), oophoritis (ovarian inflammation), encephalitis, or hearing loss.
- There is no specific treatment, but supportive care like rest, hydration, and pain management helps.
- Vaccination with the MMR vaccine is the best prevention, offering 78–88% protection.
Which free immunised diseases are provided under the Universal Immunization Programme (UIP)?
- The UIP was launched in 1985 and became part of the National Health Mission in 2005 to provide free vaccination against vaccine-preventable diseases for children and pregnant women.
- The programme now covers 12 diseases, including tuberculosis, polio, diphtheria, pertussis, measles, rubella, hepatitis B, pneumonia, rotavirus gastroenteritis, and Japanese encephalitis.
- Key vaccines added over the years include Hepatitis B (2007), Pneumococcal Conjugate Vaccine (2017), Inactivated Polio Vaccine (IPV), and Measles-Rubella Vaccine.
- The entire cost of vaccines is covered by the Government of India, funded through taxes, with an annual budget of ₹7,234 crore (US$870 million) as of 2022.
- The programme covers all residents of India, including foreign residents, ensuring nationwide access to life-saving vaccines.
- 4 new vaccines have been introduced, including the Adult Japanese Encephalitis vaccine and Pneumococcal Conjugate Vaccine, to address emerging health challenges.
Note:
Mission Indradhanush is a health initiative launched by the Government of India on 25 December 2014 by Union Health Minister J. P. Nadda. The mission aims to achieve 90% full immunization coverage in India by 2022, targeting vaccination against eight major vaccine-preventable diseases:
- Diphtheria, Whooping Cough, Tetanus, Polio, Measles, Childhood Tuberculosis, Hepatitis B, and Meningitis & Pneumonia caused by Haemophilus influenza type B.
Additionally, it covers Rotavirus Diarrhea and Japanese Encephalitis in specific states and districts.
The mission targets 201 districts in its first phase, focusing on areas with the highest number of unvaccinated children, particularly in states like Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Rajasthan, and Madhya Pradesh. The approach follows similar planning and administration as the Pulse Polio Immunisation (PPI) program. |
PYQ:
[2016] ‘Mission Indradhanush’ launched by the Government of India pertains to:
(a) Immunization of children and pregnant women.
(b) Construction of smart cities across the country.
(c) India’s own search for the Earth-like planets in outer space.
(d) New Educational Policy. |
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Bio-Bitumen
Why in the News?
India’s first bio-bitumen-based National Highway stretch was inaugurated on NH-44 in Mansar, Nagpur, Maharashtra by Union Minister Nitin Gadkari.
About Bio-Bitumen
- Bio-bitumen is a bio-based binder derived from renewable, sustainable sources such as: Vegetable oils, Crop stubble, Algae, Lignin (a component of wood), Animal manure.
- It serves as an alternative to traditional bitumen, which is primarily derived from the distillation of crude oil.
- The production of bio-bitumen reduces dependence on petroleum and is a step toward sustainable road construction and infrastructure development.
Significance and Features of Bio-Bitumen:
- Bio-bitumen reduces the carbon footprint associated with the traditional bitumen production process.
- By using renewable sources such as lignin (a byproduct of wood), it helps mitigate environmental concerns like stubble burning and contributes to lower greenhouse gas emissions, potentially by as much as 70% compared to fossil-based bitumen.
- India, which heavily imports traditional bitumen, can reduce its import dependency by switching to bio-bitumen made from locally available materials.
- The use of bio-bitumen stimulates bio-refineries, creating opportunities for revenue generation and providing economic benefits to farmers and the bio-refining industry.
India’s Bitumen Scenario:
- India imports around 50% of its total annual bitumen requirements, which amounted to 3.21 million tonnes in FY 2023-24.
- The country produced 5.24 million tonnes of bitumen in the same period.
- India’s bitumen consumption has been steadily increasing, averaging 7.7 million tonnes annually over the past five years.
- In 2023-24, India constructed around 12,300 km of national highways, averaging nearly 34 km per day.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: GenCast
Why in the News?
Google DeepMind has unveiled its revolutionary GenCast AI model, designed to predict the weather more accurately and farther in advance than current forecasting tools.
About GenCast:
| What is it? |
- GenCast is an AI-based weather forecasting model developed by Google DeepMind.
- It uses machine learning techniques for more accurate and long-term predictions compared to traditional models.
- Unlike traditional numerical weather prediction (NWP) models, GenCast uses an ensemble of AI-generated forecasts, trained on 40 years of reanalysis data.
- Outperforms traditional tools in predicting extreme weather, tropical cyclones, and wind power production.
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| How GenCast Works |
- Trained on 40 years of reanalysis data (1979–2019), blending historical data and modern forecasts.
- It is powered by a neural network with 41,162 nodes and 240,000 edges, where nodes process data and edges connect them.
- A diffusion model that refines noisy data in 30 steps to improve forecast accuracy.
- It generates about 50 forecasts at once, providing probabilistic predictions (e.g., likelihood of rain, not exact amounts).
- Generates forecasts in 8 minutes using a single TPU v5 unit, much faster than traditional NWP models, which take hours.
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| Significance of GenCast |
- Outperforms ECMWF ensemble forecasts on 97.2% of targets, especially for extreme weather predictions.
- Provides longer-term forecasts for up to 15 days, with spatial resolution of 0.25° x 0.25° and 12-hour intervals.
- Offers probabilistic forecasts to help better prepare for extreme weather.
- Faster processing than traditional models, reducing forecast time from hours to minutes.
- Sustainability and scalability allow the model to be expanded to other areas of weather prediction.
- Google collaborates with weather agencies to enhance AI forecasting methods while recognizing the importance of traditional models.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Interception Rules and Safeguards
Why in the News?
The Centre has introduced the Telecommunications (Lawful Interception of Messages) Rules, 2024, replacing Rule 419A of the Indian Telegraph Rules, 1951, allowing certain agencies to intercept phone messages under specific conditions.
About the Indian Telegraph Rules, 1951
- The Indian Telegraph Rules, 1951 are a set of regulations that govern the establishment, maintenance, and operation of telecommunication services in India.
- These rules were framed under the provisions of the Indian Telegraph Act, 1885, which is a key legislation that grants the government authority to regulate telecommunication networks in India.
- The rules cover various aspects of telecommunication, such as:
- The process for obtaining telecommunication licenses.
- The rights and obligations of telecommunication service providers.
- The use of telecommunication networks for government purposes.
- Provisions for the lawful interception and monitoring of communication for security, investigation, and public interest reasons (Rule 419A).
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What do the new Telecommunications (Procedures and Safeguards for Lawful Interception of Messages) Rules, 2024 state?
- Authorization for interception:
- The Union Home Secretary and the Secretary to the State government in charge of the Home Department can authorize interception orders.
- An officer not below the rank of Joint Secretary may issue interception orders in unavoidable circumstances (the circumstances are not specified).
- Remote areas/operational reasons:
- In remote areas, or for operational reasons, the head or second senior-most officer of the authorized agency (at central and state levels) can issue orders.
- These orders must be confirmed by the competent authority within seven days.
- If not confirmed, the interception ceases and the data cannot be used for any purpose, including court evidence.
- Destruction of records:
- Interception records must be destroyed every six months by the authorized agency and review committee, unless required for functional purposes or court directions.
Will it override Rule 419A of the Indian Telegraph Rules, 1951?
- Yes, Rule 419A is replaced with these new rules, introducing changes in the conditions and procedures for interception.
- Previously, interception was allowed only in emergent cases.
- The new rules broaden this to include situations where it is not feasible to obtain prior orders in remote areas or due to operational reasons.
- Under Rule 419A, there was no limit to the number of IGP-rank officers at the State level who could be authorized for interception.
- The new rules allow only the head and second senior-most officer of the authorized agency at the state level to issue orders.
- If the order is not confirmed within seven days, any intercepted messages cannot be used for any purposes, including court evidence.
PYQ:
[2021] ‘Right to Privacy’ is protected under which Article of the Constitution of India?
(a) Article 19
(b) Article 20
(c) Article 21
(d) Article 29 |
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Starlink Project
Why in the News?
Elon Musk, founder of SpaceX, denied claims that militants in Manipur (India) were using his Starlink satellite internet technology after the Indian Army and police seized Starlink devices alongside weapons.
Starlink’s involvement in Terrorism:
- The Indian Army shared photos showing weapons and what seemed to be Starlink devices seized in Manipur. The equipment was marked with “RPF/PLA,” referring to a militant group.
- This discovery raised concerns over the potential bypass of geographic restrictions by non-state actors.
- Musk denied the allegations, explaining that Starlink services were not operational in India, despite the devices being found in the region.
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What is Starlink?
- Starlink is a satellite internet service developed by SpaceX, designed to provide broadband internet via a network of low Earth orbit satellites.
- Satellites are launched ensuring low latency and high-speed connections compared to traditional satellite internet.
- Starlink uses a large constellation of satellites, each equipped with phased array antennas and parabolic antennas to boost capacity.
- SpaceX has plans to launch 42,000 satellites, which will create a mega-constellation to provide global coverage.
Does Starlink have regulatory approval in India?
- Starlink does not yet have regulatory approval in India.
- India’s regulatory framework restricts the use of foreign satellite communication services, especially for non-commercial purposes.
- Starlink is however operational in more than 60 countries, including neighboring countries like Bangladesh and Bhutan (where it plans to start operations in 2025).
PYQ:
[2016] Discuss India’s achievements in the field of Space Science and Technology. How the application of this technology helped India in its socio-economic development? |
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