What is a Polygraph Test?

Prelims Only | Polity | Mains Paper 2: Indian Constitution – historical underpinnings, evolution, features, amendments, significant provisions and basic structure

Note4Students

From UPSC perspective, the following things are important:

Prelims level: Polygraph Test, Judments mentioned

Why in the News?

The Central Bureau of Investigation (CBI) concluded polygraph tests on the accused in the Kolkata Rape and Murder Case.

About Polygraph Tests in India

	Details
Definition	A procedure measures *physiological responses like blood pressure, pulse, respiration, and skin conductivity* while a subject answers questions to detect deception.
Physiological Indicators	• Heart Rate and Blood Pressure: Monitored for changes. • Respiratory Rate: Tracks breathing patterns. • Galvanic Skin Response (GSR): Measures skin’s electrical conductance, which varies with moisture levels.
Procedure	• Sensor Connection: Attached to the chest, fingertips, and arm. • Baseline Questions: Establish physiological response baselines. • Control and Relevant Questions: Analyzed to identify deceptive responses by comparing physiological changes.
Constitutional Provisions	• Article 20(3): Protects against self-incrimination; necessitates consent for polygraph tests. • Article 21: Concerns about potential violations of the right to life and privacy due to mental torture aspects of polygraph tests.
Legal and Judicial Rulings	• Selvi vs. State of Karnataka (2010): Tests must be voluntary with informed consent. • D.K. Basu vs. State of West Bengal (1997): Involuntary tests could violate the Right to Life and Privacy.
Admissibility in Court	According to the Indian Evidence Act, 1871, results from polygraph tests are not admissible as evidence in court.
Guidelines	National Human Rights Commission Guidelines (1999): Establish consent and procedural requirements for administering polygraph tests to align with human rights standards.

PYQ:

[2018] Right to Privacy is protected as an intrinsic part of Right to Life and Personal Liberty. Which of the following in the Constitution of India correctly and appropriately imply the above statement?

(a) Article 14 and the provisions under the 42nd Amendment to the Constitution.

(b) Article 17 and the Directive Principles of State Policy in Part IV.

(d) Article 24 and the provisions under the 44th Amendment to the Constitution.

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Microfinance Story of India

MUDRA 2.0 Loans

Prelims Only | Economics | Mains Paper 3: Indian Economy

Note4Students

From UPSC perspective, the following things are important:

Prelims level: MUDRA 2.0

Why in the News?

The Union Budget 2024 has sought to increase the loan limit under the MUDRA scheme signifying the potential launch of MUDRA 2.0.

What is MUDRA 1.0?

	Details
Launch	Pradhan Mantri Mudra Yojana (PMMY) Launched in 2015.
Purpose	To extend affordable credit to micro and small enterprises, bringing them into the formal financial system and funding the unfunded.
Loan Providers	Public Sector Banks (PSU Banks), Regional Rural Banks, Cooperative Banks, Private Sector Banks, Foreign Banks, Micro Finance Institutions (MFI), and Non-Banking Finance Companies (NBFC).
Eligibility	Indian citizens with a business plan for non-farm sector income-generating activities in manufacturing, processing, trading, or services, requiring less than ₹10 lakh.
Types of Loans	• Shishu: Loans up to ₹50,000. • Kishor: Loans above ₹50,000 and up to ₹5 lakh. • Tarun: Loans above ₹5 lakh and up to ₹10 lakh.
Subsidy	No direct subsidy; Loans linked to Government schemes providing capital subsidies are eligible under PMMY.

Achievements of MUDRA 1.0

Financial Inclusion: Disbursed over Rs 27.75 lakh crore to 47 crore small entrepreneurs, improving access to formal credit.
Support for Marginalized Groups: 69% of loans went to women, and 51% to SC/ST and OBC entrepreneurs, enhancing social equity and gender equality.
Job Creation: Helped create jobs and encouraged self-employment, especially in rural and semi-urban areas.
Reduction in NPAs: Reduced non-performing assets (NPAs) from 3.61% in FY21 to 2.1% in FY24, showing better loan management.

Challenges Faced by MUDRA 1.0

Unequal Loan Distribution: In 2021-22, the top 10 districts received Rs 26,000 crore, about the same as the bottom 318 districts, showing uneven credit distribution.
High NPAs in Early Categories: The Shishu (loans up to Rs 50,000) and Kishore (loans between Rs 50,001 and Rs 5 lakh) categories had NPAs above 4% from FY20 to FY22 due to a lack of business skills among early-stage entrepreneurs.
Low Financial Literacy: Only 27% of the population is financially literate, leading to poor loan management and higher defaults.
Monitoring and Credit Appraisal Issues: Increased lending led to challenges in maintaining quality credit appraisal processes and monitoring, resulting in some misuse of funds.

What is MUDRA 2.0?

MUDRA 2.0 is the proposed next phase of the scheme, aiming to expand and enhance support for micro-entrepreneurs, especially in underserved regions.
Features of MUDRA 2.0:
- Expanded Outreach: Establish new centers in rural and semi-urban areas to provide financial literacy, mentorship, and business support.
- Enhanced Financial Literacy: Launch nationwide programs covering budgeting, savings, credit management, and digital literacy to help entrepreneurs manage their finances better.
- Improved Credit Support: Introduce the Enhanced Credit Guarantee Scheme (ECGS) to reduce risks for banks and encourage more lending to small enterprises.
- Stronger Monitoring: Implement a robust monitoring framework using data analytics to track loan disbursements, usage, and repayments in real-time, ensuring transparency and reducing misuse.

PYQ:

[2016] Pradhan Mantri MUDRA Yojana is aimed at:

(a) Bringing the small entrepreneurs into formal financial system.

(b) Providing loans to poor farmers for cultivating particular crops.

(d) Funding the voluntary organizations involved in the promotion of skill development and employment generation.

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International Space Agencies – Missions and Discoveries

What was the Great Moon Hoax of 1835?

Prelims Only | Science Tech | Mains Paper 3: Awareness in various sc and tech fields

Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important:
Prelims level: Great Moon Hoax
Why in the News?

The Great Moon Hoax of 1835 is a series of fabricated news reports published by The New York Sun, an American newspaper, claiming that life had been discovered on the moon.

What is the Great Moon Hoax of 1835?
- The Great Moon Hoax was a series of newspaper articles falsely claiming that John Herschel, an astronomer, had discovered life on the moon.
- The hoax was created and published by The New York Sun, a daily newspaper in New York City, starting on August 25, 1835.
- It described various fantastical creatures, such as bat-winged humanoids (called Vespertilio-homo), unicorns, and upright beavers, along with detailed landscapes and other features of the moon.
- These reports were entirely fictional and intended as satire.
- However, they were widely believed by the public and reprinted in other newspapers.
Why the Hoax was conceived?
- To Mock Religious Influence on Science: It aimed to satirize the blend of religious beliefs with scientific claims, especially in astronomy.
- Boost Readership: The hoax was a tactic to increase The New York Sun’s circulation from 8,000 copies a day.
- Challenge Public Credulity: It highlighted how easily the public could be deceived by sensational stories without verifying their accuracy.
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Innovations in Biotechnology and Medical Sciences

Simple Medical Tools of an OPD Visit

Prelims Only | Science Tech | Mains Paper 3: Awareness in various sc and tech fields

Note4Students

From UPSC perspective, the following things are important:

Prelims level: Medical devices mentioned and their working

Why in the News?

These medical tools—thermometers, stethoscopes, weighing scales, and sphygmomanometers—are essential for diagnosing and monitoring basic health parameters.
- Each tool has its own function and specific way of operation, which helps healthcare professionals make informed decisions about patient care.

Here is the list of tools used in a Doctor’s Diagnosis:

	Function	Description and Working Principle
Thermometer	Measures body temperature.	Mercury Thermometer: Features a mercury-filled bulb and a *glass capillary with numerical markings.* Temperature changes cause the mercury *to expand or contract,* moving through the capillary to *indicate temperature.* Digital Thermometer: Utilizes sensors like *infrared or thermistors* to detect temperature changes, which are then converted into digital readings.
Stethoscope	Listens to internal body sounds.	Acoustic Stethoscope: Comprises a diaphragm for *high-frequency sounds and a bell for low-frequency* sounds, connected by a tube to earpieces. Electronic Stethoscope (Stethophone): Amplifies body sounds electronically and may include recording capabilities and additional diagnostics such as electrocardiograms. These devices *transmit sound data to smartphones or other devices.*
Weighing Scale	Measures body weight.	Spring Scale: Uses a spring under a plate; weight is measured by the degree of *spring compression or extension.* Requires calibration to account for local gravity variations. Electronic Scale: Converts the *mechanical force of weight into electrical signals using load cells or strain gauges,* displayed as weight readings on a digital screen.
Sphygmomanometer	Measures blood pressure.	Manual Sphygmomanometer: Includes an inflatable cuff, linked to a mercury or aneroid manometer. Uses a stethoscope to *detect blood flow sounds (Korotkov sounds)* for determining systolic and diastolic pressures. Electronic Sphygmomanometer: Uses oscillometric technology to sense pressure oscillations caused by *arterial blood flow, automating blood pressure* measurement. Easier for home use but may have accuracy issues in patients with certain cardiovascular conditions.

PYQ:

[2019] In the context of wearable technology, which of the following tasks is/are accomplished by wearable devices?

Location identification of a person
Sleep monitoring of a person
Assisting the hearing-impaired person

Select the correct answer using the codes given below:

(a) 1 only

(b) 2 and 3 only

(d) 1, 2 and 3

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Languages and Eighth Schedule

Classical Language Centres ask for autonomy

Prelims Only | History | Mains Paper 1: Arts & Culture

Note4Students

From UPSC perspective, the following things are important:

Prelims level: Classical Language

Why in the News?

Classical Language Centres in India are seeking more autonomy to improve their effectiveness and address operational challenges.

Classical Language Centres in India

India has designated 6 languages as classical: Tamil, Sanskrit, Telugu, Kannada, Malayalam, and Odia.
Special centres have been established to promote these languages.
Only the Centre for Tamil functions autonomously.
The centres for Telugu, Kannada, Malayalam, and Odia operate under the Central Institute of Indian Languages (CIIL) in Mysuru.

About Classical Languages in India

Aspect	Details
Recognized Classical Languages	Tamil (2004), Sanskrit (2005), Kannada (2008), Telugu (2008), Malayalam (2013), Odia (2014).
Additional Languages for Preservation	Pali, Persian, Prakrit, and Farsi (Persian) as per the National Education Policy-2020.
Criteria for Classical Language Status	– High Antiquity: Recorded history of 1500-2000 years. – Valuable Heritage: Possesses ancient literature and texts. – Originality: Unique literary tradition, not borrowed from other languages. – Distinctness: Language and literature distinct from modern forms.
Promotion of Classical Languages	– International Awards: Two major awards for scholars in classical Indian languages. – Centre of Excellence: For studies in classical languages. – Professional Chairs: UGC requested to create chairs in Central Universities.
The Eighth Schedule	Lists 22 official languages, governed by Articles 344(1) and 351 of the Constitution. Includes Assamese, Bengali, Bodo, Dogri, Gujarati, Hindi, Kannada, Kashmiri, Konkani, Maithili, Malayalam, Manipuri, Marathi, Nepali, Odia, Punjabi, Sanskrit, Santali, Sindhi, Tamil, Telugu, and Urdu.
Chronological Additions to the Eighth Schedule	– 1950: Initially included 14 languages. – 1967: Sindhi added (21st Constitutional Amendment). – 1992: Konkani, Manipuri (Meitei), Nepali added (71st Constitutional Amendment). – 2003: Bodo, Dogri, Maithili, Santali added (92nd Constitutional Amendment). – 2011: “Oriya” replaced with “Odia” (96th Constitutional Amendment).

PYQ:

[2015] Which one of the following was given classical language status recently?

(a) Odia

(b) Konkani

(d) Assamese

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Women Safety Issues – Marital Rape, Domestic Violence, Swadhar, Nirbhaya Fund, etc.

Justice J.S. Verma Committee and Its Recommendations

Prelims Only | Governance | Mains Paper 2: Governance, Transparency & Accountability, Citizens Charters

Note4Students

From UPSC perspective, the following things are important:

Prelims level: Verma Committee Recommendations

Why in the News?

The recent brutal rape and murder case in Kolkata has sparked widespread calls for the death penalty for the accused.
- The Justice J.S. Verma Committee, formed in response to the 2012 Delhi gang rape, recommended against the death penalty for rape, even in the rarest of rare cases, arguing that it would be a regressive step.

About Justice J.S. Verma Committee Recommendations

Recommendations on	Explanation
Rape	• It recognized rape as a *Crime of Power, not just passion. • Expand definition* to include all forms of non-consensual penetration. • Remove marital rape exception; marriage should not imply automatic consent. (European Commission of Human Rights in C.R. vs U.K)
Sexual Assault	• Broaden definition to include all non-consensual, non-penetrative sexual acts. • Penalty: Up to 5 years of imprisonment or fines.
Verbal Sexual Assault	• Criminalize unwelcome sexual threats. • Punishable by up to 1 year in prison or fines.
Sexual Harassment at Workplace	• Include domestic workers under protections. • Replace internal complaint committees with Employment Tribunals. • Employers to compensate victims of sexual harassment.
Acid Attacks	• Propose a 10-year minimum punishment, separate from grievous hurt. • Establish a compensation fund for victims.
Women in Conflict Areas	• Review AFSPA; exclude government sanction for prosecuting sexual offenses by armed forces. • Appoint special commissioners to monitor offenses.
Trafficking	• Comprehensive anti-trafficking laws beyond prostitution. • Protective homes for women and juveniles overseen by High Courts.
Child Sexual Abuse	• Define ‘harm’ and ‘health’ in the Juvenile Justice Act to include both physical and mental aspects.
Death Penalty	• Opposed chemical castration and death penalty for rape. • Recommend life imprisonment.
Medical Examination of Rape Victims	• Ban the two-finger test; victim’s past sexual history should not influence the case.
Reforms in Case Management	• Set up Rape Crisis Cells, increase police accountability, allow online FIR filing. • Encourage community policing and increase police personnel.

Union Cabinet’s Decision on the Death Penalty

The Union Cabinet, while clearing an ordinance on sexual assault in 2013, chose NOT to adopt the committee’s recommendation against the death penalty.
Key amendments included:
- Section 376A: Death penalty for rape leading to the death of the victim or reducing her to a persistent vegetative state.
- Section 376E: Death penalty for repeat offenders.
- 2018 Amendments: Death penalty for gang rape of a victim under 12 years (Section 376DB) and life imprisonment for rape of a victim under 16 years (Section 376DA).
The Bharatiya Nyaya Sanhita (BNS) includes similar provisions for rape, with specific sections detailing the punishment, including the death penalty for certain cases.

PYQ:

[2014] We are witnessing increasing instances of sexual violence against women in the country. Despite existing legal provisions against it, the number of such incidences is on the rise. Suggest some innovative measures to tackle this menace.

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Innovations in Sciences, IT, Computers, Robotics and Nanotechnology

What is Sonoluminescence?

Prelims Only | Science Tech | Mains Paper 3: Awareness in various sc and tech fields

Note4Students

From UPSC perspective, the following things are important:

Prelims level: Sonoluminescence

Why in the News?

Recent studies have provided deeper insights into the mechanics of Sonoluminescence, particularly the conditions under which light is emitted from collapsing bubbles in liquids.

What is Sonoluminescence?

Sonoluminescence is a phenomenon in which small gas bubbles in a liquid emit short bursts of light when exposed to intense sound waves.
The light is produced when the bubble undergoes rapid compression and expansion.
This is due to the alternating high- and low-pressure phases of the sound waves, causing the gas inside to heat up and emit light.
This phenomenon was discovered in 1934 by two German engineers while they were studying sonar technology, which uses sound waves to detect objects underwater.
They noticed that when a tiny bubble in a liquid was hit by strong sound waves, it emitted a brief flash of light.

Mystery behind Sonoluminescence

Although the general mechanism is understood, the exact details of how the light is produced remain a mystery.
Scientists are still exploring the precise processes that cause the gases inside the bubble to ionize and emit light at such high temperatures.

Examples of Sonoluminescence

Controlled Experiments: In laboratory settings, scientists create sonoluminescence by trapping a bubble in a liquid and subjecting it to high-frequency sound waves.
Pistol Shrimp: When the shrimp (marine creature with a specialized claw) snaps its claw shut, it shoots out a jet of water that moves so fast it creates a low-pressure bubble. The bubble then collapses, producing a loud sound, intense heat, and sometimes a brief flash of light.

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Russian Invasion of Ukraine: Global Implications

PM Modi presents BHISHM Cube to Ukraine

Prelims Only | International Relations | Mains Paper 2: Bilateral, Regional and Global Groupings and agreements involving India

Note4Students

From UPSC perspective, the following things are important:

Prelims level: BHISHM Cube

Mains level: ‘Aarogya Maitri’ Diplomacy

Why in the News?

Prime Minister Modi has presented the BHISHM Cube, a state-of-the-art mobile hospital designed for rapid deployment in disaster zones to Ukraine.

What is the BHISHM Cube?

The BHISHM Cube is an advanced mobile hospital unit designed for rapid deployment in disaster zones and emergency situations.
It is developed under the “Project BHISHM” (Bharat Health Initiative for Sahyog, Hita, and Maitri), reflecting India’s commitment to providing swift medical assistance in crisis areas.
The unit is capable of treating up to 200 casualties.

Key Features:

- It weighs 720 kg and is composed of 72 components that can be easily transported by hand, bicycle, or drone.
- The unit can be fully operational within 12 minutes of deployment, a critical feature in emergencies where every second counts.
- It includes an operating theatre, X-ray machines, ventilators, and facilities for treating a wide range of injuries.
- It incorporates AI and data analytics for real-time monitoring and coordination of medical services.
- It also uses RFID-tagged equipment for efficient tracking and management of medical supplies.
- The unit is robust and waterproof, making it suitable for diverse environments and capable of withstanding various weather conditions.

Significance of the move

By providing the BHISHM Cube to countries in need, such as Ukraine, India demonstrates its commitment to global humanitarian efforts.
The project aligns with India’s broader initiatives like ‘Aarogya Maitri’, aimed at supporting developing countries affected by natural disasters or crises.
The deployment of the BHISHM Cube enhances disaster preparedness by ensuring that essential medical services are available when and where they are needed most.
The gifting serves as a tool of soft diplomacy, strengthening India’s international relations by contributing to global health and safety.

PYQ:

[2022] With reference to the Ayushman Bharat Digital Mission, consider the following statements:

Private and public hospitals must adopt it.
As it aims to achieve universal, health coverage, every citizen of India should be part of it ultimately.
It has seamless portability across the country.

Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

(a) 1 and 2 only

(b) 3 only

(d) 1, 2 and 3

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International Space Agencies – Missions and Discoveries

Polaris Dawn Mission: A Private Space Endeavor

Prelims Only | Science Tech | Mains Paper 3: Awareness in various sc and tech fields

Note4Students

From UPSC perspective, the following things are important:

Prelims level: Polaris Dawn Mission

Why in the News?

Polaris Dawn is set to be the first privately-funded mission to conduct a spacewalk, aiming to reach an altitude of about 700 kilometers above Earth, the highest altitude for a human space mission to date.

What is Polaris Dawn Mission?

Polaris Dawn is a privately-funded space mission led by billionaire entrepreneur Jared Isaacman, in collaboration with SpaceX.
It is set to be the first non-government mission to conduct a spacewalk.
This 700km altitude will surpass the current record held by NASA’s Gemini 11 mission in 1966.
The mission will test new spacesuits designed by SpaceX to protect astronauts from high radiation levels encountered in the Van Allen Belts.

What are the Van Allen Belts?

The Van Allen Belts are two zones of charged particles that surround Earth, held in the magnetosphere.
These belts were discovered in 1958 by American physicist James Van Allen.

Inner Belt: This belt is located approximately 680 to 3,000 km above Earth’s surface and is primarily composed of high-energy protons. It is formed by cosmic rays interacting with Earth’s atmosphere.
Outer Belt: Located about 15,000 to 20,000 km above Earth’s surface, the outer belt mainly consists of high-energy electrons captured from solar wind.

Why are the Van Allen Belts dangerous for Humans?

The Van Allen Belts are dangerous for humans because they contain high levels of radiation that can pose significant health risks to astronauts.
The belts are filled with charged particles that can cause radiation sickness, damage human tissues, and increase the risk of cancer.

PYQ:

[2011] What is the difference between asteroids and comets?

Asteroids are small rocky planetoids, while comets are formed of frozen gases held together by rocky and metallic material.
Asteroids are found mostly between the orbits of Jupiter and Mars, while comets are found mostly between Venus and Mercury.
Comets show a perceptible glowing tail, while asteroids do not.

Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

(a) 1 and 2 only
(b) 1 and 3 only
(c) 3 only
(d) 1, 2 and 3

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Human Rights Issues

[pib] National Human Rights Commission (NHRC)

Prelims Only | Polity | Mains Paper 2: Statutory, Regulatory & Various Quasi-Judicial Bodies

Note4Students

From UPSC perspective, the following things are important:

Prelims level: National Human Rights Commission

Why in the News?

The NHRC India has taken suo motu cognizance of the two alleged incidents of food poisoning related deaths in an orphanage in Andhra Pradesh.

About National Human Rights Commission (NHRC)

	Details
Establishment	As a Statutory Body and established under the Protection of Human Rights Act, 1993.
Functions	Inquire into any violation of human rights Recommend immediate interim relief to victims or their families Intervene in court proceedings involving human rights violations Review constitutional and legal safeguards for human rights Study international instruments on human rights Support the efforts of NGOs working in the field of human rights
Powers	*Regulate* its own procedure Possess all the powers of a civil court Proceedings have a *judicial character* *May take any of the following steps upon the completion of an inquiry*: To recommend to the concerned government or authority to make payment of compensation or damages to the victim. To recommend to the concerned government/authority the initiation of proceedings for prosecution or any other action against the guilty public servant. To recommend to the concerned government/authority for the grant of immediate interim relief to the victim. To approach the SC or the HC concerned for the necessary directions, orders, or writs.
Chairperson	Must be a former Justice of the Supreme Court or CJI(appointed by the President of India)
Members	Four full-time members; Chairperson: former Supreme Court Justice or Chief Justice; Other Member: former Judge of the Supreme Court; Other Member: former Chief Justice of a High Court; Three Members: with knowledge or experience in human rights, including at least one woman – Seven ex-officio members: Chairpersons of National Commissions viz., National Commission for Scheduled Castes, National Commission for Scheduled Tribes, National Commission for Women , National Commission for Minorities, National Commission for Backward Classes, National Commission for Protection of Child Rights; and the Chief Commissioner for Persons with Disabilities.
Appointment	Appointed by the President based on a *committee recommendation* including the *Prime Minister, Speaker of Lok Sabha, Home Minister, Leaders of the Opposition in Lok Sabha* and *Rajya Sabha,* and others Consultation with the Chief Justice of India for judicial appointments
Removal	By order of the *President of India* Consultation with the *Supreme Court* before removal
Terms of Office	Hold office for a *term of three years or until the age of 70* Ineligibility for further government employment after office Eligible for reappointment
Salaries	Determined by the *Central government*
Reporting	Submits annual or special *reports to the Central government and the concerned State government* Reports laid before the respective legislatures, along with a memorandum of action taken on the recommendations and reasons for non-acceptance of any recommendations
Limitations	The commission is not empowered to inquire into any matter after the expiry of one year from the date on which the act constituting the violation of human rights is alleged to have been committed Functions are recommendatory in nature, with no power to punish or award relief to violators Limited role concerning armed forces violations

PYQ:

[2011] Consider the following:

Right to education.
Right to equal access to public service.
Right to food.

Which of the above is/are Human Right/Rights under “Universal Declaration of Human Rights”?

(a) 1 only

(b) 1 and 2 only

(d) 1, 2 and 3

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Type: Prelims Only

Why in the News?

About Polygraph Tests in India

PYQ:

Why in the News?

What is MUDRA 1.0?

Achievements of MUDRA 1.0

Challenges Faced by MUDRA 1.0

What is MUDRA 2.0?

PYQ:

Why in the News?

What is the Great Moon Hoax of 1835?

Why the Hoax was conceived?

Why in the News?

Here is the list of tools used in a Doctor’s Diagnosis:

PYQ:

Why in the News?

Classical Language Centres in India

About Classical Languages in India

PYQ:

Why in the News?

About Justice J.S. Verma Committee Recommendations

Recommendations on

Explanation

Union Cabinet’s Decision on the Death Penalty

PYQ:

Why in the News?

What is Sonoluminescence?

Mystery behind Sonoluminescence

Examples of Sonoluminescence

Why in the News?

What is the BHISHM Cube?

Significance of the move

PYQ:

Why in the News?

What is Polaris Dawn Mission?

What are the Van Allen Belts?

Why are the Van Allen Belts dangerous for Humans?

PYQ:

Why in the News?

About National Human Rights Commission (NHRC)

PYQ: