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Type: Prelims Only

  • Celebrating 25 Years of the Himalayan Chandra Telescope (HCT)

    Why in News?

    The Himalayan Chandra Telescope (HCT) at Hanle, Ladakh, completed 25 years of operation. The occasion was marked by a conference highlighting its scientific achievements and future expansion plans.

    Key Highlights

    • Location: Indian Astronomical Observatory (IAO), Hanle, Ladakh (4,517 m).
    • Managed by: Indian Institute of Astrophysics (IIA) under the Department of Science and Technology (DST).
    • First Light: 26 September 2000; dedicated to the nation in 2001.
    • Named after Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar.
    • Operated remotely from Bengaluru via INSAT-3B since 2001.

    Why is Hanle Important?

    • Over 250 clear nights annually.
    • Very low atmospheric water vapour and minimal light pollution.
    • Ideal for optical and near-infrared astronomy.
    • Protected under the Hanle Dark Sky Reserve.

    Major Scientific Contributions

    • Studies of gamma-ray bursts, comets, exoplanets, supernovae, variable stars, galaxies, and active galactic nuclei (AGN).
    • Contributed to the discovery of TRAPPIST-1b.

    Key Instruments

    • HFOSC – Optical camera and spectrograph.
    • uTIRSPEC – Near-infrared spectrometer.
    • HESP – High-resolution Echelle spectrograph.

    Future Plans

    The Union Budget announced:

    • 3.7-m Upgraded Himalayan Chandra Telescope (UHCT).
    • 13.7-m National Large Optical-Infrared Telescope (NLOT) at Hanle.

    Prelims Facts

    • HCT: 2-m optical telescope at Hanle, Ladakh.
    • Nodal Agency: Indian Institute of Astrophysics (IIA).
    • Administrative Ministry: Department of Science and Technology (DST).
    • Hanle Dark Sky Reserve: India’s first Dark Sky Reserve.

    [2016] With reference to ‘Astrosat’,’ the astronomical observatory launched by India, which of the following statements is/are correct?
    1. Other than USA and Russia, India is the only country to have launched a similar observatory into space.
    2. Astrosat is a 2000 kg satellite placed in an orbit at 1650 km above the surface of the Earth.
    Select the correct answer using the code given below.

    [A] 1 only

    [B] 2 only

    [C] Both 1 and 2

    [D] Neither 1 nor 2

  • Pollens Help Trace Why the Harappan Civilization Shrank

    Why in News?

    A study by the Birbal Sahni Institute of Palaeosciences (BSIP) has used pollen preserved in lake sediments from Deoria Tal (Garhwal Himalaya) to reconstruct past climate. The findings suggest that a prolonged weakening of the Indian Summer Monsoon (ISM) and the 4.2 ka climatic event contributed to the decline and eastward migration of the Harappan Civilization.

    Key Findings

    • Analysis of pollen and spores reconstructed vegetation and monsoon history over the last ~5,100 years.
    • Around 4200 years BP [Before Present](4.2 ka event), the region experienced an abrupt cool and dry climate with a weakened ISM.
    • Reduced monsoon weakened the perennial river systems of the Indus and Ghaggar-Hakra, making agriculture difficult.
    • This likely triggered the migration of Harappan populations towards the Ganga plains, contributing to the shrinking of the civilization.
    • The study establishes a strong link between abrupt climate change and changes in ancient human settlements.

    How Did Scientists Reconstruct the Past?

    • Sediment core collected from Deoria Tal in Uttarakhand.
    • Pollen analysis (Palynology) reconstructed past vegetation and climate.
    • Chronology established using 10 AMS Radiocarbon (¹⁴C) dates on Trapa (water chestnut) seed cases.
    • Changes in the Oak/Pine pollen ratio served as an indicator of changing temperature and monsoon strength.

    What is the 4.2 ka Event?

    • A major global climatic event that occurred around 4200 years ago.
    • Characterized by:
      • Weak Indian Summer Monsoon.
      • Cooler and drier climate.
      • Widespread droughts across several ancient civilizations.
    • Linked to the decline of civilizations such as Harappan Civilization, Akkadian Empire, and Old Kingdom of Egypt

    Why Did the Monsoon Weaken?

    Researchers attribute the weakened ISM to multiple interacting climatic factors:

    • Southward shift of the Inter Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ).
    • Strong El Niño conditions.
    • Strong negative phase of the Indian Ocean Dipole (IOD).
    • Reduced Northern Hemisphere summer insolation.

    Other Climate Phases Identified

    • Roman Warm Period (2500 to 1450 cal yr BP): Strong ISM and higher agricultural productivity.
    • Medieval Climate Anomaly (1050 to 650 cal yr BP): Strong monsoon due to northward ITCZ.
    • Little Ice Age (650 to 100 cal yr BP / CE 1350 to 1850): Weak ISM associated with stronger westerlies, ENSO and southward ITCZ.

    [2026] Consider the following statements about the archaeological findings in Harappan towns:
    I. There is wide occurrence of spindle-whorls in the houses but absence of spinning wheels.
    II. Weights and measurement scales, complete with graduations have been discovered.
    III. There are houses built in large part with baked bricks, around relatively spacious courtyards, with their own wells, bathing platforms, and large rooms.
    Which of the following inferences can be drawn from the above statements?
    1. Statement I suggests that spinning was a laborious activity done at home.
    2. Statement II suggests the extent of the scientific knowledge that the Harappans possessed.
    3. Statement III suggests the emergence of a common property system.
    Select the answer using the code given below :

    [A] 1 and 2 only

    [B] 2 and 3 only

    [C] 1 and 3 only

    [D] 1, 2 and 3

  • Cauvery Water Regulation Committee directs Karnataka to release 3,500 cusecs a day to Tamil Nadu

    Why in the news?

    The Cauvery Water Regulation Committee (CWRC) has directed Karnataka to release 3,500 cusecs of water per day for 15 days to Tamil Nadu amid drought conditions. Meanwhile, the Tamil Nadu Chief Minister has urged the Prime Minister to review the Centre’s stand on the proposed Mekedatu Dam project, further intensifying the inter-state water dispute.

    Key Highlights

    • CWRC directive: Karnataka has been directed to release 3,500 cusecs per day for 15 days to Tamil Nadu.
    • Reason: The order was issued due to drought conditions and the need to ensure downstream water availability.
    • Parallel dispute: Tamil Nadu has sought a review of the Centre’s position on the Mekedatu Dam project proposed by Karnataka.
    • Possible appeal: Karnataka may challenge the CWRC’s direction before the Cauvery Water Management Authority (CWMA).

    About the Cauvery River

    • Originates at Talakaveri in the Brahmagiri Hills, Karnataka.
    • Flows through Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and Puducherry, with a small catchment in Kerala.
    • Empties into the Bay of Bengal.
    • Total length is about 805 km.
    • Left-bank: Harangi, Hemavathi, Shimsha, Arkavathi.
    • Right-bank: Kabini, Bhavani, Noyyal and Amaravathi.

    Cauvery Water Management Mechanism

    Cauvery Water Management Authority (CWMA)

    • Constituted in 2018 under the Ministry of Jal Shakti.
    • Implements the Supreme Court’s 2018 judgment on Cauvery water sharing.
    • Supervises reservoir operations and ensures implementation of water-sharing arrangements.

    Cauvery Water Regulation Committee (CWRC)

    • Functions under the CWMA.
    • Monitors reservoir levels, rainfall and inflows.
    • Recommends monthly water releases among basin States.

    What is the Mekedatu Project?

    • Proposed by Karnataka on the Cauvery River near Mekedatu.
    • Intended to provide drinking water to Bengaluru and generate hydroelectric power.
    • Tamil Nadu opposes the project, arguing that it could affect downstream water availability and violate the Supreme Court’s allocation.

    Constitutional and Legal Provisions

    • Article 262: Empowers Parliament to legislate on inter-State river water disputes.
    • Inter-State River Water Disputes Act, 1956: Provides for adjudication of river water disputes through tribunals.
    • Supreme Court Judgment (2018): Modified the Cauvery Water Disputes Tribunal award and directed the establishment of the CWMA.

    “[2013, GS2, 10 marks] Constitutional mechanisms to resolve the inter-state water disputes have failed to address and solve the problems. Is the failure due to structural or process inadequacy or both? Discuss.”

    [2020] Which of the following Protected Areas are located in Cauvery basin?

    1.Nagarhole National Park
    2.Papikonda National Park
    3.Sathyamangalam Tiger Reserve
    4.Wayanad Wildlife Sanctuary

    Select the correct answer using the code given below:
    a) 1 and 2 only
    b) 3 and 4 only
    c) 1, 3 and 4 only
    d) 1, 2, 3 and 4

  • Madhya Pradesh farmers march to Bhopal demanding 100% moong procurement at MSP

    Why in News?

    Around 2,000 Madhya Pradesh farmers under the Samyukt Kisan Morcha marched to Bhopal demanding 100% moong procurement at Minimum Support Price (MSP), against the current 25% cap under the central Price Support Scheme, along with fixes to fertiliser distribution.

    Key Highlights

    1. Scale: Around 2,000 farmers marched to Bhopal.
    2. Organiser: March organised under the Samyukt Kisan Morcha banner.
    3. Demand: 100% moong procurement at MSP, against the current 25% cap.
    4. Scheme cited: Current cap operates under the central Price Support Scheme.
    5. Additional demand: Fixes to fertiliser distribution.

    What is the Price Support Scheme (PSS)?

    1. A component of the PM-AASHA (Pradhan Mantri Annadata Aay Sanrakshan Abhiyan).
    2. Implemented by the Department of Agriculture & Farmers Welfare.
    3. Provides physical procurement of notified pulses, oilseeds and copra at the Minimum Support Price (MSP) when market prices fall below MSP.
    4. Procurement is undertaken by Central Nodal Agencies in coordination with State governments.

    What is Minimum Support Price (MSP)?

    1. MSP is the minimum price at which the government purchases crops from farmers to protect them from sharp price declines.
    2. Recommended by the Commission for Agricultural Costs and Prices (CACP) and announced by the Central Government.
    3. MSP is currently announced for 23 crops.

    “[2018, GS3, 10 marks] What do you mean by Minimum Support Price (MSP)? How will MSP rescue the farmers from the low-income trap?”

    [2020] Consider the following statements:

    1.In the case of all cereals, pulses and oil-seeds, the procurement at Minimum Support Price (MSP) is unlimited in any State/UT of India.
    2.In the case of cereals and pulses, the MSP is fixed in any State/UT at a level to which the market price will never rise.

    Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
    a) 1 only
    b) 2 only
    c) Both 1 and 2
    d) Neither 1 nor 2

  • ICMR-NICPR validates oral therapy SHetA2 to block HPV’s cancer causing proteins

    Why in News?

    The Indian Council of Medical Research-National Institute of Cancer Prevention and Research (ICMR-NICPR) has validated an oral small molecule therapy, SHetA2, that blocks Human Papillomavirus (HPV)’s cancer causing proteins, potentially treating pre-cancerous and cancerous cervical lesions. The molecule has been transferred to Emcure for larger human trials.

      Key Highlights

      1. Therapy: SHetA2, an oral small molecule drug.
      2. Mechanism: Blocks HPV oncoproteins (E6 and E7), which drive cervical cancer development.
      3. Target: Designed to treat pre-cancerous (CIN) and cancerous cervical lesions.
      4. Validating body: ICMR-National Institute of Cancer Prevention and Research (ICMR-NICPR).
      5. Next stage: Technology transferred to Emcure for advanced human clinical trials.
      6. Significance: Represents a potential non-surgical, oral treatment for HPV-related cervical disease.

      What is Human Papillomavirus (HPV)?

      1. HPV is a common DNA virus that infects the skin and mucous membranes.
      2. It is transmitted mainly through sexual contact.
      3. Persistent infection with high-risk HPV types, especially HPV-16 and HPV-18, is the leading cause of cervical cancer.
      4. HPV is also associated with cancers of the anus, vulva, vagina, penis and oropharynx.

      How Does SHetA2 Work?

      1. Inhibits the activity of HPV’s E6 and E7 oncoproteins.
      2. Restores the function of tumour suppressor proteins (p53 and Rb), allowing abnormal cells to undergo programmed cell death (apoptosis).
      3. May help prevent progression from pre-cancerous lesions to invasive cervical cancer.

      Significance

      1. Offers a non-invasive oral treatment option for HPV-related cervical lesions.
      2. May reduce the need for surgical procedures in early-stage disease.
      3. Supports India’s efforts to reduce the burden of cervical cancer, one of the most common cancers among women.
      4. Demonstrates the growing role of indigenous biomedical research and public-private collaboration.

      Government Initiatives

      1. National Programme for Prevention and Control of Non-Communicable Diseases (NP-NCD) includes cervical cancer screening.
      2. Introduction of Cervavac, India’s indigenous HPV vaccine, to expand cervical cancer prevention.
      3. Promotion of HPV vaccination, screening and early diagnosis under national health programmes.

      [2021] Consider the following statements:
      1. Adenoviruses have single-stranded DNA genomes whereas retroviruses have double-stranded DNA genomes.
      2. Common cold is sometime caused by an adenovirus whereas AIDS is caused by a retrovirus.
      Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

      [A] 1 only

      [B] 2 only

      [C] Both 1 and 2

      [D] Neither 1 nor 2

    1. All four dengue virus serotypes found co-circulating nationally, ICMR-VRDL study finds

      Why in News?

      A two year Indian Council of Medical Research-Virus Research and Diagnostic Laboratory (ICMR-VRDL) surveillance study finds all four dengue virus serotypes co-circulating nationally, raising hyperendemicity concerns and complicating future vaccine rollout.

        Key Highlights

        1. Study duration: Conducted over two years through nationwide surveillance.
        2. Conducting body: ICMR-Virus Research and Diagnostic Laboratory (VRDL) Network.
        3. Key concern: Simultaneous circulation of all serotypes indicates hyperendemicity, increasing the risk of severe dengue and complicating vaccine strategies.
          • Note: A serotype is a distinct subgroup or variation of a microorganism (such as a bacterium or virus) classified by the specific antigens found on its surface

        What is Dengue?

        1. Dengue is a viral disease caused by the dengue virus (DENV).
        2. It is transmitted by the female Aedes aegypti mosquito (also Aedes albopictus).
        3. The virus has four distinct serotypes: DENV-1, DENV-2, DENV-3 and DENV-4.
        4. Infection with one serotype provides lifelong immunity only against that serotype and temporary protection against the others.

        What is Hyperendemicity?

        1. Hyperendemicity refers to the simultaneous circulation of multiple serotypes of the same pathogen in a region.
        2. It increases the likelihood of secondary infections, which can lead to severe dengue due to Antibody-Dependent Enhancement (ADE).

        About the ICMR-VRDL Network

        • Established by the Indian Council of Medical Research (ICMR).
        • Functions as a nationwide network for diagnosis, surveillance and research on viral diseases.
        • Supports early detection and monitoring of emerging and re-emerging viral infections.

        [2017] Consider the following statements:
        1. In tropical regions, Zika virus disease is transmitted by the same mosquito that transmits dengue.
        2. Sexual transmission of Zika virus disease is possible.
        Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

        [A] 1 only

        [B] 2 only

        [C] Both 1 and 2

        [D] Neither 1 nor 2

      1. Fiscal Health Index (FHI) 2026

        Why in News?

        NITI Aayog has released the second edition of the Fiscal Health Index (FHI) 2026, providing a comprehensive assessment of the fiscal performance of Indian States during FY 2023–24. The report expands its coverage to include 10 North-Eastern and Himalayan States, in addition to the 18 major States assessed in the inaugural edition.

        Key Highlights

        • Expanded coverage: Evaluates 28 States (18 major States + 10 North-Eastern and Himalayan States).
        • Purpose: Measures the fiscal health of States using a transparent and data-driven framework.
        • Fiscal significance: States account for nearly two-thirds of public expenditure and about one-third of the general government debt.
        • Key finding: Most States recorded moderate fiscal performance, with significant variations across regions.
        • Recommendations: Improve own tax revenue, rationalise committed expenditure, strengthen capital expenditure, enhance public financial management, and ensure debt sustainability.

        What is the Fiscal Health Index (FHI)?

        • The Fiscal Health Index (FHI) is an annual report released by NITI Aayog to evaluate the fiscal performance of States using objective indicators. It promotes fiscal discipline, financial sustainability, and evidence-based policymaking while encouraging States to improve public financial management.

        Key Parameters of the Fiscal Health Index

        • Quality of Expenditure
        • Revenue Mobilisation
        • Fiscal Prudence
        • Debt Management

        Significance of the Fiscal Health Index

        • Encourages competitive and cooperative federalism.
        • Helps identify strengths and weaknesses in State finances.
        • Supports informed policy decisions and fiscal reforms.
        • Promotes sustainable public finances and efficient resource allocation.
        • Enhances transparency and accountability in fiscal governance.

        Challenges Highlighted by the Report

        • Low own tax revenue in several States.
        • High committed expenditure on salaries, pensions, and interest payments.
        • Rising debt burden in some States.
        • Limited fiscal space for developmental expenditure.
        • Regional disparities in fiscal performance.

      2. The Public Examinations (Prevention of Unfair Means) Amendment Bill, 2026 passed by both houses

        Why in News

        The Public Examinations (Prevention of Unfair Means) Amendment Bill, 2026 has been passed by both Houses of Parliament, having first been cleared by the Lok Sabha on July 29, 2026, followed by approval from the Rajya Sabha on July 30, 2026.

        Key Highlights

        • Stricter punishment: Maximum imprisonment for offences involving unfair means increased to 10 years, from the earlier 3 to 5 years.
        • Higher penalty: Maximum fine for individual offences enhanced to ₹50 lakh.
        • Organised examination fraud: Punishable with a minimum imprisonment of 7 years and a fine up to ₹10 crore.
        • Procedural reforms: Provides for fast-track courts and mandates completion of investigations within two months.
        • Companion legislation: The Prevention of Insults to National Honour (Amendment) Bill, 2026 was also introduced during the same session.

        Background

        • The amendment strengthens the Public Examinations (Prevention of Unfair Means) Act, 2024.
        • The Act aims to prevent paper leaks, impersonation, organised cheating and other examination-related malpractices in public examinations conducted by designated authorities.

        Objectives

        • Ensure fairness, transparency and credibility in recruitment and entrance examinations.
        • Deter organised examination fraud through stringent penalties.
        • Protect the interests of genuine candidates.
        • Improve the speed of investigation and prosecution.

        Significance

        • Enhances the integrity of public recruitment and competitive examinations.
        • Acts as a deterrent against paper leak mafias and organised crime networks.
        • Strengthens public confidence in examination systems.
        • Supports merit-based selection and good governance.

        [2026] Mr. X, a senior officer, was overseeing a critical vaccination programme during a pandemic. He found that a private service provider responsible for vaccine distribution was compromising on quality to make profits. Despite immense pressure to manage the issue due to vested interests, he raised his voice based on the principles of public administration which he learnt during various training programmes attended across his career. He reported the issue to the appropriate vigilance authority and halted the contract to ensure citizen welfare.
        Which one among the following principles of public administration was most strongly demonstrated by Mr. X’s actions?

        [A] Esprit de corps

        [B] Equity

        [C] Accountability

        [D] Delegation

      3. AI data centres’ power load to nearly double government’s earlier estimate

        Why in News

        The Ministry of Power informed Parliament that AI-driven data centres are expected to add 26.3 GW of electricity demand by 2031-32, nearly double the earlier estimate of 13.56 GW. The additional demand is proposed to be met primarily through renewable energy.

        Key Highlights

        • Revised estimate: Additional power load projected at 26.3 GW by 2031-32, up from 13.56 GW estimated earlier.
        • Renewable-powered growth: The government plans to meet most of this demand through renewable energy.
        • Rapid expansion: India’s data centre capacity is projected to increase from 2.2 GW (2025) to 12 GW by 2030 (Wood Mackenzie).
        • Digital economy: India’s digital economy is valued at around ₹32 lakh crore, contributing nearly 12% of GDP.
        • AI demand: Growth is being driven by Generative AI, cloud computing, big data analytics, fintech, e-commerce and digital public infrastructure.

        Why Do AI Data Centres Consume So Much Power?

        • AI model training requires high-performance GPUs and specialised chips.
        • Large-scale 24×7 computing and data processing significantly increase electricity demand.
        • Cooling systems account for a substantial share of total energy consumption.
        • Continuous operation requires high reliability and uninterrupted power supply.

        Significance

        • Strengthens India’s position as a global digital and AI hub.
        • Encourages investment in renewable energy, grid infrastructure and energy storage.
        • Supports growth of Digital India, semiconductor manufacturing and cloud services.
        • Creates employment in IT, engineering, power and infrastructure sectors.

        [2022, GS3, 15M] Do you think India will meet 50 percent of its energy needs from renewable energy by 2030? Justify your answer. How will the shift of subsidies from fossil fuels to renewables help achieve the above objective? Explain.”

        [2020] With the print state of development, Artificial Intelligence can effectively do which of the following?
        1. Bring down electricity consumption in industrial units
        2. Create meaningful short stories and songs
        3. Disease diagnosis
        4. Text -to -Speech Conversion
        5. Wireless transmission of electrical energy
        Select the correct answer using the code given below:

        [A] 1, 2, 3 and 5 only

        [B] 1, 3 and 4 only

        [C] 2, 4 and 5 only

        [D] 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5

      4. US critical minerals self-sufficiency push collides with 2027 deadline

        Why in News

        The United States is facing challenges in achieving self-sufficiency in defence critical minerals before its January 2027 target. The effort is complicated by China’s dominance, which accounts for over 80% of global critical minerals refining capacity.

        Project Vault (United States)

        • Project Vault is a US initiative to build a Strategic Critical Minerals Reserve and reduce dependence on Chinese supply chains.
        • It aims to stockpile critical minerals, expand domestic mining and refining, and secure supplies for defence, semiconductors, clean energy and advanced manufacturing.
        • The initiative is supported by up to US$12 billion through government financing and private investment.
        • It complements broader US efforts to establish resilient supply chains with trusted partner countries and strengthen strategic mineral security.

        Why China Dominates

        • Controls a large share of mining, refining and processing capacity.
        • Built an integrated mine-to-manufacturing supply chain over several decades.
        • Benefits from state support, advanced processing technology and economies of scale.
        • Has previously used export restrictions as a strategic tool in geopolitical disputes.

        [2026] Which of the following statements about Rare Earth Elements (REEs) and Critical Minerals is/are correct?

        1. Modern technological innovations including Artificial Intelligence, robotics and space exploration extensively utilise Rare Earth Elements (REEs).

        2. China has the highest share in mining of REEs followed by India.

        3. The Government of India launched the National Critical Mineral Mission (NCMM) in 2025 to establish a robust framework for self-reliance in the critical mineral sector.

        4. Rare Earth Elements are a set of 13 metallic elements.

        (a) 1 and 3 only (b) 3 only (c) 1, 3 and 4 (d) 1, 2 and 4