Modern Indian History-Events and Personalities

New book reinterprets origins of the Indian National Army (INA)

Prelims Only | History | Mains Paper 1: Modern Indian History

Why in the News?

A recently launched book claims that the Indian National Army (INA) was not founded by Subhas Chandra Bose or Captain Mohan Singh.

New Claims and the Caveats:

Author’s Proposition:
- The INA was not originally founded by Subhas Chandra Bose, but by Japanese Army Intelligence in collaboration with Indian nationalists abroad before his arrival.
- A pre-war agreement between Major Fujiwara Iwaichi (Japan) and Giani Pritam Singh (Bangkok, 1941) laid the INA’s groundwork, India’s liberation in exchange for aid to Japan’s campaign.
- Captain Mohan Singh, not Bose, served as first commander, but his role was later overshadowed.
- Bose took over in 1943, providing global visibility, structure, and leadership to the existing army.
Caution for students:
- INA’s history is already complex and contested; this new interpretation adds another layer but does not necessarily overturn all accepted facts (e.g., Bose’s later leadership as per our standard references, the INA’s role in Indian nationalist memory).
- Some aspects (e.g., precise agreements between Japanese intelligence and Indian nationalists) may remain debated or partially documented.

About the Indian National Army (INA):

Origins: Formed during World War II to fight British rule, the INA emerged from collaboration between Japanese intelligence and Indian nationalists before Subhas Chandra Bose took command.
Initial Formation: Conceived in a 1938 Tokyo meeting between Rash Behari Bose; using Indian POWs in Southeast Asia to aid Japan’s war and India’s liberation.
Early Leadership: Captain Mohan Singh of the 14 Punjab Regiment became its first commander, recruiting about 40,000 POWs with Japanese support. Internal disputes led to his removal, after which Rash Behari Bose sustained the movement via the Indian Independence League (Tokyo, 1942).
Rise of Subhas Chandra Bose: Bose escaped British custody in 1941, travelled through Berlin and Japan, and reached Singapore in July 1943, where Rash Behari Bose handed him INA leadership.
Reorganization Under Netaji: On August 25, 1943, Bose became Supreme Commander and established the Provisional Government of Free India (Azad Hind) on October 21, 1943, recognized by nine countries including Japan and Germany. Under the “Chalo Delhi” campaign, INA forces entered Manipur, raising their flag at Moirang, but progress halted after Japan’s 1945 defeat.
Collapse and Trials: Following Japan’s surrender (August 15, 1945), the INA disbanded. Bose reportedly died in a plane crash (August 18, 1945). Captured INA officers were tried at the Red Fort (1945–46), the Sehgal–Dhillon–Khan trial became a symbol of unity, with Nehru, Bhulabhai Desai, and Asaf Ali defending them.

Nationalist Uprisings and Impact:

Symbol of Unity: The INA represented armed nationalism and secular unity, transcending caste, region, and religion; the slogan “Jai Hind” became a national salute.
Mass Protests: The INA trials sparked nationwide agitation, uniting students, soldiers, and civilians in solidarity.
Key Confrontations:
- Nov 21, 1945 – Calcutta police firing on INA protestors.
- Feb 11, 1946 – Demonstrations against Rashid Ali’s sentencing.
- Feb 18, 1946 – Royal Indian Navy (RIN) mutiny, with 20,000 sailors revolting in Bombay.
Impact on British Rule: The INA’s defiance shattered British confidence in Indian troops’ loyalty. Even Clement Attlee (1956) admitted the INA and postwar unrest accelerated British withdrawal.
Legacy: Unified militant and mass politics; inspired future Indian defense ethos; remains a symbol of courage and secular nationalism under Netaji’s leadership.

[UPSC 2021] In the context of Colonial India, Shah Nawaz Khan, Prem Kumar Sehgal, and Gurbaksh Singh Dhillon are remembered as officers of the Indian National Army.

Options: (a) Leaders of the Swadeshi and Boycott Movement

(b) Members of the Interim Government in 1946

(d) Officers of the Indian National Army*

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What is the Rare Earth Hypothesis?

Prelims Only | Geography | Mains Paper 3: Awareness in various sc and tech fields,Salient Features Of World’S Physical Geography

Why in the News?

This newscard is an excerpt from the original article published in The Hindu.

What is the Rare Earth Hypothesis?

About: Proposed by Peter Ward (palaeontologist) and Donald Brownlee (astronomer) in 2000, it suggests that simple life (like microbes) may be common, but complex life (like plants and animals) is extremely rare in the universe.
Core Idea: Earth supports advanced life because of a unique mix of conditions such as a stable orbit, a protective magnetic field, active plate tectonics, and giant planets like Jupiter that shield it from asteroids.
Meaning: The Earth is not an ordinary planet; it is a special case where everything aligned perfectly to allow complex life to evolve.

How does it differ from other Theories?

Drake Equation / Mediocrity Principle: Say that life should be common since there are billions of stars; the Rare Earth Hypothesis says complex life is rare even if basic life is not.
Fermi Paradox: Asks “Where is everybody?” The Rare Earth answer is that complex intelligent life is rare, so we don’t see others.
Copernican Principle: Claims Earth is ordinary; the Rare Earth Hypothesis argues Earth is extraordinary and rare in its conditions.

Evidence supporting the Hypothesis:

Exoplanet Studies (Kepler Mission): Thousands of Earth-sized planets found, but few have stable climates or protective atmospheres like Earth.
M-dwarf Planets: Many orbit small stars and lose their atmospheres due to strong radiation.
No Alien Signals: Breakthrough Listen and other searches found no technosignatures from intelligent civilizations.
Earth’s Uniqueness: Plate tectonics and a carbon cycle help Earth keep a stable climate for billions of years; such conditions have not yet been found elsewhere.

Scientific Outlook and Future Research:

Current View: Microbial life might exist on many planets, but stable, complex ecosystems like Earth’s are probably rare.
Ongoing Studies:
- James Webb Space Telescope (JWST) searches for gases like oxygen, methane, and water on distant planets.
- Planetary models test if other worlds have tectonics or internal heat for climate balance.
- Technosignature surveys continue for traces of intelligent life.
Future Missions: Extremely Large Telescope (ELT) and Habitable Worlds Observatory (HWO) will study exoplanet atmospheres more closely.
Significance: The Rare Earth Hypothesis remains plausible but unproven, showing that life may be widespread, but Earth-like complexity could be one of the universe’s rarest achievements.

[UPSC 2018] Which of the following phenomena might have influenced the evolution of organisms?

1. Continental drift

2. Glacial cycles

Select the correct answer using the code given below.

Options: (a) 1 only (b) 2 only (c) Both 1 and 2* (d) Neither 1 nor 2

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Innovations in Sciences, IT, Computers, Robotics and Nanotechnology

[pib] India’s First MWh-Scale Vanadium Redox Flow Battery at NTPC NETRA

Prelims Only | Science Tech | Mains Paper 3: Awareness in various sc and tech fields

Why in the News?

The Union Ministry of Power has inaugurated India’s largest and first MWh-scale Vanadium Redox Flow Battery (VRFB) of 3 MWh capacity at NETRA, NTPC’s R&D Centre in Greater Noida.

About the Vanadium Redox Flow Battery (VRFB):

Overview: A rechargeable flow battery that stores energy in liquid electrolytes containing vanadium ions in different oxidation states.
Core Principle: Uses the same element vanadium for both electrolytes, preventing cross-contamination and extending operational life.
Working Mechanism: Energy is stored through oxidation and reduction reactions of vanadium ions, where electrons are exchanged between two electrolyte tanks.
Cell Design: Electrolytes circulate through a cell stack separated by an ion-selective membrane that enables ion movement while stopping mixing.
Scalability: Energy capacity depends on electrolyte volume, while power output depends on cell stack size, allowing flexible scaling.
Application Focus: Ideal for stationary, grid-scale energy storage, renewable energy integration, and backup power systems.

Benefits over Conventional Batteries:

Independent Scalability: Energy and power can be scaled separately, perfect for large utility storage and renewable grids.
Extended Lifespan: Can endure thousands of cycles since vanadium electrolytes don’t degrade or mix.
Full Discharge Safety: Can be fully discharged (100%) without damaging capacity, unlike lithium-ion batteries.
High Safety Level: Uses non-flammable, water-based electrolytes, eliminating risk of fire or explosion.
Eco-Friendly: Recyclable and non-toxic electrolytes reduce environmental impact and support circular use.
Long-Duration Storage: Provides 6–10+ hours of continuous energy, ideal for stabilizing solar and wind supply.
Low Maintenance: Fewer mechanical parts and no thermal runaway risk ensure long-term durability.
Fast Response: Reacts quickly to grid fluctuations, improving power quality and reliability.

Limitations:

High Initial Cost: Requires expensive vanadium electrolyte and specialized components, leading to higher upfront installation costs than lithium-ion systems.
Low Energy Density: Stores less energy per unit volume, making it unsuitable for mobile or space-constrained applications like electric vehicles.
Complex Infrastructure: Needs large storage tanks, pumps, and control systems, which increase operational complexity and land requirements.

[UPSC 2025] In the context of electric vehicle batteries, consider the following elements:

I. Cobalt II. Graphite III. Lithium IV. Nickel

How many of the above usually make up battery cathodes?

(a) Only one (b) Only two (c) Only three* (d) All the four

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Climate Change Negotiations – UNFCCC, COP, Other Conventions and Protocols

Integrity Matters Checklist for Net-Zero Alignment

Prelims Only | Enviro & Biodiversity | Mains Paper 3: Conservation, Environmental Pollution & Degradation, Eia
Why in the News?

The Global Reporting Initiative (GRI), in collaboration with the United Nations, has introduced the Integrity Matters Checklist to help companies and investors align their climate disclosures with the UN’s net-zero integrity standards.

About the Integrity Matters Checklist:
- Overview: Created by the GRI in collaboration with the United Nations.
- Purpose: Helps companies and investors align their climate disclosures with the UN’s integrity standards for net-zero commitments.
- Origin: Based on the UN High-Level Expert Group (HLEG) recommendations outlined in the Integrity Matters Report, first released at COP27 (2022) and updated in 2025.
- Framework Integration: Aligns with the GRI 102: Climate Change 2025 Standard, providing a unified structure for sustainability and climate reporting.
- Key Focus Areas: Guides disclosure of climate targets, transition plans, greenhouse gas (GHG) reduction pathways, and just transition principles.
- Operational Aim: Strengthens corporate accountability and ensures commitments are science-based, transparent, and verifiable.
- Endorsements: Supported by the UN Global Compact and the UN Climate Change Secretariat, affirming its role in implementing credible climate governance.
Key Features:
- Science-Based Targets: Encourages reporting consistent with Paris Agreement-aligned decarbonisation pathways.
- Fossil Fuel Phase-Out: Calls for transparent reporting on divestment from fossil fuels and investment in renewables.
- Just Transition Integration: Embeds social inclusion, equity, and worker protection in corporate climate strategies.
- Investor-Ready Information: Produces comparable, decision-useful data for financial institutions and regulators.
- Full GRI Compatibility: Seamlessly integrates with existing GRI standards to avoid duplication in ESG reporting.
- Global Relevance: Applicable to all sectors and geographies, with focus on pre-COP30 adoption and accountability.
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Innovations in Sciences, IT, Computers, Robotics and Nanotechnology

Altermagnetism emerges as a new class of Magnetic Order

Prelims Only | Science Tech | Mains Paper 3: Awareness in various sc and tech fields
Why in the News?

Scientists discovered a new type of magnetism called altermagnetism, confirmed in 2024, which combines features of ferromagnetism and antiferromagnetism.

What is Altermagnetism?
- Overview: A new form of magnetism discovered in 2019 and proven experimentally in 2024; combines traits of ferromagnetism and antiferromagnetism.
- Mechanism: Atoms have opposite (antiparallel) spins like in antiferromagnets, but their alignment follows mirror or rotational symmetry, not simple alternation.
- Magnetic Effect: Although it has no external magnetic field, the electrons show different energy levels for spin-up and spin-down states.
- Discovery: First observed in manganese telluride (MnTe) through photoemission and X-ray imaging techniques.
- Scientific Relevance: Introduces a magnetically neutral but electronically active material class useful for next-generation electronics.
Distinctive Properties:
- Zero External Magnetism: Produces no external field but shows strong internal spin asymmetry.
- Spin-Polarised Currents: Can carry magnetic-like electric currents without stray fields.
- Ultrafast Response: Works at terahertz (THz) frequencies, about 1000× faster than conventional magnetic devices.
- Stable Performance: Maintains stable magnetic order even under changing conditions.
- Crystal-Based Symmetry: Magnetism arises from atomic structure, not external alignment.
How does it differ from other Magnetisms?
- Ferromagnetism: All spins align in the same direction, creating a strong external magnetic field.
- Antiferromagnetism: Spins align in opposite directions, fully cancelling magnetism with equal spin energy.
- Altermagnetism: Spins align oppositely but mirror-linked, giving energy difference between spins, no net field, yet internal magnetic effects.
Applications:
- Spintronics: Enables compact, energy-efficient data storage and logic devices.
- Quantum Computing: Provides magnetically quiet materials for stable qubit performance.
- High-Speed Electronics: Supports ultrafast processors operating at terahertz levels.
- Advanced Sensors: Useful for precise, low-noise magnetic detection.
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ISRO Missions and Discoveries

Visible Emission Line Coronagraph (VELC) onboard Aditya-L1

Prelims Only | Science Tech | Mains Paper 3: Achievements Of Indians In S&T

Why in the News?

Scientists at the Indian Institute of Astrophysics (IIA), in collaboration with NASA, have made the first spectroscopic observations of a Coronal Mass Ejection (CME) in the visible wavelength range, using the Visible Emission Line Coronagraph (VELC) aboard Aditya-L1.

About Visible Emission Line Coronagraph (VELC):

Overview: The VELC is the primary scientific payload onboard Aditya-L1, India’s first solar observatory mission.
Developer: Designed and built by the Indian Institute of Astrophysics (IIA) at its CREST campus, Hosakote (Karnataka).
Function: It is an internally occulted coronagraph capable of imaging, spectroscopy, and spectro-polarimetry of the solar corona, the outermost layer of the Sun’s atmosphere.
Objective: To study coronal mass ejections (CMEs), solar wind acceleration, coronal temperature, plasma velocity, and magnetic field dynamics close to the solar limb.
Capabilities:
- Observes the corona as close as 1.05 solar radii from the Sun’s surface.
- Equipped with a spectrograph, polarimeter, and detectors for high-resolution data.
- Enables continuous 24-hour solar observation from Lagrange Point L1.
Significance: Provides first-ever spectroscopic data of CMEs near the Sun, enhancing understanding of space weather and solar activity.
Key Findings:
- Electron Density: ~370 million electrons per cubic centimetre within the CME, several times higher than the ambient solar corona (10–100 million/cm³).
- Energy: ~9.4 × 10²¹ joules- nearly 100 trillion times the energy released by the Hiroshima bomb.
- Mass: ~270 million tonnes- about 180 times the mass of the iceberg that sank the Titanic.

Back2Basics: Aditya-L1 Mission

Overview: India’s first space-based solar mission, developed by the Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO).
Launch & Position: Launched in 2023; placed at the Lagrange Point 1 (L1), approximately 1.5 million km from Earth, providing an uninterrupted view of the Sun.
Purpose: To study the Sun’s outer atmosphere (corona), solar radiation, magnetic storms, and space weather phenomena.
Key Objectives:
- Understand the dynamics of solar corona and solar wind.
- Study solar flares, CMEs, and their impact on Earth’s magnetosphere.
- Monitor space weather to protect satellites and communication systems.
Scientific Payloads (7 instruments):

1. VELC – Visible Emission Line Coronagraph (solar corona imaging).
2. SUIT – Solar Ultraviolet Imaging Telescope.
3. SoLEXS – Solar Low Energy X-ray Spectrometer.
4. HEL1OS – High Energy L1 Orbiting X-ray Spectrometer.
5. ASPEX – Aditya Solar Wind Particle Experiment.
6. PAPA – Plasma Analyser Package for Aditya.
7. Magnetometer – Measures magnetic fields at L1.

Significance:
1. First Indian mission to continuously observe the Sun.
2. Strengthens India’s position in global heliophysics research.
3. Provides early warnings for geomagnetic storms affecting satellites and power grids.

[UPSC 2022] If a major solar storm (solar flare) reaches the Earth, which of the following are the possible effects on the Earth ?

1. GPS and navigation systems could fail.

2. Tsunamis could occur at equatorial regions.

3. Power grids could be damaged.

4. Intense auroras could occur over much of the Earth.

5. Forest fires could take place over much of the planet.

6. Orbits of the satellites could be disturbed.

Select the correct answer using the code given below:

(a) 1 and 2 only (b) 3 and 4 only (c) 1, 3, 4 and 6 only* (d) 2, 5 and 6 only

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Historical and Archaeological Findings in News

Konark Sun Temple

Prelims Only | History | Mains Paper 1: Arts & Culture

Why in the News?

The Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) has prohibited tourist entry to the Nata Mandap (Hall of Dance) at the Sun Temple, Konark, citing safety concerns.

konark

About the Konark Sun Temple:

It is located approximately 64 km from Bhubaneswar, Odisha.
It was built in the 13th century (around 1250 CE) during the reign of King Narasimhadeva I of the Eastern Ganga Dynasty.
It is dedicated to Surya, the Sun God.
It is designed as a massive chariot drawn by 7 horses with 24 intricately carved wheels.
It was constructed from Khondalite stone, known for its durability and intricate carvings.
The structure originally included a sanctum (deul) and an assembly hall (jagamohan) that have largely collapsed.

Historical Significance:

The Konark Wheel, featured on Indian currency (old ₹20 and new ₹10 notes), symbolizes Odisha’s rich cultural heritage and national identity.
It reflects 13th-century advancements in timekeeping and astronomy through its sundial functionality.
It embodies the cycle of life and serves as a testament to the worship of Surya, the Sun God.
It is a key example of the Kalinga architectural style, highlighting the Eastern Ganga Dynasty’s achievements.

konark

Architectural Significance:

Design: Represents a chariot of the Sun God, drawn by 7 horses, with 24 intricately carved wheels.
Wheel Details:
- Diameter: 9 feet 9 inches.
- Spokes: 8 wide and 8 thin, symbolising prahars (three-hour periods).
Symbolism:
- 7 horses: 7 days of the week.
- 12 pairs of wheels: 12 months.
- 24 wheels: 24 hours in a day.
Sundial Functionality: Two wheels act as sundials, showing time from sunrise to sunset using the axel’s shadow.
Carvings: Features intricate designs of foliage, animals, and human figures, showcasing exceptional craftsmanship.

[UPSC 2021] With reference to the Chausath Yogini Temple situated near Morena, consider the following statements:
1. It is a circular temple built during the reign of the Kachchhapaghata Dynasty.
2. It is the only circular temple built in India.
3. It was meant to promote the Vaishnava cult in the region.
4. Its design has given rise to a popular belief that it was the inspiration behind the Indian Parliament building.
Which of the statements given above are correct?
Options: (a) 1 and 2 (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 1 and 4* (d) 2, 3, and 4

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Nuclear Diplomacy and Disarmament

Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty Organisation (CTBTO)

IOCR Prelims Only | International Relations | Mains Paper 2: Bilateral, Regional and Global Groupings and agreements involving India

Why in the News?

China has rejected President Trump’s claim of secret nuclear tests, reaffirming its commitment to the CTBT amid renewed U.S. calls for nuclear testing and revived Cold War–style tensions.

About Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty Organization (CTBTO):

Establishment: Formed in 1996 under the Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty (CTBT) to build and operate a verification regime ensuring compliance with the global ban on nuclear explosions.
Headquarters: Vienna, Austria.
Mandate: To monitor adherence to the CTBT through a global verification system capable of detecting any nuclear test anywhere in the world.
Verification System: Operates the International Monitoring System (IMS) with 337 facilities, including seismic, hydroacoustic, infrasound, and radionuclide stations to detect underground, underwater, or atmospheric nuclear tests.
Data Centre: The International Data Centre (IDC) analyses and distributes real-time data to member states, providing early warning of suspicious activities.
Preparatory Commission: Functions until the CTBT formally enters into force, maintaining operational readiness and supporting states’ verification capabilities.
Scientific Applications: The IMS also contributes to tsunami warning systems, atmospheric research, and disaster response, reinforcing the CTBTO’s global utility beyond disarmament.

Back2Basics: How are CTBT and NPT related?

Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty (CTBT) and the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT) are closely linked pillars of the global nuclear arms control regime:

1. Shared Goal: Both aim to prevent nuclear proliferation and promote disarmament.
2. Scope Difference: The NPT focuses on stopping the spread of nuclear weapons and promoting peaceful nuclear use; the CTBT bans all nuclear explosions for any purpose.
3. Chronological Link: The NPT (1970) came first, creating the legal framework for non-proliferation; the CTBT (1996) built on it by prohibiting testing, reinforcing the NPT’s disarmament pillar.
4. Verification and Compliance: The CTBT adds technical verification through the International Monitoring System, complementing NPT’s safeguards under the IAEA.
5. Disarmament Pathway: Ratification of the CTBT is often viewed as a key step toward fulfilling Article VI of the NPT, which obliges nuclear powers to pursue disarmament.

Status of the Treaty and Ratification Gap:

Adoption: It was adopted by the UN General Assembly in 1996 and opened for signature on September 24, 1996.
Membership: As of 2025, 187 states have signed and 178 have ratified the treaty.
Enforcement: It will become legally binding only after 44 specific “Annex 2” states, those with nuclear technology at the time ratify it.
Pending Ratifications: Eight critical states have not ratified the treaty- China, Egypt, Iran, Israel, and the United States (signatories but unratified), and India, Pakistan, and North Korea (non-signatories).
Recent Setback: In 2023, Russia revoked its ratification, though it continues to observe a testing moratorium, weakening the treaty’s political momentum.
Global Compliance: Despite legal limbo, a de facto moratorium on nuclear testing has largely held since the 1990s; only North Korea has violated it with tests since 2006.
Significance: The CTBT remains a cornerstone of the global non-proliferation regime, its verification network providing both deterrence and transparency even without formal legal enforcement.

[UPSC 2015] Consider the following countries:

1. China 2. France 3. India 4. Israel 5. Pakistan

Which among the above are Nuclear Weapons States as recognized by the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons, commonly known as Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT)?

(a) 1 and 2 only * (b) 1, 3, 4 and 5 only (c) 2, 4 and 5 only (d) 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5

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Parliament – Sessions, Procedures, Motions, Committees etc

Sessions of the Parliament

Prelims Only | Polity | Mains Paper 2: Parliament & State Legislatures

Why in the News?

The Winter Session of Parliament will be held from December 1 to 19, 2025.

About Parliamentary Sessions:

Parliamentary Sessions are formal periods when the Lok Sabha and Rajya Sabha meet to legislate, deliberate, and hold the government accountable.
Each session has several sittings for debates, questions, and lawmaking. Under Article 85(1), the President must summon both Houses so that not more than six months elapse between two sessions.
Types of Sessions:

1. Budget Session (Feb–Mar): Begins with the President’s Address; includes Union Budget presentation and debate.
2. Monsoon Session (Jul–Aug): Focuses on legislative work and national issues.
3. Winter Session (Nov–Dec): Reviews policies, finalises pending legislation.
4. Special Session: Called for urgent or commemorative matters (e.g., emergencies or milestones).

Key Terms Related to Sessions:

Summoning (Art. 85(1)): President summons Parliament on Cabinet Committee advice; at least two sessions yearly, with ≤ six-month gap.
Adjournment: Temporary suspension of a sitting; business resumes when House reassembles.
Adjournment Sine Die: Ends a sitting without fixing a date for the next meeting; followed by presidential prorogation.
Prorogation (Art. 85(2)(a)): Formal end of a session by the President; pending bills do not lapse.
Dissolution (Art. 85(2)(b)): Ends the Lok Sabha’s tenure; triggers new elections; pending bills in Lok Sabha lapse.
Recess: Period between the prorogation of one session and the start of the next.
Lame Duck Session: Last session of an outgoing Lok Sabha before the new one forms.
Quorum (Art. 100): Minimum attendance for business—55 in Lok Sabha, 25 in Rajya Sabha.
Voting (Art. 100):
- Voice Vote: Members respond “Aye”/“No.”
- Division Vote: Contested results recorded electronically.
- Casting Vote: Presiding officer’s tie-breaking vote.

[UPSC 2024] With reference to the Parliament of India, consider the following statements:

1. Prorogation of a House by the President of India does not require the advice of the Council of Ministers.

2. Prorogation of a House is generally done after the House is adjourned sine die, but there is no bar to the President of India proroguing the House which is in session.

3. Dissolution of the Lok Sabha is done by the President of India who, save in exceptional circumstances, does so on the advice of the Council of Ministers.

Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

Options: (a) 1 only (b) 1 and 2 (c) 2 and 3* (d) 3 only

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Climate Change Negotiations – UNFCCC, COP, Other Conventions and Protocols

India to join Tropical Forest Forever Facility (TFFF) as an ‘Observer’

Prelims Only | Enviro & Biodiversity | Mains Paper 3: Conservation, Environmental Pollution & Degradation, Eia

Why in the News?

At the Leaders’ Summit in Belem, Brazil, preceding the COP30, India has announced its decision to join the Tropical Forest Forever Facility (TFFF) as an Observer.

About Tropical Forest Forever Facility (TFFF):

What is it: A global blended-finance mechanism rewarding Tropical Forest Countries (TFCs) for conserving intact forests through annual conservation-linked payments.
Payment Design: Provides $4 per hectare annually for protected forest area, with deductions for deforestation or ecosystem degradation verified via satellite data.
Institutional Setup: Managed by a TFFF Secretariat (policy and oversight) and a Tropical Forest Investment Fund (TFIF) (financial operations and investment management).
Investment Model: The TFIF channels sponsor contributions into sovereign, corporate, green, and blue bonds, explicitly excluding fossil fuel industries.
Community Allocation: 20% of total payments earmarked for Indigenous Peoples and Local Communities (IPLCs) to support sustainable livelihoods and rights-based forest governance.
Monitoring Mechanism: Conservation outcomes tracked via satellite and third-party verification systems ensuring full transparency and performance-based accountability.
Financial Sustainability: Operates as a budget-neutral model, where investment returns fund long-term conservation payments rather than temporary grants.
Initial Pledges: Founding commitments include Brazil ($1 bn), Indonesia ($1 bn), Norway ($3 bn over 10 years), Colombia ($250 mn), Netherlands ($5 mn), Portugal (€1 mn); France, China, and UAE have expressed political support.

Relation to REDD+ Framework:

REDD+ Genesis: Launched in 2008 under the UNFCCC, REDD+ stands for Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation Plus, providing result-based payments for verified emission reductions.
Core Difference: While REDD+ rewards verified carbon reductions, TFFF offers annual standing forest payments, maintaining steady conservation incentives.
Approach: REDD+ focuses on carbon metrics and offset markets, whereas TFFF bypasses carbon dependency, offering investment-backed, non-offset finance.
Objectives Alignment: Both aim to promote sustainable forest management, biodiversity conservation, and enhanced carbon stock in developing nations.
Institutional Partners: REDD+ is jointly administered by FAO, UNDP, UNEP, and implemented in 65+ countries; TFFF aligns with these frameworks through transparency and inclusivity principles.
Added Value: TFFF strengthens long-term financial resilience of conservation efforts by combining public and private investments with community-centric benefit-sharing.

India’s Role and Climate Record:

Emission Reduction Record: From 2005–2020, India cut emission intensity by 36%, achieving 50% non-fossil installed power capacity ahead of 2030 goals.
Carbon Sink Achievement: Between 2005–2021, India added 2.29 billion tonnes CO₂ equivalent through expanded forest and tree cover.
NDC Commitments: India’s updated Nationally Determined Contribution (to 2035) targets deeper emission cuts and enhanced carbon sink creation.
Strategic Importance: Strengthens South–South cooperation and India’s advocacy for equitable climate responsibility within global negotiations.

[UPSC 2025] Which one of the following launched the ‘Nature Solutions Finance Hub for Asia and the Pacific’?

(a) The Asian Development Bank (ADB)*

(b) The Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank (AIIB)

(d) The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD)

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Type: Prelims Only

Why in the News?

New Claims and the Caveats:

About the Indian National Army (INA):

Nationalist Uprisings and Impact:

Why in the News?

What is the Rare Earth Hypothesis?

How does it differ from other Theories?

Evidence supporting the Hypothesis:

Scientific Outlook and Future Research:

Why in the News?

About the Vanadium Redox Flow Battery (VRFB):

Benefits over Conventional Batteries:

Limitations:

Why in the News?

About the Integrity Matters Checklist:

Key Features:

Why in the News?

What is Altermagnetism?

Distinctive Properties:

How does it differ from other Magnetisms?

Applications:

Why in the News?

About Visible Emission Line Coronagraph (VELC):

Back2Basics: Aditya-L1 Mission

Why in the News?

About the Konark Sun Temple:

Historical Significance:

Architectural Significance:

Why in the News?

About Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty Organization (CTBTO):

Back2Basics: How are CTBT and NPT related?

Status of the Treaty and Ratification Gap:

Why in the News?

About Parliamentary Sessions:

Key Terms Related to Sessions:

Why in the News?

About Tropical Forest Forever Facility (TFFF):

Relation to REDD+ Framework:

India’s Role and Climate Record: