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Type: World Mapping

  • Global Geological And Climatic Events

    Taftan Volcano, Iran 

    World Mapping | Geography | Mains Paper 1: Important Geophysical Phenomena

    Why in the News?

    New satellite data in Geophysical Research Letters (October 2025) shows Iran’s Taftan volcano, dormant for 710,000 years, is reactivating.

    Taftan Volcano, Iran 

    About Taftan Volcano:

    • Location: Situated in southeastern Iran, about 56 km from the Pakistan border, within the Makran continental volcanic arc.
    • Elevation: Rises to 3,940 metres (12,927 feet), Iran’s only active volcano in the Makran arc.
    • Tectonic Origin: Formed by subduction of the Arabian oceanic plate beneath the Eurasian continental plate.
    • Volcanic Type & Composition: A stratovolcano composed mainly of andesitic and dacitic lava, with pyroclastic flows and volcanic breccias.
    • Structure: Features two summits, Narkuh and Matherkuh, and extensive ignimbrite and lava fans stretching over 30 km.
    • Hydrothermal Activity: Hosts sulfur-emitting fumaroles, visible from up to 100 km, sustained by an active hydrothermal system.
    • Eruptive History: Major activity phases around 8 Ma, 6 Ma, and 0.7 Ma; last lava flow dated to about 6,950 years ago.
    • Recent Observations: 2023–24 satellite data detected 9 cm ground uplift, indicating subsurface pressure buildup and reclassification from extinct to dormant.

    Scientific Interpretation and Outlook:

    • Magma Dynamics: Uplift linked to gas accumulation or shallow magma intrusion at 490–630 m depth, possibly fed by deeper chambers (~3.5 km).
    • Current Status: No imminent eruption expected; likely pressure release via degassing or minor eruptions.
    • Monitoring Gap: Lack of ground-based GPS or seismic sensors; reliance on satellite InSAR data for deformation tracking.
    • Scientific Recommendations: Call for establishing a volcano observatory in southeastern Iran for real-time monitoring and gas analysis.
    • Regional Significance: Highlights Makran arc tectonic activity and underscores the need for international geophysical collaboration.
    • Research Importance: Taftan’s reawakening demonstrates the role of remote sensing in detecting hidden volcanic unrest and stresses continuous monitoring to assess eruption potential and regional hazard mitigation.
    [UPSC 2024] Consider the following:
    1. Pyroclastic debris 2. Ash and dust 3. Nitrogen compounds 4. Sulphur compoundsHow many of the above are products of volcanic eruptions?Options: (a) Only one (b) Only two (c) Only three (d) only four*

     

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  • Volga River

    Prelims OnlyWorld Mapping | Geography | Mains Paper 1: Salient Features Of World’S Physical Geography

    Why in the News?

    This newscard is an excerpt from the original article published in the Indian Express.

    Volga River

    About the Volga River:

    • Overview: The longest river in Europe (about 3,500 km), originating in the Valdai Hills northwest of Moscow and flowing southeast to the Caspian Sea at Astrakhan.
    • Drainage Basin: Covers around 1.35 million sq. km, among Europe’s largest river systems, with major tributaries, Kama, Oka, Vetluga, and Sura.
    • Historical Role: Served as a critical front during the Battle of Stalingrad (World War II) and remains central to Russian historical and strategic narratives.
    • Cultural Significance: Revered as “Mother Volga”, symbolising Russian unity, resilience, and identity, deeply embedded in folklore and national consciousness.
    • Economic Importance: It contributes one-fourth of Russia’s agricultural output, supports industrial fishing, and sustains key industries, oil refining, shipbuilding, hydroelectric power.
    • Navigation & Connectivity: Linked to the Baltic, Black, and Caspian Seas through an extensive network of canals and reservoirs, forming the backbone of Russia’s inland transport system.
    • Urban & Industrial Corridor: Major cities like Kazan, Samara, Nizhny Novgorod, and Volgograd lie along its course, forming Russia’s industrial-agricultural heartland.
    • Ecological Richness: Supports about 260 bird species and 70 fish species, making it a key biodiversity hotspot within Eurasia.
    [UPSC 2020] Consider the following pairs: River Flows into

    1. Mekong: Andaman Sea

    2. Thames: Irish Sea

    3. Volga: Caspian Sea

    4. Zambezi: Indian Ocean

    Which of the pairs given above is/are correctly matched?

    Options: (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 3 only (c) 3 and 4 only * (d) 1, 2 and 4 only

     

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  • Contention over South China Sea

    Scarborough Shoal in South China Sea

    World Mapping | International Relations | Mains Paper 2: Effect Of Policies & Politics Of World On India’S Interests

    Why in the News?

    China’s State Council has approved the creation of a national nature reserve at Scarborough Shoal (Huangyan Dao in Chinese, Bajo de Masinloc/Panatag Shoal in the Philippines).

    About Scarborough Shoal:

    • Geography: A triangle-shaped chain of reefs and rocks in the South China Sea, about 200 km from Luzon (Philippines) and 800+ km from Hainan (China).
    • Status: Uninhabited but strategic, located near shipping lanes carrying $3 trillion in trade annually.
    • Significance: The lagoon shelters boats, and surrounding waters hold rich fish stocks vital for Zambales and Pangasinan communities.

    Disputes about it:

    • Sovereignty Claims: Both China and the Philippines claim ownership.
    • 2016 Arbitration Ruling: Permanent Court of Arbitration (The Hague) held China’s nine-dash line claim invalid, declaring Scarborough a traditional fishing ground under UNCLOS; China rejected the verdict.
    • Philippines’ Grounds: Lies within Manila’s Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ), making China’s reserve “illegitimate and unlawful.”
    • International Response: The US, Japan, Australia, and Canada conduct naval patrols/drills supporting the Philippines and freedom of navigation.
    [UPSC 2022] Which one of the following statements best reflects the issue with Senkaku Islands, sometimes mentioned in the news ?

    Options: (a) It is generally believed that they are artificial islands made by a country around South China Sea.

    (b) China and Japan engage in maritime disputes over these islands in East China Sea.*

    (c) A permanent American military base has been set up there to help Taiwan to increase its defence capabilities.

    (d) Though International Court of Justice declared them as no man’s land, some South-East Asian countries claim them.

     

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  • Climate Change Impact on India and World – International Reports, Key Observations, etc.

    In news: Pugad Island

    World Mapping | Enviro & Biodiversity | Mains Paper 3: Conservation, Environmental Pollution & Degradation, Eia

    Why in the News?

    The Philippine island of Pugad in Manila Bay is facing an existential threat as rising sea levels and rapid land subsidence combine to submerge homes and livelihoods.

    About Pugad Island:

    • Overview: Small 7-hectare island in Manila Bay, situated at the mouth of the Angat–Pampanga River Delta, under Hagonoy municipality, Bulacan province, Philippines.
    • Population: Home to about 1,636–2,056 residents, living in a single clustered village of roughly 384 houses.
    • Livelihoods: Community depends on fishing and aquaculture, with families cultivating clams, mussels, and whiting fish in converted fishponds.
    • Living Conditions: Houses built mainly from bamboo and old metal sheets, with poor sanitation, minimal healthcare facilities, and only elementary-level schooling.
    • Flooding Challenge: Regularly hit by high-tide and monsoon floods, made worse by land subsidence (11 cm/year) and sea-level rise (three times global average).
    • Environmental Hazards: Loss of mangroves, urban encroachment, and exposure to typhoons increase risks of disaster and displacement.
    [UPSC 2018] Which of the following has/have shrunk immensely/dried up in the recent past due to human activities?

    1.Aral Sea 2.Black Sea 3.Lake Baikal

    Select the correct answer using the code given below:

    (a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 2 only (d) 1 and 3*

     

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  • Disasters and Disaster Management – Sendai Framework, Floods, Cyclones, etc.

    In news: Sudan’s Darfur Region

    World Mapping | International Relations | Mains Paper 2: Effect Of Policies & Politics Of World On India’S Interests

    Why in the News?

    A landslide in Sudan’s western Darfur region reportedly wiped out a village, killing an estimated 1,000 people.

    In news: Sudan’s Darfur Region

    About Darfur Region:

    • Location & Size: Western Sudan; borders Chad, Libya, CAR; spans about 493,000 sq. km (nearly France-sized).
    • Geography: Predominantly arid/semi-arid; desert north, fertile south. Highly vulnerable to drought, desertification, and climate change.
    • Administrative Units: Divided into five states — North, South, West, Central, East Darfur.
    • Demographics: Mixed ethnic groups — Arab pastoralists and non-Arab farming communities.
    • Capital: El Fasher, main hub for administration, economy, and humanitarian operations.

    Ongoing Conflict & Crisis:

    • Origins of Uprising: Armed rebellion began in 2003 (SLM, JEM) against political and economic marginalization.
    • Janjaweed & RSF: Janjaweed militias, accused of genocide and ethnic cleansing, later evolved into Rapid Support Forces (RSF), now central to instability.
    • Humanitarian Crisis: Since 2003, region has seen mass killings, displacement, refugee flows, ranked among the worst global humanitarian crises.
    • Current Instability: Renewed 2023 violence between RSF and rival groups worsened agriculture, aid, and governance.
    • Regional Impact: Conflict spills into Chad and CAR, destabilizing the Sahel region.
    • Natural Disasters: Alongside conflict, disasters like the 2025 Darfur landslide (~1,000 deaths) add to human suffering.
    [UPSC 2024] Consider the following statements:

    Statement-I: There is instability and worsening security situation in the Sahel region.

    Statement-II: There have been military takeovers/coups d’état in several countries of the Sahel region in the recent past.

    Which one of the following is correct in respect of the above statement?

    a) Both Statement-I and Statement-II are correct and Statement-II explains Statement-I

    b) Bothe Statement-I and Statement-II are correct, but Statement-II does not explain Statement-I

    c) Statement-I is correct, but Statement-II is incorrect

    d) Statement-I is incorrect, but Statement-II is correct

     

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  • Global Geological And Climatic Events

    Mount Etna Eruption

    Prelims OnlyWorld Mapping | Geography | Mains Paper 1: Important Geophysical Phenomena

    Why in the News?

    Mount Etna has erupted again after its recent eruption in June.

    About Mount Etna:

    • Location: Situated on the east coast of Sicily, Italy, near the city of Catania.
    • Type: Mount Etna is a stratovolcano (also called a composite volcano), which is formed from layers of hardened lava, volcanic ash, and rocks.
    • Height: It stands at approximately 3,300 meters, making it the tallest volcano in Europe south of the Alps.
    • Recognition: Declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 2013, with documented volcanic activity for at least 2,700 years.
    • Eruption Record: Etna is almost constantly active. Notable eruptions have occurred in 1400 B.C., 1669, 2001, 2018, 2021, 2024, and 2025.
    • Volcanic Activity Style: Known for Strombolian and effusive eruptions, with occasional Plinian eruptions (rare and more explosive).

    Reasons Behind the Eruption:

    • Nature of Eruption: The eruption is classified as either Strombolian or possibly Plinian, depending on interpretation:
      • Strombolian Eruption: Characterized by moderate explosive bursts, caused by gas bubbles in magma suddenly bursting at the surface.
      • Plinian Eruption: Some volcanologists suggest this classification due to the large ash column that may have reached the stratosphere.
    • Eruption Trigger: The eruption likely began due to pressure buildup from gas within the magma chamber, leading to collapse of the southeast crater and lava flows.
    [UPSC 2014] Consider the following geological phenomena:

    1. Development of a fault

    2. Movement along a fault

    3. Impact produced by a volcanic eruption

    4. Folding of rocks Which of the above cause earthquakes?

    Options: (a) 1, 2 and 3 (b) 2 and 4 (c) 1, 3 and 4 (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4*

     

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  • Russian Invasion of Ukraine: Global Implications

    In news: Donbas Region

    World Mapping | International Relations | Mains Paper 2: Effect Of Policies & Politics Of World On India’S Interests

    Why in the News?

    The mineral-rich Donbas region remains central to future of Russia-Ukraine peace talks.

    About Donbas Region:

    • Constituent Areas: Includes Donetsk and Luhansk oblasts in eastern Ukraine.
    • Geographical Position: Bordered by the Sea of Azov in the south, which connects to the Black Sea via the Strait of Kerch.
    • Industrial Hub: Known as Ukraine’s industrial heartland due to large mineral and energy resources.
    • Coal Reserves: Ukraine possesses ~32 gigatonnes of hard coal, most concentrated in Donbas (IEA estimate).
    • Shale Gas Potential: Yuzivska shale gas field (Donetsk–Kharkiv) holds 1.2–2 trillion cubic metres of gas in place, one of Europe’s largest untapped reserves.
    • Salt Production: Home to Artemsil, once among Europe’s largest salt mines, producing ~2 million tonnes annually until closed in 2022 due to conflict.

    Strategic Significance of the Region:

    • For Russia:
      • Resources: Rich in coal, shale gas, salt, and coal bed methane, enhancing its resource security.
      • Geography: Provides land link to Crimea and direct access to the Sea of Azov.
      • Demographics: Large Russian-speaking population offers political and cultural leverage.
    • For Ukraine:
      • Economy: Core to industrial base, especially steel production.
      • Energy Security: Control of Yuzivska shale gas could reduce reliance on imports.
      • Sovereignty: Represents a vital part of national unity and territorial integrity.
    • Geopolitical Dimension: Sea of Azov crucial for connecting Donbas resources to Black Sea trade routes.
    • Conflict Relevance: Since Crimea’s annexation (2014) and escalation in 2022, control of Azov and Kerch Strait vital for Russia’s naval dominance.
    [UPSC 2023] Consider the following pairs: Area of conflict mentioned in news : Country where it is located

    1. North Kivu and Ituri : War between Armenia and Azerbaijan

    2. Nagorno-Karabakh : Insurgency in Mozambique

    3. Kherson and Zaporizhzhia : Dispute between Israel and Lebanon

    How many of the above pairs are correctly matched?

    Options: (a) Only one (b) Only two (c) All three (d) None*

     

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  • Foreign Policy Watch: India-Africa

    African Union (AU) and the Mercator Map Debate

    Prelims OnlyWorld Mapping | Geography | Mains Paper 1: Salient Features Of World’S Physical Geography

    Why in the News?

    The African Union (AU) has endorsed the Correct the Map campaign to replace the 16th-century Mercator projection with more accurate maps.

    African Union (AU) and the Mercator Map Debate

    About the African Union (AU):

    • Establishment: Formed in 2002, replacing the Organisation of African Unity (1963).
    • Membership: 55 African countries.
    • Headquarters: Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
    • Vision: “An Integrated, Prosperous, and Peaceful Africa, driven by its own citizens.”
    • Agenda 2063: Blueprint for socio-economic growth and continental unity.
    • Main Organs: Assembly, Executive Council, AU Commission, Peace and Security Council.

    What is a Mercator Map?

    • Creation: Designed in 1569 by Gerardus Mercator.
    • Projection: Cylindrical map with straight longitude and latitude lines intersecting at 90°.
    • Purpose: Enabled sailors to plot straight-line courses for compass navigation.
    • Adoption: Became the standard map in schools, atlases, and wall charts by the 19th century.

    Issues with the Mercator Map:

    • Distortion: Enlarges high-latitude regions (Europe, Russia, North America) while shrinking Africa and South America.
    • Example: Greenland appears equal to Africa, though Africa is ~14 times larger.
    • Colonial Bias: Reinforced Western dominance narratives and downplayed Africa’s size and importance.
    • Impact: Supported marginalisation and exploitation during colonialism.
    • Alternatives: Gall-Peters (1970s) and Equal Earth (2018) projections show continents in correct proportion.
    • AU Stand: Advocates replacing Mercator maps to restore Africa’s rightful global image.
    [UPSC 2024] The longest border between any two countries in the world is between:

    Options: (a) Canada and the USA * (b) Chile and Argentina (c) China and India (d) Kazakhstan and Russian Federation

     

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  • Russian Invasion of Ukraine: Global Implications

    Russia’s Sale of Alaska to US

    World Mapping | International Relations | Mains Paper 2: Effect Of Policies & Politics Of World On India’S Interests

    Why in the News?

    United States President Donald Trump and his Russian counterpart Vladimir Putin are set to meet in Anchorage, Alaska to discuss how to end the war in Ukraine.

    Russia's Sale of Alaska to US

    About Alaska:

    • Acquisition: Largest U.S. state; Purchased from Russia in 1867 for $7.2 million.
    • Mountains: Includes Alaska Range with Mount Denali (20,310 ft), the highest peak in North America.
    • Geography: Brooks Range separates central Alaska from the Arctic far north.
    • Tundra: Northern regions feature vast tundra, permafrost, and Arctic coastal plains.
    • Glaciers: Hosts 100,000+ glaciers, including Bering Glacier, the largest in North America.
    • Forests: About 5% glacier ice, with extensive boreal and temperate rainforests in the south.
    • Volcanoes: More than 70 active volcanoes in Aleutians and Alaska Peninsula.
    • Seismic Activity: Located on the circum-Pacific seismic belt, prone to powerful quakes (e.g., 1964 Alaska earthquake).
    • Water Resources: Contains 3 million+ lakes and 3,000+ rivers, among the most water-rich regions globally.
    • Peninsulas: Includes Alaska Peninsula, Kenai Peninsula, and Seward Peninsula (linked to ancient Bering land bridge).

    Why did Russia sell Alaska to the US?

    • After the Crimean War (1853–56), Russia was financially strained and needed funds.
    • Alaska was seen as a remote, unprofitable liability with declining fur trade.
    • Russia feared Britain might seize Alaska easily from nearby Canada in a future war.
    • Selling it to the United States ensured goodwill and balanced British power.
    • The $7.2 million sale (1867) turned a weakly defended outpost into cash for reforms.

    Geopolitical Significance of Alaska:

    • Natural Resources: Rich in oil, gas (e.g., Prudhoe Bay discovery, 1968), fisheries, and minerals vital for U.S. energy security.
    • Shipping Routes: Offers access to Arctic Sea routes, increasingly navigable due to climate change.
    • Strategic Gateway: Provides access to the Arctic and Pacific, enhancing U.S. naval and air capabilities.
    • Defense Value: Proximity to Russia made it critical in the Cold War and remains vital in Arctic competition.
    • Military Presence: Hosts major U.S. bases and radar systems for missile defense and surveillance.
    • Arctic Council Role: Strengthens U.S. claims in polar governance and Arctic Council negotiations.
    • Scientific Hub: Serves as a center for climate, seismic, and polar ecosystem research.
    [UPSC 2025] Consider the following statements:

    I. Anadyr in Siberia and Nome in Alaska are a few kilometers from each other, but when people are waking up and getting set for breakfast in these cities, it would be different days.

    II. When it is Monday in Anadyr, it is Tuesday in Nome.

    Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

    (a) I only * (b) II only (c) Both I and II (d) Neither I nor II

     

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  • Foreign Policy Watch: United Nations

    Third United Nations Conference on Landlocked Developing Countries (LLDC3)

    IOCRWorld Mapping | International Relations | Mains Paper 2: Important International Institutions

    Why in the News?

    The 3rd UN Conference on Landlocked Developing Countries (LLDC3) in Awaza, Turkmenistan, adopted the Awaza Declaration to boost investment, address challenges, and promote sustainable growth in 32 landlocked nations.

    Third United Nations Conference on Landlocked Developing Countries (LLDC3)

    About Landlocked Developing Countries (LLDCs):

    • Overview: 32 UN-recognized countries with no direct access to the sea, collectively home to over 600 million people.
    • List of LLDCs:
      1. Africa: Botswana, Burkina Faso, Burundi, Central African Republic, Chad, Eswatini, Ethiopia, Lesotho, Malawi, Mali, Niger, Rwanda, South Sudan, Uganda, Zambia, Zimbabwe.
      2. Asia: Afghanistan, Bhutan, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Lao People’s Democratic Republic, Mongolia, Nepal, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan.
      3. Europe: Armenia, Azerbaijan, North Macedonia, Moldova, Serbia.
      4. South America: Bolivia, Paraguay.
    • Challenges:
      • Dependence on transit countries for global market access.
      • Higher trade and transport costs (often twice those of coastal countries).
      • Limited connectivity, slower growth, and vulnerability to climate impacts.
    • Past Conferences:
      • 2003 (Almaty) – Almaty Programme of Action.
      • 2014 (Vienna) – Vienna Programme of Action (2014–2024).
      • 2025 (Awaza) – Awaza Programme of Action (2024–2034).

    Structure and Functioning:

    • LLDC Conferences: Held every 10 years to review progress and set a new action framework.
    • Awaza Programme of Action (2024–2034) – Priority Areas:
      • Structural transformation, science, technology, and innovation.
      • Trade facilitation and regional integration.
      • Transit, transport, and connectivity.
      • Climate resilience and adaptation.
      • Monitoring and implementation.
    • Stakeholder Participation:
      • UN member states, transit countries, donor agencies, NGOs, private sector, and academia.
    • Mechanisms:
      • UN-wide monitoring framework covering 323 initiatives.
      • Partnerships for infrastructure and digital connectivity.
      • Climate Negotiating Group under UNFCCC for LLDC-specific challenges.
    [UPSC 2013] Which one of the following countries is landlocked?

    Options:  (a) Bolivia* (b) Peru (c) Suriname (d) Uruguay

     

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