PYQ Relevance:
[UPSC 2022] “Economic growth in the recent past has been led by increase in labour productivity.” Explain this statement. Suggest the growth pattern that will lead to creation of more jobs without compromising labour productivity.
Linkage: The article talks about the corporate investment in India has been lagging, with industrial production slowing down. This question touches on the nature of economic growth and job creation, which is directly linked to investment patterns and their ability to generate sufficient employment. |
Mentor’s Comment: India’s Index of Industrial Production (IIP) growth slowed to a nine-month low of 1.2%, raising concerns over sluggish corporate investment despite tax cuts, public capital expenditure, and monetary easing. This has reignited debate on the causes of low investment, drawing from Marxist economic theories by Luxemburg and Baranovsky, and highlighting the need for demand revival and effective government stimulus to reboot the economy.
Today’s editorial analyses the slow corporate investment in India. This topic is important for GS Paper III (Indian Economy) in the UPSC mains exam.
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Let’s learn!
Why in the News?
Recently, India’s industrial output growth dropped to a nine-month low of 1.2%, raising worries about slow corporate investment.
Why has corporate investment remained low despite tax cuts, capex, and rate cuts?
- Weak Consumer Demand: Despite tax cuts and improved corporate profits, investment remains low due to insufficient consumer demand in the economy. Eg: Even after the 2019 corporate tax cut (from 30% to 22%), private sector investment in machinery and intellectual property grew only 35% over four years (FY20–FY23), as noted in the 2024-25 Economic Survey.
- Excess Industrial Capacity: Many industries are operating at suboptimal capacity, making firms hesitant to invest in new production facilities. Eg: With underutilised factories post-COVID, private players see no incentive to expand despite low interest rates and high liquidity.
- Misreading of Profit-Investment Link: The assumption that higher profits lead to more investment is flawed. As per Michał Kalecki, investment determines profits, not the other way around. Eg: Without a revival in demand, businesses avoid investment regardless of profitability, due to uncertainty about returns.
About Rosa Luxemburg and Mikhail Tugan-Baranovsky:
- Rosa Luxemburg (1871–1919): A Polish-German Marxist economist and revolutionary, Luxemburg was known for her critique of capitalist accumulation.
- Mikhail Tugan-Baranovsky (1865–1919): A Russian economist and early Marxist thinker, Baranovsky challenged traditional Marxist views with his theories on industrial cycles.
What do Luxembourg and Baranovsky argue about investment in capitalism?
- Baranovsky’s View – Investment Generates Its Own Market: He argued that in capitalism, investment can sustain itself as long as there is a balanced ratio between the consumption and investment sectors. He believed that machines can produce more machines, and investment can occur even without final consumption demand.
- Luxemburg’s Counter–Investment Depends on Demand: Luxembourg disagreed, stating that individual capitalists base investment decisions on anticipated demand. If demand is weak and existing capacity underused, capitalists avoid new investments, making demand revival essential for capital accumulation.
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What limits the effectiveness of government capex in crowding in private investment?
Note: Government capex refers to the expenditure on creating long-term assets such as infrastructure (roads, railways, ports), schools, hospitals, and defence equipment.
- Gestation lags of infrastructure projects: Large public investments in infrastructure (like ports, highways, railways) take years to become operational. Until completed, they do not immediately enhance productivity or reduce logistics costs, thus delaying private sector response.
- High import content in capex: A significant portion of government capex may be spent on imported machinery or inputs, which leaks demandout of the domestic economy. This reduces the multiplier effect and fails to generate sufficient local demand for private sector goods and services.
- Low employment intensity of capex projects: Many infrastructure projects are capital-intensive but not labour-intensive, meaning they create few jobs. This limits income generation and consumer demand, reducing the incentive for private firms to expand production capacity.
Why is demand revival essential for boosting investment?
- Drives Capacity Utilisation: When consumer demand rises, existing production units approach their full capacity. This encourages private firms to invest in expanding their capacity to meet growing market needs.
- Reduces Investment Risk: Strong and predictable demand provides confidence to investors that they will earn returns on capital. Without sufficient demand, firms fear underutilisation of new assets and avoid fresh investments.
- Stimulates a Virtuous Economic Cycle: Higher demand leads to higher sales, which increases profits, employment, and further consumer spending. This self-reinforcing cycle sustains investment momentum and boosts overall economic growth.
What is the state’s role?
- Stimulating Demand through Public Spending: The state plays a counter-cyclical role by increasing government expenditure, especially during economic slowdowns. Eg: Large-scale infrastructure investments in roads, railways, and housing under PM Gati Shakti generate demand, jobs, and confidence in the private sector.
- Providing Exogenous Stimuli for Investment: The state acts as a catalyst by injecting external demand and resources into the economy when private demand is weak. Eg: PLI (Production-Linked Incentive) schemes offer incentives for capital expenditure in key sectors like electronics and pharma, attracting private investment.
- Ensuring Access to Affordable Finance: The state, through monetary and fiscal institutions, helps ensure easy credit availability and interest rate stability. Eg: The Reserve Bank of India’s rate cuts and liquidity measures during COVID-19 were aimed at making credit cheaper for industries to invest.
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Way forward:
- Focus on Demand Revival: The government must prioritize income support, especially for lower-income households, through targeted welfare schemes and employment guarantees. This will boost consumption, which is essential for stimulating private sector investment.
- Enhance the Multiplier Effect of Capex: Public capital expenditure should be labour-intensive, locally sourced, and designed to reduce import leakages. This will maximize domestic demand generation and strengthen the crowd-in effect on private investment.
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Why in the News?
Six out of the 14 Production-Linked Incentive (PLI) schemes, including textiles, solar modules, IT hardware, automobiles, advanced chemical cells (ACC), and speciality steel, are progressing at a relatively slower pace.
What are the primary reasons for the slow implementation of PLI schemes?
- Stringent Eligibility Norms: Many industries have reported that the eligibility criteria for participation in PLI schemes are too stringent, which limits the number of companies that can benefit from the incentives.
- Initial Setup Challenges: Establishing a domestic manufacturing base from scratch is a monumental task. Industries such as solar modules and advanced chemistry cells (ACC) require substantial time—ranging from one-and-a-half to three years—to set up manufacturing operations, delaying employment generation.
- Access to Resources: Companies face difficulties in accessing critical resources, including Chinese machinery and skilled technicians, which can hinder their ability to ramp up production quickly.
- Market Dependency: Some sectors remain heavily reliant on imports and have not yet transitioned to a self-sufficient manufacturing model, impacting their growth under the PLI framework.
- Slow Disbursement of Funds: The initial years of the scheme saw minimal disbursement of funds, with only a small percentage of the total incentive outlay being paid out in the first two years.
Which sectors are experiencing the most significant slowdowns, and why?
- Textiles: This sector is struggling due to high competition and stringent norms that have slowed down participation and growth.
- Solar Modules: Despite being a strategic sector for renewable energy, delays in establishing manufacturing capabilities have led to slow progress.
- As of June 2024, India’s solar module manufacturing capacity reached 77.2 GW, but the solar cell capacity was only 7.6 GW, leading to supply shortages that delayed projects.
- Automobiles: While some companies are making progress, the automobile sector overall is hindered by initial setup challenges and fluctuating market conditions.
- Factors such as rising raw material costs and shifts in consumer preferences towards electric vehicles are creating a complex environment for traditional automakers.
- Advanced Chemical Cells (ACC): Similar to solar modules, this sector faces long commissioning periods that delay employment outcomes. Because of the lengthy development timelines for manufacturing facilities and the need for substantial investment in technology are contributing to slower growth in this strategic area.
- IT Hardware: Although recently upgraded with increased funding, it still lags behind in implementation compared to more successful sectors like mobile manufacturing.
What measures can be taken to enhance the effectiveness of PLI schemes? (Way forward)
- Revising Eligibility Criteria: Simplifying the eligibility requirements could encourage more companies, especially smaller firms, to participate in the schemes and benefit from incentives.
- Increasing Support for Supply Chains: Establishing robust supply chains is crucial. The government could provide additional support to smaller suppliers who are essential for scaling up production across sectors.
- Streamlining Resource Access: Facilitating easier access to necessary machinery and skilled labor can help companies ramp up production more effectively and reduce dependency on imports.
- Regular Reviews and Adjustments: Continuous monitoring and adjustments based on sector performance can help identify bottlenecks early and allow for timely interventions.
- Encouraging Ancillary Industries: Promoting the establishment of ancillary industries around larger beneficiaries could create additional jobs and enhance local manufacturing capabilities.
Mains question for practice:
Q Evaluate the challenges in the implementation of the Production-Linked Incentive (PLI) schemes in India. Highlight the sectors experiencing significant slowdowns and suggest measures to enhance the effectiveness of these schemes. (250 words) 15M
Mains PYQ:
Q Can the strategy of regional-resource based manufacturing help in promoting employment in India?. (UPSC IAS/2019)
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Why in the News?
Despite China’s increasing involvement in financing and infrastructure development, India continues to hold a significant position as one of Nigeria’s key partners in West Africa.
What are the strategic objectives of India in West Africa?
- Strengthening Bilateral Relations: India aims to enhance its strategic partnership with Nigeria, which is pivotal as Nigeria is both the largest economy and democracy in Africa. This partnership is expected to extend beyond Nigeria, influencing broader regional dynamics in West Africa.
- Focus on Security Cooperation: Given the challenges of terrorism, piracy, and drug trafficking in Nigeria, India seeks to bolster security cooperation. This includes defence collaboration and joint efforts in counterterrorism operations against groups like Boko Haram.
- Development Partnerships: India positions itself as a development partner by providing concessional loans and capacity-building programs, demonstrating a commitment to supporting Nigeria’s socio-economic growth.
- Promotion of Global South Aspirations: Both India and Nigeria share common goals as leaders of the Global South, aiming to amplify their voices in international forums like the UN Security Council.
How does India plan to enhance its economic ties with West African countries?
- Diversifying Trade Relations: India plans to revitalize trade with Nigeria, which has seen a decline recently. Efforts include negotiating trade agreements such as the Economic Cooperation Agreement (ECA) and the Bilateral Investment Treaty (BIT) to facilitate investment and trade.
- Sectoral Collaboration: The focus areas for economic collaboration include defense, energy, technology, health, and education. India’s PM discussions with the President of Nigeria emphasized leveraging India’s expertise in these sectors to foster mutual growth.
- Infrastructure Development: India aims to support infrastructure development through concessional loans and technical assistance, building on existing projects that have benefited from Indian investment.
- Cultural and People-to-People Exchanges: Enhancing cultural ties and promoting exchanges between citizens are also part of India’s strategy to strengthen bilateral relations, fostering goodwill and mutual understanding.
What challenges does India face in its engagement with West Africa?
- Geopolitical Competition: India’s engagement is challenged by China’s significant presence in Nigeria, where Chinese companies dominate various sectors including infrastructure and telecommunications. This competition complicates India’s efforts to establish itself as a key partner.
- Economic Fluctuations: The decline in trade between India and Nigeria from $14.95 billion in 2021-22 to $7.89 billion in 2023-24 highlights vulnerabilities due to shifting global oil markets and increasing imports from other countries like Russia.
- Political Instability: The political landscape in Nigeria can be unpredictable, posing risks for long-term investments and cooperation initiatives that require stability for successful implementation.
- Capacity Constraints: While India offers developmental assistance, the effectiveness of these initiatives can be hindered by local capacity constraints in Nigeria, necessitating a tailored approach that considers local needs and capabilities.
Way forward:
- Deepen Strategic Collaboration: Strengthen defence and security partnerships, diversify trade, and enhance collaboration in sectors like energy, technology, and health to counter China’s growing influence and foster mutual growth.
- Focus on Regional Capacity Building: Expand developmental assistance with tailored initiatives addressing local needs, while supporting Nigeria’s stability through diplomatic engagement and joint Global South aspirations in international forums.
Mains question for practice:
Q Discuss the strategic objectives of India in West Africa, with a particular focus on its engagement with Nigeria. Highlight the challenges India faces in strengthening its ties in the region and suggest measures to address these challenges. (250 words) 15M
Mains PYQ:
Q Increasing interest of India in Africa has its pros and cons. Critically Examine. (UPSC IAS/2015)
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Why in the News?
Researchers at the Raman Research Institute (RRI) found that quantum noise—usually seen as a problem—can sometimes help connect particles in a special way called entanglement, which is important for future quantum technologies.
What is Quantum Noise?
- Overview: Quantum noise refers to random disturbances that affect quantum systems, often causing loss of coherence or decoherence.
- Traditional View: It is typically seen as harmful, especially for quantum entanglement, which is crucial for quantum computing and communication.
- Entanglement Concept: It is a phenomenon where particles are so correlated that the state of one instantly affects the state of another, even at a distance.
- Effect of Decoherence: Noise-induced decoherence breaks this entanglement, thereby reducing the efficiency of quantum technologies.
Key Findings:
- Observation: Found that quantum noise can generate or revive entanglement, contrary to its typical reputation as destructive.
- Focus Area: Studied intraparticle entanglement, which involves internal properties (like spin and path) of a single particle.
- Contrast with Interparticle Entanglement: Unlike interparticle entanglement (between separate particles), intraparticle entanglement showed resilience under noise.
- Types of Noise Studied:
- Amplitude Damping: Energy loss
- Phase Damping: Loss of phase information
- Depolarizing Noise: Random changes in quantum state
- Major Observation: Under amplitude damping, intraparticle entanglement showed delayed decay, revival, and even creation from unentangled states.
- Interparticle Comparison: In contrast, interparticle entanglement exhibited steady decay with no revival or generation.
Scientific Implications:
- New Perspective: Challenges the assumption that quantum noise is purely harmful, showing it can be a resource in certain contexts.
- Technological Potential: Intraparticle entanglement is more noise-resilient, making it valuable for stable quantum devices.
- Application Areas: Findings are relevant to quantum communication, QKD (quantum key distribution), quantum computing, and quantum sensing.
- Predictive Advantage: The new formula allows precise prediction of entanglement behavior, aiding the design of robust systems.
- Platform Independence: Results are platform-agnostic, applicable to photons, neutrons, trapped ions, etc.
| [UPSC 2025] Consider the following statements:
I. It is expected that Majorana 1 chip will enable quantum computing. II. Majorana 1 chip has been introduced by Amazon Web Services (AWS). III. Deep learning is a subset of machine learning.
Which of the statements given above are correct?
(a) I and only I (b) II and III only (c) I and III only * (d) I, II and III |
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Why in the News?
Researchers in China have discovered a method to curb locust swarming by manipulating their pheromones, paving the way for eco-friendly locust control.
What are Locust Swarms?
- Locusts are large grasshoppers capable of forming massive swarms, consuming up to their body weight in food daily, and travelling 150 km/day with favourable winds.
- They are highly destructive, stripping crops and threatening food security. A single swarm can consume food equivalent to the daily needs of 35,000 people.
- In India, Locust Control and Research (LC&R) oversees locust management.
- The Locust Warning Organisation (LWO), established in 1939, monitors and controls locust activity in states like Rajasthan, Gujarat, Punjab, and Haryana.
- The 2019-2022 desert locust outbreak was one of the worst in decades, devastating India, Pakistan, and East Africa, destroying over 200,000 hectares of crops.
- Despite existing control measures, locust outbreaks remain difficult to manage due to their rapid breeding capabilities.
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About Locust Pheromones:
- Locust Behavioural Phases: Locusts exhibit two behavioural phases—solitary (non-swarming) and gregarious (swarming). The shift to gregariousness leads to swarm formation.
- Key Pheromone – 4-Vinylanisole (4VA):
- Identified in 2020 by Chinese researchers.
- Released from locusts’ hind legs after feeding, especially due to the digestion of phenylalanine (a plant compound).
- Acts as an aggregation pheromone, attracting other locusts and triggering group behaviour.
- Biochemical Pathway:
- Enzymes 4VPMT1 (dominant) and 4VPMT2 convert a precursor molecule (4VP) into 4VA.
- This process is crucial in converting solitary locusts into swarm-forming gregarious ones.
Recent Breakthrough and Its Implication:
- Discovery: Researchers at the Chinese Academy of Sciences genetically blocked 4VPMT1, preventing locusts from producing 4VA and stopping swarm formation.
- Limitations: 4NP is toxic and environmentally persistent, raising concerns for large-scale deployment.
- Strategy Proposed: RNA interference (RNAi)-based biopesticides targeting 4VPMT genes to prevent 4VA production without toxicity.
- Wider Implications:
- Marks the first pollution-free molecular approach to locust control.
- Can reduce reliance on synthetic pesticides, protect crops, and support sustainable agriculture.
- Offers a precision pest control model based on insect behavioural biochemistry.
| [UPSC 2001] American multinational company, Monsanto has produced an insect-resistant cotton variety that is undergoing field- trials in India. A toxin gene from which ONE of the following bacteria has been transferred to this transgenic cotton ?
Options: (a) Bacillus subtilis (b) Bacillus thurigiensis* (c) Bacillus amyloliquifanciens (d) Bacillus globlii |
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Why in the News?
India’s inflation indicators have shown a significant downward trend, with the Consumer Price Index (CPI) dropping to a 77-month low of 2.1% in June 2025, and the Wholesale Price Index (WPI) contracting by -0.13%, marking its first decline in 20 months.
Key Highlights on Inflation (June 2025):
- Consumer Price Index (CPI) inflation dropped to 2.1%, the lowest in 77 months (since January 2019).
- Wholesale Price Index (WPI) contracted by -0.13%, marking its first decline in 20 months.
- Food and Beverages (CPI component) registered deflation of 0.2%, after being at 8.4% in June 2024.
- WPI Food Articles saw a sharp fall of 3.75%, compared to 11.1% inflation in June 2024.
- Crude Petroleum and Natural Gas (WPI) prices contracted by 12.3%, the 10th straight month of decline.
- Inflation in Fuel and Light (CPI) eased to 2.55% (from 2.8% in May 2025).
- Housing inflation increased marginally to 3.24%, while Pan, Tobacco and Intoxicants stayed stable at 2.4%.
Back2Basics: Consumer Price Index (CPI) vs. Wholesale Price Index (WPI)
|
Consumer Price Index (CPI) |
Wholesale Price Index (WPI) |
| Definition |
Measures the change in retail prices of goods and services consumed by households |
Measures the change in wholesale prices of goods traded between businesses |
| Compiled By |
National Statistical Office (NSO), Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation (MoSPI) |
Office of Economic Adviser, Ministry of Commerce and Industry |
| Base Year |
2012 (CPI-Industrial Workers has 2016 as base year) |
2011–12 |
| Coverage |
Goods and Services |
Only Goods |
| Data Collection |
Prices from 1,181 villages & 1,114 urban markets across India |
Prices collected from wholesale markets, factories, and mandis |
| Purpose/Use |
Measures retail inflation, used for the RBI’s inflation targeting and monetary policy decisions |
Measures producer-level inflation, used as a GDP deflator |
| Users |
Consumers, RBI, Government (for social welfare schemes like DA/DR) |
Policymakers, manufacturers, and financial markets |
| Publication Frequency |
Monthly |
Monthly |
| Number of Items |
299 items |
697 items |
| Components |
– Food & Beverages (45%)
– Housing (10%)
– Fuel & Light (6.8%)
– Miscellaneous (services, etc.) (28.3%)
– Clothing & Footwear (6.5%)
– Pan, Tobacco & Intoxicants (2.4%) |
– Primary Articles (22.6%)
– Fuel & Power (13.2%)
– Manufactured Products (64.2%) |
| Weight of Food Items |
High (~45%) |
Lower (~24.4%) |
| Impact on Economy |
Direct impact on consumer purchasing power and cost of living |
Indicates trends in production costs and supply chain |
| Volatility |
More volatile due to food and fuel price changes |
Less volatile due to base price considerations |
| Use in Policy |
Directly used by RBI for inflation targeting (e.g., 4% CPI target) |
Used for GDP deflation, price policy formation |
| Criticism |
May not reflect production-side price pressures |
Does not capture consumer-level inflation or services |
| Inflation Indicator |
Preferred indicator for common people |
More relevant to manufacturers and wholesale traders |
| [UPSC 2021] With reference to the Indian economy, demand-pull inflation can be caused or increased by which of the following:
1. Expansionary policies 2.Fiscal stimulus 3.Inflation-indexing of wages 4.Higher purchasing power 5.Rising interest rates
Select the correct answer using the code given below:
Options: (a) 1, 2, and 4 only* (b) 3, 4, and 5 only (c) 1, 2, 3, and 5 only (d) 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5 |
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Why in the News?
The Union Ministry of Power has launched a new national scheme — Assistance in Deploying Energy Efficient Technologies in Industries & Establishments (ADEETIE).
About ADEETIE Scheme:
- Launch: It was launched by the Ministry of Power through the Bureau of Energy Efficiency (BEE).
- Objective: It aims to promote energy efficiency in Micro, Small, and Medium Enterprises (MSMEs) to cut energy consumption, reduce emissions, and enhance competitiveness.
- Background: It builds upon successful state-level pilots, such as decarbonisation projects in Andhra Pradesh’s MSME clusters.
- Climate Alignment: It supports India’s climate goals, including 45% emission intensity reduction by 2030 and achieving Net Zero by 2070.
- Budget Allocation: The scheme has a dedicated budget of ₹1,000 crore, with a focus on MSMEs, EXCLUDING large enterprises.
Key Features of ADEETIE Scheme:
- Interest Subsidy Support: MSMEs adopting energy-efficient tech will receive interest subsidies on loans:
- 5% for small enterprises
- 3% for medium enterprises
- Digital Portal Utility: The platform acts as a one-stop portal for financing, project development, and knowledge sharing on energy-efficient solutions.
- Supported Technologies: It promotes adoption of cutting-edge clean technologies, including:
- Automation and digital control systems
- Combustion control systems for boilers
- Methane capture technology
- Air-dyeing in textiles
- Collaboration: It fosters industry partnerships through MoUs with major MSME associations.
- Legal Backing: It aligns with the Energy Conservation (Amendment) Act, 2022, which enables carbon markets and mandates clean energy usage.
| [UPSC 2016] On which of the following can you find the Bureau of Energy Efficiency Star Label?
1. Ceiling fans
2. Electric geysers
3. Tubular fluorescent lamps
Select the correct answer using the code given below.
Options: (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 3 only (c) 2 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3* |
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Why in the News?
This newscard highlights the role of Indian assistants in completing the Great Trigonometric Survey (GTS), which began in 1802 to map India’s geography.
About the Great Trigonometrical Survey (GTS):
- Launch and Objective: The GTS was a massive scientific and cartographic initiative launched in 1802 by the British to map India with unprecedented precision using trigonometry and geodesy.
- Initiator: It was conceptualised by William Lambton, a British army officer, and carried out under the East India Company.
- Purpose: It aimed to measure Earth’s curvature, create accurate maps, and support colonial administration, scientific research, and military planning.
- Survey Method: It used triangulation, involving a network of interconnected triangles built from a known baseline to calculate distances and angles over large areas.
- First Baseline: The initial baseline was measured in 1802 at St. Thomas Mount near Madras (Chennai) and extended over 2,600 km up to the Himalayas.
- Instruments Used: The survey used massive theodolites (weighing up to half a ton) and measuring chains, requiring large teams for operation and transport.
- Scientific Outcome: It led to the formulation of the Everest Spheroid, a geodetic reference model still used for mapping in South Asia.
- Duration and Leadership: Although planned to take 5 years, the project lasted nearly 70 years (until 1871) and was led by successors such as George Everest (after whom Mt. Everest was named), Andrew Scott Waugh, and James Walker.
How did the GTS led to the Mapping of India?
- First Accurate Maps: It provided scientific maps that corrected earlier errors, enabling modern geodetic frameworks for administration and infrastructure.
- Survey Range: It mapped from southern India to the Himalayas, supporting large-scale development and scientific measurement.
- Great Arc Measurement: It measured the Great Arc (Chennai to Dehradun), a significant geodetic arc that helped calculate Earth’s curvature.
- Himalayan Heights: Using triangulation data, the survey measured 79 Himalayan peaks, including Mount Everest, K2, and Kangchenjunga.
- Mount Everest Identification: In 1852, Peak XV was identified as the world’s highest mountain, later named Mount Everest in honour of George Everest.
- Latitude-Longitude System: It produced precise longitude and latitude coordinates, crucial for navigation, military logistics, and administration.
- Infrastructure Impact: Survey benchmarks supported railways, roads, canals, and earthquake studies, many of which remain relevant today.
Contribution of Indians to the GTS:
- Syed Mir Mohsin Husain: A jeweller from Arcot who repaired critical instruments and was later appointed as an instrument maker in the Surveyor General’s office.
- Radhanath Sikdar: An Indian mathematician who calculated the height of Mount Everest in 1852, confirming it as the tallest peak globally.
- Indian Field Workers: Thousands of Indian flagmen, khalasis, and labourers undertook challenging tasks like carrying heavy equipment, setting markers, and working in hazardous environments.
- Logistical Support: Indian artisans and technicians repaired, calibrated, and adapted instruments, making the project feasible under Indian conditions.
- Role of Pundits: Trained Indian “pundits” conducted secret surveys in Tibet and politically sensitive regions, where British officers were restricted.
| [UPSC 2018] Among the following cities, which one lies on a longitude closest to that of Delhi?
Options: (a) Bengaluru* (b) Hyderabad (c) Nagpur (d) Pune |
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