PYQ Relevance:
[UPSC 2024] Explain the reasons for the growth of public interest litigation in India. As a result of it, has the Indian Supreme Court emerged as the world’s most powerful judiciary?
Linkage: This question is about the power and role of the Supreme Court of India. It helps us understand how the Court gives advice to the President and what limits exist when it comes to reviewing or changing its past decisions. |
Mentor’s Comment: On July 22, 2025, the Supreme Court of India issued notices to the Union Government and all States on a Presidential Reference seeking clarity on whether the President and Governors can be judicially compelled to act within prescribed timelines on Bills passed by State legislatures. This comes in the wake of the Court’s April 8 judgment, which held that delays by Governors in granting assent to Bills are unconstitutional, and laid down judicially enforceable timelines for action. The Constitution Bench, led by Chief Justice B.R. Gavai, will hear the matter in detail around mid-August under Article 143(1), which allows the President to seek the Court’s advisory opinion on matters of public importance.
Today’s editorial analyses the Presidential Reference seeking clarity on whether the President and Governors can be judicially compelled to act within prescribed timelines on Bills passed by State legislatures.. This topic is important for GS Paper II (Indian Polity) in the UPSC mains exam.
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Let’s learn!
Why in the News?
Recently, the Supreme Court of India has asked the Union Government and all States to respond to a question raised by the President: Can the President and Governors be legally forced to take action within a fixed time on Bills passed by State Assemblies?
What is Presidential Reference?
Presidential Reference is a process under Article 143 of the Indian Constitution where the President of India seeks the Supreme Court’s advisory opinion on important questions of law or fact that are of public importance.
Background:
In 2024, President Droupadi Murmu invoked Article 143(1) to ask the Supreme Court whether binding timelines can be imposed on the President and Governors to act on Bills passed by State Legislatures — especially in light of delays in assent or return of Bills, such as those witnessed in Tamil Nadu and Punjab. |
What is the significance of Article 143(1) in constitutional interpretation in the context of Presidential Reference?
- Presidential Power to Seek Advice: Article 143(1) empowers the President of India to seek the Supreme Court’s advisory opinion on questions of law or matters of public importance. Eg: In the Berubari Union case (1960), the President referred a question about the transfer of territory to Pakistan.
- Advisory Role of the Supreme Court: The Supreme Court’s opinion is not binding, but carries high persuasive value in future interpretations and policy decisions. Eg: The Court’s opinion on the Ayodhya land issue (1993) was declined, as the reference was seen to violate secularism.
- Clarifies Constitutional Dilemmas: Helps resolve grey areas in constitutional practice without formal litigation, especially in cases involving federal disputes or institutional responsibilities. Eg: The 2024 Presidential Reference seeks clarity on whether the SC can set timelines for Governors or the President in assenting to Bills.
Why did Tamil Nadu’s plea over the Governor’s inaction raise constitutional concerns?
- Delay Violates Constitutional Mandate: The Governor’s inaction on State Bills breaches Article 200, which requires prompt decision assent, reservation, or withholding on legislative proposals.
- Threatens Federalism and State Autonomy: Prolonged inaction undermines the authority of the elected State government, disrupting the federal balance enshrined in the Constitution.
- Triggers Judicial and Political Tensions: Such inaction forces judicial intervention, leading to constitutional ambiguity and disputes over the separation of powers between constitutional offices.
How did the April 8 SC verdict reshape the Centre-State power balance?
- Fixed a Time Limit for Governors’ Decisions: The Supreme Court ruled that Governors must act on Bills “as soon as possible”, preventing indefinite delays. Eg: In Tamil Nadu’s case, the Governor had withheld action on multiple Bills for months, leading to constitutional standoff.
- Clarified Limits on Withholding Assent: The Court emphasized that Governors cannot sit on Bills indefinitely or reject them arbitrarily, reinforcing the legislative supremacy of elected State governments. Eg: The verdict curbed the misuse of Article 200 by Governors in opposition-ruled States.
- Reinforced Cooperative Federalism: The judgment upheld that constitutional functionaries must act in harmony, ensuring Centre-State relations are based on trust and constitutional propriety. Eg: The verdict serves as a warning against politicized Governor roles that disrupt the federal structure.
When can the Supreme Court refuse a Presidential Reference?
- Lack of Public Importance: If the issue is not of sufficient public or constitutional importance, the Court may decline to give its opinion. Eg: Political or non-legal matters without broader legal impact.
- Hypothetical or Vague Questions: The Court avoids answering abstract, premature, or unclear issues. Eg: In the Cauvery Water Disputes Tribunal case (1992), the Court refused as the matter was not ripe for consideration.
- Risk of Judicial Overreach: If the reference could interfere with pending litigation, reopen settled judgments, or encroach on executive/legislative powers, the Court may refuse. Eg: Questions that challenge or revisit prior rulings.
How does the non-binding nature of Article 143 opinions affect jurisprudence?
- Encourages Deliberative Democracy: Since the opinion is not binding, it invites parliamentary debate and public discourse rather than closing the matter purely through judicial authority. Eg: After the SC’s advisory opinion in the In re Kerala Education Bill, 1957, political discussions shaped the final policy on minority education rights.
- Enables Judicial Restraint in Political Questions: It allows the Court to share constitutional insight without overstepping into executive or legislative domains, maintaining the separation of powers. Eg: In the Ayodhya Reference case (1994), the SC declined to answer a politically loaded question, exercising restraint.
- Promotes Flexibility in Constitutional Practice: Non-binding opinions allow the executive to consider but not be bound by the Court’s interpretation, creating space for evolving legal practices over time. Eg: The opinion in In re Cauvery Water Disputes Tribunal (1991) offered legal clarity, but the Centre retained room to manage interstate negotiations.
Way forward:
- Make Advisory Opinions More Transparent and Accessible: Publish all Presidential References and advisory opinions in simple language to promote public understanding and ensure informed civic debate on constitutional matters.
- Encourage Parliamentary Follow-Up: Parliament should deliberate on Supreme Court’s advisory views under Article 143(1) to align legislation or executive action with constitutional principles while respecting the non-binding nature of such opinions.
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Why in the News?
India needs to urgently revamp its defence modernisation plans in the face of emerging challenges from China and Pakistan, especially after the India-Pakistan conflict of May 2025, which revealed gaps in India’s preparedness.
How has warfare changed since the Cold War?
- Shift from Large-Scale Wars to Regional Conflicts: After the Cold War, global tensions gave way to smaller, localized wars rather than global showdowns. Eg: The Gulf War (1991) marked the start of precision-based, limited military operations instead of prolonged world wars.
- Rise of Technology-Driven Warfare: Modern conflicts rely heavily on AI, drones, cyber tools, and precision weapons instead of traditional manpower-heavy combat. Eg: The Russia-Ukraine war has prominently used drones, cyberattacks, and satellite-guided missile systems.
- Multi-Domain and Asymmetric Warfare: Warfare now involves land, air, sea, cyber, and space, blending conventional and irregular tactics. Eg: The use of cyberattacks alongside physical strikes in Israel-Hamas and India-Pakistan skirmishes reflects this evolution.
Why is traditional military power becoming outdated?
- Emergence of Asymmetric Threats: Traditional armies are less effective against non-state actors, insurgents, and cyber warriors who don’t follow conventional battle rules. Eg: The Taliban’s return in Afghanistan despite 20 years of U.S. military presence shows the limits of conventional power.
- Dominance of Cyber and Information Warfare: Modern conflicts are increasingly fought in the digital space through disinformation, cyberattacks, and AI tools. Eg: The Russia-Ukraine war witnessed widespread cyber sabotage, showing that keyboard warriors can now cripple systems without firing a bullet.
- Cost-Effectiveness of Smart Technologies: Drones, automated systems, and AI-based surveillance offer greater impact at lower cost than tanks or large troop deployments. Eg: The use of Turkish Bayraktar drones in Ukraine showed how low-cost tech can neutralize expensive military hardware.
What challenges does India face in countering China’s military rise?
- Infrastructure Gap along the Border: China has superior military infrastructure in Tibet and Xinjiang, including roads, airstrips, and logistics networks, giving it faster mobilization capability. Eg: The LAC standoff in Eastern Ladakh (2020) exposed India’s slower troop movement due to underdeveloped border infrastructure.
- Defence Budget and Modernisation Lag: India’s defence spending is lower in proportion to GDP compared to China, limiting rapid modernisation and procurement of high-end military tech. Eg: China’s 2024 defence budget is over 3 times larger than India’s, enabling faster upgrades in hypersonic weaponsand naval expansion.
- Two-Front Security Challenge: India faces the risk of simultaneous conflicts with China and Pakistan, straining its military resources and strategic planning. Eg: Joint China-Pakistan military exercises and China’s presence in Pakistan-occupied Kashmir (PoK) increase pressure on India’s western and northern fronts.
How should India update its defence strategy? (Way forward)
- Focus on Cyber and Space Capabilities: India must strengthen its cyber defence, space surveillance, and satellite-based warfare tools to deal with non-traditional threats. Eg: The formation of Defence Cyber Agency and Defence Space Agency is a step towards tackling emerging cyber and space-based challenges.
- Promote Indigenous Defence Innovation: Shifting from imports to Make in India and Aatmanirbhar Bharat in defence production is vital for self-reliance and strategic autonomy. Eg: Development of Tejas fighter jets and DRDO’s missile systems shows India’s move toward building its own defence ecosystem.
- Modernise Armed Forces with Smart Technology: Upgrading with AI-enabled systems, drones, and robotics will enhance operational efficiency in both border and hybrid warfare. Eg: Indian Army’s deployment of drones for surveillance in the LAC region demonstrates the use of tech-driven force multipliers.
Mains PYQ:
[UPSC 2022] What are the different elements of cyber security? Keeping in view the challenges in cyber security, examine the extent to which India has successfully developed a comprehensive National Cyber Security Strategy.
Linkage: The article highlights that “The advent of cyber and Artificial Intelligence (AI) has seen battle elds morph into complex multi-domain conflict zones, involving advanced technologies, AI and cyber warfare methodologies”. It further emphasizes that “digital strategies and autonomous systems are tending to make traditional concepts of how battles are won… outdated” and that “Future warfare is increasingly set to become digitally autonomous and interconnected.
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Why in the News?
There is growing ethical and scientific concern over the continued use of animal testing in laboratories, as evidence mounts that such methods are often ineffective in predicting human responses. The legal and moral shift in India specifically, an amendment to the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals Act, 1960, to promote the use of bioartificial models over live animals in experimentation.
What about the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals Act, 1960?
The Prevention of Cruelty to Animals Act, 1960 is an Indian law enacted to prevent the infliction of unnecessary pain or suffering on animals and to promote their well-being.
Key features:
- Prohibits cruelty towards animals such as beating, kicking, overloading, or mutilating them.
- Establishes the Animal Welfare Board of India (AWBI) to advise the government on animal protection laws and promote animal welfare.
- Allows for penalties and punishment (fines or imprisonment) for violating its provisions, though critics say these are often outdated and too lenient.
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Why is an amendment to the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals Act, 1960 legally and morally necessary in India?
- Outdated Penalties and Definitions: The current Act imposes minimal fines (as low as ₹50), which fail to act as deterrents against cruelty. An amendment is needed to introduce stricter punishments and update definitions to match modern ethical standards.
- Rising Incidents of Animal Abuse: With growing reports of gruesome cruelty (e.g., dog killings, abuse in labs), there is a need for laws that reflect the moral conscience of today’s society and recognize animal sentience.
- Global Commitments and Standards: India aspires to be a leader in global bioethics and sustainability. Amending the Act would align national laws with international treaties like the Universal Declaration on Animal Welfare, enhancing India’s moral and legal credibility.
How can regenerative medicine and tissue engineering reduce animal testing?
- Development of Human-like Organ Models: Scientists can grow 3D human tissues (like liver, heart, or skin) in the lab, which can be used to test drug toxicity and effectiveness. Eg: The “liver-on-a-chip” developed by Emulate Inc. mimics human liver functions and replaces animal use in drug screening.
- Personalized Disease Models: Patient-derived stem cells can be used to create tissue models that reflect individual genetic profiles, allowing more accurate predictions of drug reactions without animals. Eg: In cystic fibrosis research, mini lungs (organoids) grown from patient cells are used to test responses to various treatments.
- Accelerated Drug Development and Safety Testing: Tissue-engineered models provide faster and more ethical platforms for early-stage drug testing, reducing the need for preliminary animal trials. Eg: Skin tissue models like EpiDerm are widely used to test cosmetics and chemicals for irritation and toxicity, replacing rabbit skin tests.
What limitations exist in using animals for toxicity and medical research?
- Biological Differences: Animals and humans often respond differently to substances, making results less reliable when applied to humans. Eg: A drug safe in mice might cause severe side effects in humans.
- Inability to Replicate Human Diseases Accurately: Many complex human diseases like Alzheimer’s or cancer cannot be fully mimicked in animals, leading to incomplete or misleading data. Eg: Alzheimer’s treatments successful in animals have failed in human trials.
Why is a change in societal values crucial for ensuring animal welfare in scientific practices?
- Shifting Public Opinion Influences Policy: When society becomes more ethically aware about animal suffering, it puts pressure on governments and institutions to adopt humane research standards and fund alternatives to animal testing.
- Promotes a Culture of Compassion in Science: Changing values encourage scientists to prioritise non-animal methods and view animal welfare as integral to ethical and responsible research, not just a legal requirement.
What are the steps taken by the Indian government?
- Ban on Animal Testing for Cosmetics: In 2014, India became the first country in Asia to ban animal testing for cosmetic products and ingredients.
- Promotion of Alternative Methods: The government supports institutions like the Indian Council of Medical Research (ICMR) and National Centre for Alternatives to Animal Experiments (NCAAE) to develop in-vitro and computer-based models.
- Regulatory Reforms: Revisions in Drugs and Cosmetics Rules and CPCSEA guidelines aim to reduce, refine, and replace animal use by encouraging ethical review and stricter compliance protocols.
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Way forward:
- Strengthen Investment in Alternatives: Increase funding for regenerative medicine, organoids, and AI-based simulations to provide scalable, ethical, and scientifically advanced testing methods.
- Enhance Public Awareness and Education: Launch nationwide campaigns to promote animal ethics in science, encouraging academic institutions and industries to adopt humane practices and reduce dependence on animal models.
Mains PYQ:
[UPSC 2017] Stem cell therapy is gaining popularity in India to treat a wide variety of medical conditions including Leukaemia, Thalassemia, damaged cornea and several burns. Describe briefly what stem cell therapy is and what advantages it has over other treatments?
Linkage: The article explicitly advocates for a shift from animal experimentation to methods like tissue engineering or regenerative medicine. Stem cell therapy is a direct application and a significant development within the field of regenerative medicine.
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Why in the News?
Former Odisha CM expressed concern over the omission of the Paika Rebellion from NCERT’s latest Class VIII history textbook, calling it a “huge dishonour” to the brave Paikas.
Localized Revolts in Odisha Region:
- The Paika Rebellion was part of a broader pattern of regional uprisings triggered by colonial encroachments:
- Paralakhemundi Rebellion (1799–1814)
- Ghumusar Revolt (1835–36)
- Angul Uprising (1846–47)
- Kondh and Sabara Rebellions (1855–1857)
- These revolts were often led by dispossessed elites and tribal communities, reacting to land loss, economic distress, and erosion of traditional authority.
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About Paika Rebellion:
- Who Were the Paikas: Traditional militia of Odisha who served local kings in exchange for rent-free land (nish-kar jagirs) and social standing.
- Role: Functioned as hereditary foot soldiers and police for the Khurda kingdom.
- Decline: British annexation of Odisha in 1803 ended their privileges through land revenue reforms and colonial restructuring.
- Leader: Led by Bakshi Jagabandhu Bidyadhar, the military chief under King Mukunda Dev II of Khurda.
- Causes of Rebellion: Loss of land rights, oppressive taxation, and marginalization of both the elite and peasantry under British rule.
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- 2 April 1817: Bakshi Jagabandhu led the Paikas, joined by tribal Kondhs and others, in open rebellion.
- Rebel Actions: British offices at Banapur were torched, the treasury looted, and colonial officers killed.
- British Response: Regained control by mid-1817, but rebels resorted to guerrilla tactics.
- Bakshi’s Death: Captured in 1825, died in custody in 1829.
Outcomes:
- British Concessions: Temporary tax remissions, Lowered assessments, Suspended forced estate sales and fixed-land-tenures.
- Administrative Impact: These measures showed the British were forced to reconsider exploitative policies.
- Aftermath and Significance:
- Historical Role: An early example of organized resistance against British colonial rule—decades before 1857.
- Freedom Struggle Legacy: Viewed as a precursor to India’s independence movement.
- Current Demand: Odisha leaders advocate its recognition as India’s “first war of independence.”
| [UPSC 2018] After the Santhal Uprising subsided, what was/were the measure/measures taken by the colonial government?
1. The territories called `Santhal Paraganas’ were created. 2. It became illegal for a Santhal to transfer land to a non-Santhal.
Select the correct answer using the code given below:
Options: (a) 1 only (b) 2 only (c) Both 1 and 2* (d) Neither 1 nor 2 |
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Why in the News?
The United States has withdrawn from the UNESCO (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization) for the third time citing its “anti-Israel bias”.
About UNESCO:
- Established: 1945, after World War II
- Headquarters: Paris, France
- Parent Body: United Nations Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC)
- Membership: 194 member states and 12 associate members; India is a member since 1946.
- Mission: Promotes peace, poverty eradication, sustainable development, and cultural diversity through global cooperation
Key Functions:
- Core Areas of Work:
- Education: Ensures inclusive and quality learning for all
- Natural Sciences: Fosters international scientific collaboration
- Social and Human Sciences: Promotes ethics, social justice, and human rights
- Culture: Preserves heritage and promotes creative diversity
- Communication & Information: Defends freedom of expression and universal access to knowledge
- Functions:
- Serves as a platform for idea-sharing and research
- Facilitates cooperation among governments, academia, and civil society
- Offers technical support and policy guidance
- Maintains World Heritage Site listings
- Frames global conventions and recommendations
Key Initiatives and Contributions:
- World Heritage Program: Protects sites of cultural and natural value
- Major Conventions:
- Convention on Cultural and Natural Heritage
- Convention on Intangible Cultural Heritage
- Convention on Cultural Diversity
- Convention against Discrimination in Education
- Flagship Reports:
- Global Education Monitoring Report
- United Nations World Water Development Report
- World Trends in Freedom of Expression and Media Development
- UNESCO and Sustainable Development Goals: Supports SDGs with focus on education, gender equality, environment, and peace
| [UPSC 2023] Consider the following properties included in the World Heritage List released by UNESCO:
1. Shantiniketan 2. Rani-ki-Vav 3. Sacred Ensembles of the Hoysalas 4. Mahabodhi Temple Complex at Bodhgaya
How many of the above properties were included in 2023?
Options: (a) Only one (b) Only two* (c) Only three (d) All four |
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Why in the News?
The World Bank’s report, “Towards Resilient and Prosperous Cities in India”, warns that climate risks like extreme heat and floods threaten India’s cities, despite their role as economic growth engines.
About the ‘Towards Resilient and Prosperous Cities in India’ Report
- Prepared By: World Bank in collaboration with the Ministry of Housing and Urban Affairs
- Focus: Evaluates Indian cities’ exposure to climate risks like heatwaves and urban flooding
- Scope: Covers 24 cities with deeper analysis of Chennai, Indore, New Delhi, Lucknow, Surat, and Thiruvananthapuram
- Support: Backed by Global Facility for Disaster Reduction and Recovery (GFDRR)
Key Highlights:
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- 70% of new jobs to emerge in urban areas by 2030
- Urban population to nearly double to 951 million by 2050
- Estimated housing demand: 144 million new homes by 2070
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- Urban heat: City temperatures rising by 3–4°C due to the heat island effect
- Flood risk: Rapid construction limiting natural drainage and stormwater absorption
- Investment Needs: $2.4 trillion required by 2050 for low-carbon, climate-resilient infrastructure
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- Promote cool roofs, urban green spaces, and early warning systems
- Invest in energy-efficient housing, flood-resilient transport, and waste systems
- Strengthen urban financial systems and incentivize private participation
Back2Basics: World Bank
- Overview: A global development organisation supporting economic progress in developing nations
- Founded: 1944 at the Bretton Woods Conference
- Headquarters: Washington, D.C., United States
- Members: 189 countries
- India and the WB:
- India is a founding member of the IBRD and currently participates in four out of the five World Bank Group entities.
- India’s first World Bank loan, in 1948, was for railway rehabilitation.
- Constituent Institutions:
- IBRD – International Bank for Reconstruction and Development
- IDA – International Development Association
- IFC – International Finance Corporation
- MIGA – Multilateral Investment Guarantee Agency
- ICSID – International Centre for Settlement of Investment Disputes
- Key Reports:
- World Development Report
- Global Economic Prospects
- Ease of Doing Business Index (now replaced)
- Business Ready (B-READY)
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| [UPSC 2025] The World Bank warned that India could become one of the first places where wet-bulb temperatures routinely exceed 35°C. Which of the following statements best reflect(s) the implication of the above-said report?
I. Peninsular India will most likely suffer from flooding, tropical cyclones and droughts. II. The survival of animals including humans will be affected as shedding of their body heat through perspiration becomes difficult.
Select the correct answer using the code given below.
Options: (a) I only (b) II only* (c) Both I and II (d) Neither I nor II |
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Why in the News?
China has commenced the construction of a massive hydropower project on the Yarlung Tsangpo river (Brahmaputra in India) in southeastern Tibet.
About the Mega Dam Project on Brahmaputra (Yarlung Tsangpo):
- Location: Nyingchi, southeastern Tibet, on the Yarlung Tsangpo River (Brahmaputra in India).
- Project Size: Estimated investment of 1.2 trillion yuan (USD 167 billion).
- Components: Comprises five cascade hydropower stations.
- Power Generation: Expected to produce 300 billion kilowatt-hours (kWh) of electricity annually.
- Objective:
- Contribute to China’s carbon neutrality target by 2060.
- Meet local power needs in Tibet and supply electricity to other Chinese provinces.
- Concerns:
- Environmental risks in a seismically active and ecologically fragile zone.
- Geopolitical tensions with downstream countries (India, Bangladesh).
- Potential impact on river flow and water availability downstream.
- Strategic Significance: Close to India-China border, raising concerns amid existing border disputes.
What if China stops Brahmaputra Water?
You should know: Three Gorges Dam
- Location: On the Yangtze River, Hubei province, central China.
- Completed: Fully operational since 2012.
- Type: Hydroelectric gravity dam – the world’s largest power station by installed capacity.
- Power Generation Capacity: Around 22.5 gigawatts (GW).
- Notable Impact:
- Helped in flood control, navigation, and electricity supply.
- Also criticized for ecological damage, displacement of over 1 million people, and increased seismic risk.
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| [UPSC 2011] The Brahmaputra, Irrawady and Mekong rivers originate in Tibet and flow it through narrow and parallel mountain ranges in their upper reaches. Of these rivers, Brahmaputra makes a “U” turn in its course to flow into India. This “U” turn is due to:
(a) Uplift of folded Himalayan series
(b) Syntaxial bending of geologically young Himalayas
(c) Geo-tectonic disturbance in the tertiary folded mountain chains
(d) Both (A) and (B) above |
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Why in the News?
The Lakshadweep administration has proposed the acquisition of Bitra Island, the smallest inhabited island in the archipelago, for national defence purposes.
About Bitra Island:
- Location: Situated in the Arabian Sea; part of the Amindivi subgroup of the Lakshadweep archipelago
- Distance from Mainland: ~483 km west of Kochi
- Land Area: 0.10–0.18 square kilometres
- Population: ~271–350 (as of 2025)
- Language and Livelihood
- Languages Spoken: Malayalam, Mahl, and English
- Economic Activities: Fishing, coconut farming, and emerging ecotourism (birdwatching, snorkeling, diving)
- Climate:
- Type: Tropical monsoon (similar to Kerala)
- Temperature Range: 25–35°C
- Annual Rainfall: ~1600 mm
- Monsoon Season: Mid-May to mid-September; sea access is limited
- Historical and Cultural Significance:
- History: Populated around 1945
- Pilgrimage Site: Hosts a shrine to Arab saint Malik Mulla
Strategic Importance:
- Location: Close to key international shipping lanes in the Arabian Sea
- Surveillance Advantage: Ideal point for maritime monitoring
- Military Utility: Suitable for naval installations and coastal defence
- Maritime Awareness: Enhances India’s preparedness in the western seaboard
| [UPSC 2014] Which one of the following pairs of islands is separated from each other by the ‘Ten Degree Channel’?
Options: (a) Andaman and Nicobar* (b) Nicobar and Sumatra (c) Maldives and Lakshadweep (d) Sumatra and Java |
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Why in the News?
India has formally submitted a Letter of Request (LoR) to the United States seeking the co-production of Javelin anti-tank guided missiles (ATGMs) under the ‘Make in India’ initiative.
About the Javelin Missile:
- About: American-made man-portable anti-tank guided missile (ATGM).
- Developers: Jointly developed by Raytheon and Lockheed Martin.
- Purpose:
- Defeats heavily armoured vehicles such as main battle tanks.
- Effective against bunkers, fortifications, and helicopters.
- Operational Since: Entered service with the U.S. military in 1996.
Key Features:
- Range:
- Standard effective range: 2.5 km.
- Advanced variants: Can reach up to 4 km.
- Weight: Approximately 5.11 kg.
- Technology:
- Employs a “fire-and-forget” system.
- No need for operator guidance after launch.
- Target Engagement Modes:
- Direct attack mode: For conventional engagement.
- Top-attack mode: Hits the weaker top armour of tanks.
- Mobility & Safety:
- Soldiers can relocate or reload immediately after launch.
- Uses infrared guidance allowing quick post-launch cover.
| [UPSC 2018] What is “Terminal High Altitude Area Defense (THAAD)”, sometimes seen in the news?
Options: (a) An Israeli radar system (b) India’s indigenous anti-missile programme (c) An American anti-missile system* (d) A defence collaboration between Japan and South Korea |
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Why in the News?
India has renewed its call for time-bound reforms of the UN Security Council and reaffirmed support for the ‘Pact for the Future’ to strengthen global cooperation.
About the ‘Pact for the Future’ Agreement:
- Origin: Adopted at the UN Summit of the Future (September 2024).
- Purpose: To reinvigorate multilateralism and strengthen global cooperation on contemporary and emerging challenges.
- Scope: Comprises 56 commitments spanning development, peace, digital governance, and institutional reforms.
- Annexes:
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- Global Digital Compact: Sets frameworks for AI, digital access, and rights.
- Declaration on Future Generations: Mainstreams long-term thinking in policymaking.
- Inclusivity: Drafted through multi-year negotiations involving member states, civil society, and global institutions.
- Implementation and Review Mechanism:
- Implementation through intergovernmental processes led by relevant UN agencies.
- First formal review at the 83rd UNGA (2028) at the Head of State/Government level.
- Monitoring via national/international accountability frameworks.
Notable Features and Challenges:
- Historic Significance:
- One of the broadest international agreements in scope.
- Embodies a “new multilateralism” for adapting the UN to modern realities.
- Controversies:
- Not unanimously adopted – Russia, Iran, and others objected to elements they found insufficient or overambitious.
- Criticisms:
- Lacks detailed mechanisms for enforcement and implementation.
- Disagreements persist on UNSC reform, disarmament timelines, and climate financing.
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Why in the News?
A satellite-based study (2003–2020) of 141 Indian cities revealed a surprising aerosol pattern — southern cities act as pollution hotspots, while many northern cities form ‘clean islands’ due to a phenomenon called the Wind Stilling Effect.
Key Highlights of the Study:
- Conducted by: The Indian Institute of Technology Bhubaneswar.
- Method: Used high-resolution aerosol optical depth data to track pollution.
- Focus: Examined how urbanisation interacts with natural and transported pollution.
- Surprising Insight: Many northern cities were not major aerosol hotspots, contrary to assumptions.
- Classification of Cities: Two categories based on aerosol levels relative to surrounding areas:
- Urban Aerosol Pollution Islands-
- Location: Predominantly in southern and southeastern India.
- Characteristics: Cities had higher aerosol levels than nearby rural surroundings.
- Pollution Source: Mostly local emissions from vehicles, construction, and industries.
- Absence of External Influence: Minimal contribution from long-range dust or biomass burning.
- Urban Aerosol Clean Islands-
- Location: Observed in northwestern India and the Indo-Gangetic Plain.
- Pattern: Cities had lower aerosol levels than nearby upwind (southwest) areas.
- Mechanism: Incoming pollutants were blocked or deflected, creating a “clean island” effect.
- Downwind Evidence: Northeast (downwind) sides showed equal or lower aerosol levels compared to city centres.
About the Wind Stilling Effect:
- Overview: A phenomenon where dense urban infrastructure reduces surface wind speed, altering local airflow.
- Barrier Formation: Slowed winds create atmospheric stagnation zones, especially on the upwind side.
- Pollution Blocking: Long-range pollutants like Thar Desert dust or biomass smoke are slowed or blocked.
- Misleading Cleanliness: Cities appear cleaner not due to lower emissions, but due to pollution deflection.
- Seasonality: Most evident during the pre-monsoon season, when dust transport is high and cloud cover is minimal.
| [UPSC 2010] If there were no Himalayan ranges, what would have been the most likely geographical impact on India ?
1. Much of the country would experience the cold waves from Siberia. 2. Indo-gangetic plain would be devoid of such extensive alluvial soils. 3. The pattern of monsoon would be different from what it is at present.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct ?
Options: (a) 1 only (b) 1 and 3 only (c) 2 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3* |
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Why in the News?
A study in Nature has provided the first observational evidence of solid rock forming from vapour in a distant star system HOPS-315, marking early planet formation.
About HOPS-315:
- Type: A young star system located in the Orion constellation.
- Protoplanetary Disc: Surrounded by a flat, rotating disc of gas and dust, where new planets can form.
- Orientation: The disc’s tilt offers a clear line of sight from Earth, allowing deep observation.
- Observational Tools:
Clue on New Planet Formation:
- Rock Vapour Crystallisation: Scientists captured rock vapour cooling and forming crystals, marking the first direct observation of solid matter forming around a star.
- Detected Elements:
- Silicon monoxide gas at 470 Kelvin, close to the star.
- Crystalline silicates such as forsterite, enstatite, and silica found within 2.2 astronomical units of the star.
Scientific Significance:
- Similarity to Earth: The crystallisation mimics processes found in primitive meteorites on Earth.
- Chemical Confirmation: Suggests universal chemical processes in early planet formation across star systems.
- Location of Minerals: Crystals were detected in the disc’s atmosphere, not in stellar outflows.
- Temperature Conditions: Simulations confirmed dust vaporises and re-forms into solids at around 1300 Kelvin.
- Formation Stage: Marks the earliest stage of rocky planet formation ever observed.
| [UPSC 2015] The term ‘Goldilocks Zone’ is often seen in the news in the context of-
Options: (a) the limits of habitable zone above the surface of the Earth (b) regions inside the Earth where shale gas is available (c) search for the Earth-like planets in outer space* (d) search for meteorites containing precious metals |
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