PYQ Relevance:
[UPSC 2015] India’s Traditional Knowledge Digital Library (TKDL) which has a database containing formatted information on more than 2 million medicinal formulations is proving a powerful weapon in the country’s fight against erroneous patents. Discuss the pros and cons making this database publicly available under open-source licensing.
Linkage: This question directly discusses the “Traditional Knowledge Digital Library (TKDL)” and its role in protecting “traditional knowledge” from erroneous patents. This is highly relevant as the source champions the idea of treating repair as a “cultural and intellectual resource” and recognizing “tacit knowledge”. |
Mentor’s Comment: In May 2025, the Indian government accepted a report proposing a Repairability Index for mobile phones and appliances, marking a significant policy shift toward sustainable electronics and the Right to Repair. This move comes amid growing global and domestic recognition of repair as a cultural, environmental, and intellectual resource. It ties into India’s digital and AI policy evolution, yet highlights a blind spot — the continued exclusion of informal repair ecosystems from mainstream policy frameworks, even as they remain central to material resilience and circular economy goals.
Today’s editorial analyses the Repairability Index for mobile phones and appliances. This topic is important for GS Paper II (Governance) and GS Paper III (Science and Technology) in the UPSC mains exam.
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Let’s learn!
Why in the News?
Recently, the Indian government made an important move to support eco-friendly electronics by approving a report that suggests a Repairability Index.
What is India’s Repairability Index?
- India’s Repairability Index was introduced by the Department of Consumer Affairs under the Ministry of Consumer Affairs, Food and Public Distribution.
- It is part of the broader Right to Repair framework announced in 2022, aimed at empowering consumers, reducing electronic waste, and promoting sustainable consumption practices in line with India’s LiFE (Lifestyle for Environment)movement.
- This index will rank products based on:
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- Ease of repair
- Availability of spare parts
- Duration of software support
What is the significance of it?
- Sustainable consumption – Promotes products that last longer and are repairable. Eg: Smartphones with modular parts like Fairphone (Dutch electronics company known for producing sustainable and repairable smartphones).
- Informed consumer choices – Enables buyers to compare repairability before purchase. Eg: Choosing a laptop with a higher repair score.
- Reduction in e-waste – Minimizes discarding of electronics due to minor faults. Eg: Repairing washing machines instead of replacing them.
- Accountability of manufacturers – Pushes brands to provide spare parts and repair guides. Eg: Brands like Apple offering self-service repair kits.
- Support for circular economy – Aligns with India’s LiFE initiative and green goals. Eg: Encouraging reuse and repair to lower carbon footprint.
Why is informal repair knowledge important?
India’s Repairability Index promotes affordable, sustainable repairs by valuing informal repair knowledge
- Affordable & Accessible Repairs: Informal repair shops offer low-cost services, especially in rural and low-income areas. Eg: Mobile repair kiosks in small towns reduce reliance on costly authorized centers.
- Skill Preservation & Livelihoods: Supports local employment and traditional skills, often passed down informally. Eg: TV/radio technicians in informal markets maintain electronics affordably.
- E-waste Reduction & Sustainability: Extends product lifespan, minimizing electronic waste and promoting circular economy. Eg: Refurbishing laptops in Delhi’s Nehru Place instead of discarding them.
What are the challenges related to the informal repair sector?
- No Legal Recognition: Informal repairers lack licensing, social security, and financial support. E.g.: Mobile repairers in small towns operate without official status or access to schemes.
- Bias Toward Authorized Centres: Policies favour OEM (Original Equipment Manufacturer) -authorized repairs, sidelining local technicians. Eg: Warranties void if not repaired at authorized service centers.
- Exclusion from Policy Frameworks: Right to Repair and e-waste policies neglect grassroots repair ecosystems. Eg: Informal markets like Nehru Place not integrated into national repair planning.
Which steps can link repair to AI and sustainability goals?
- AI-Powered Predictive Maintenance: AI algorithms detect faults early and recommend timely repairs, reducing waste. Eg: Smart appliances (e.g., washing machines) alert users before breakdowns, helping extend product life.
- AI-Driven Repair Diagnostics: AI tools assist technicians by analyzing errors and suggesting solutions, even in informal sectors. Eg: Mobile apps using AI (like Bhashini-based tools) guide rural repairers to fix smartphones or electronics.
- Support for Circular Economy: Integrate AI with repairability data (e.g., India’s Repairability Index) to promote reuse and reduce e-waste.
Way forward:
- Recognize Informal Repair Sector: Include informal technicians in policy frameworks and skilling programs under schemes like Skill India.
- Strengthen India’s Repairability Index: Ensure it includes access to spare parts, repair manuals, and supports local repair ecosystems.
- Promote Open Access to Repair Tools: Mandate OEMs to share diagnostic tools and data with certified independent and informal repairers.
- Leverage AI for Inclusive Repair Solutions: Use AI-powered platforms to assist grassroots repairers and map repair needs, boosting sustainability goals.
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Why in the News?
Recently, the World Bank’s 2024 update to its income classification system revealed major shifts, with a sharp decline in low-income populations and a rise in upper-middle-income countries.
Global Income Classification Trends (2004–2024): Key Shifts in Population Distribution:
- Global Shift Upwards: The share of the world population in low-income countries dropped from 37.4% in 2004 to 7.6% in 2024, showing significant poverty reduction.
- Rise of Upper-Middle Group: The population in upper-middle-income countries rose from 8.9% in 2004 to 34.7% in 2024, indicating broad economic progress in many developing nations.
- Lower-Middle Income Stability: The lower-middle-income group has remained relatively stable, around 38–40% of global population from 2004 to 2024.
- High-Income Countries’ Share Fluctuated: The global population in high-income nations peaked at 18.9% in 2014, then slightly declined to 17.4% in 2024.
- Country Reclassifications: Countries like India and Indonesia moved to higher income groups, while some African countries remained or slipped into low-income status.
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What is the World Bank’s income classification?
- Four Income Groups: Countries are classified into low, lower-middle, upper-middle, and high-income based on their Gross National Income (GNI) per capita.
- Annual Update: Classifications are updated yearly, adjusting for global inflation and changes in income.
- Absolute Thresholds: Groupings are based on fixed income thresholds, not relative comparisons with other countries.
- Low income: GNI per capita ≤ $1,135
- Lower-middle income: $1,136 – $4,465
- Upper-middle income: $4,466 – $13,845
- High income: ≥ $13,846
How is GNI per capita used in this system?
- It measures the average income per person, including income from abroad.
- GNI figures (reported in local currency) are converted to USD using exchange rates.
- Countries are placed into groups using predetermined income thresholds.
Why do countries shift between income groups?
- Economic Growth or Decline: Strong GDP growth raises GNI per capita, moving countries to higher groups. Eg: India’s GNI per capita rose from $2,250 (2022) to $2,610 (2023), nearing upper-middle-income status.
- Currency Exchange Fluctuations: A weaker local currency reduces GNI in USD terms. Eg: Egypt’s currency depreciation led its GNI per capita to fall from $3,890 (2022) to $3,240 (2023), reclassifying it from upper-middle to lower-middle-income.
- Population Growth Rates: Fast population growth reduces GNI per capita even if total income rises. Eg: Nigeria’s large population growth kept its GNI per capita at $2,110 (2023), maintaining its lower-middle-income status.
What are the challenges for India as a Lower-Middle-Income Country?
- Limited Fiscal Space: India struggles to allocate sufficient funds for healthcare, education, and infrastructure. Eg: Public health spending remains around 2% of GDP, below the global average of 5–6%.
- High Income Inequality: Rapid growth hasn’t translated into equitable wealth distribution. Eg: The top 10% in India hold nearly 77% of total national wealth (Oxfam, 2023).
- Jobless Growth: Economic expansion hasn’t created enough formal sector jobs. Eg: Despite over 6% GDP growth, unemployment among youth remains high at around 45% (CMIE, 2023).
What are the steps taken by the Indian government?
- PM Gati Shakti Mission: Enhances infrastructure development for seamless connectivity and job creation.
- National Education Policy (NEP) 2020: Aims to improve access, equity, and quality in education, especially in rural areas.
- Ayushman Bharat Scheme: Provides free healthcare to over 50 crore people, addressing public health gaps.
- Make in India & PLI Schemes: Promote domestic manufacturing and boost employment across key sectors.
- Digital India & Skill India: Focuses on digital inclusion and vocational training to equip youth with employable skills.
Way forward:
- Accelerate Inclusive Economic Growth: Focus on MSMEs, rural entrepreneurship, and labour-intensive sectors to boost incomes and job creation.
- Invest in Human Capital: Enhance education quality, healthcare access, and nutritional outcomes, especially for the poor.
- Strengthen Social Safety Nets: Expand direct benefit transfers (DBTs) and targeted subsidies to reduce vulnerability and inequality.
- Promote Technological Innovation: Support startups, R&D, and digital infrastructure to drive productivity and global competitiveness.
Mains PYQ:
[UPSC 2013] The World Bank and the IMF, collectively known as the Bretton Woods Institutions, are the two inter-governmental pillars supporting the structure of the world’s economic and financial order. Superficially, the World Bank and the IMF exhibit many common characteristics, yet their role, functions and mandate are distinctly different. Elucidate.
Linkage: This question directly asks about the World Bank’s role, functions, and mandate. A fundamental aspect of the World Bank’s function is its income classification system, which was initially designed to determine eligibility for loans, particularly concessional ones, based on a country’s average income.
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Why in the News?
Concerns have emerged over India’s commitments in the India-UK Comprehensive Economic and Trade Agreement (CETA), particularly Article 13.6 on intellectual property. Critics argue it weakens India’s long-standing stance on compulsory licensing, favouring voluntary mechanisms instead.
How does Article 13.6 affect medicine access in India?
- Dilution of Compulsory Licensing Rights: The Article 13.6 of CETA favours voluntary licensing over compulsory licensing, reducing India’s legal room to ensure affordable drug access, especially during public health emergencies.
- Reduced Policy Space in Patent Law: Provisions like weakening the “working requirement” restrict India’s ability to revoke non-working foreign patents, hampering local production of essential medicines.
- Dependence on Foreign Patent Holders: Voluntary licensing shifts control to multinational corporations, allowing them to set restrictive terms, often limiting distribution, pricing, and manufacturing flexibility for Indian firms.
- Loss of Global TRIPS Advocacy Role
India’s past leadership in pushing for TRIPS flexibilities (Doha Declaration) is undermined, affecting its credibility in representing developing countries’ interests in global forums.
- Risk to Access and Affordability of Medicines: The FTA could hinder production of low-cost generics, making life-saving drugs less accessible to Indian citizens and low-income countries relying on Indian pharma exports.
What is Voluntary Licensing?
Voluntary licensing is when the patent holder (usually a pharmaceutical company) gives permission to another company (often in another country) to produce and sell its patented product, usually generic versions under agreed terms and conditions.
What is Compulsory Licensing?
Compulsory licensing is when a government allows someone else to produce a patented product or process without the consent of the patent holder, usually under specific public interest grounds such as health emergencies. |
Which global rules backed India’s earlier patent stand?
- TRIPS Agreement (WTO): Allowed for compulsory licensing under public health grounds, helping India prioritize affordable access over strict patent monopolies.
- Doha Declaration on TRIPS and Public Health (2001): Reaffirmed countries’ right to protect public health and promote access to medicines, supporting India’s flexible patent stance.
- Paragraph 6 System (WTO, 2003): Enabled countries like India to export generic medicines to nations lacking manufacturing capacity, aligning with its role as the “pharmacy of the world.”
- Indian Patent Act, 1970 (amended in 2005): Incorporated TRIPS flexibilities such as compulsory licensing and strict patentability criteria (e.g. Section 3(d)) to prevent evergreening.
- UN High-Level Panel on Access to Medicines (2016): Emphasized that IP rights should not override public health, validating India’s position on balancing innovation and accessibility.
What should be done?
- Reaffirm TRIPS Flexibilities in Trade Negotiations: India must ensure that all future FTAs explicitly protect its right to use compulsory licensing and patent law flexibilitiesunder the TRIPS Agreement.
- Strengthen Domestic Patent Law: Amend and reinforce provisions like the “working requirement” to protect public health and allow challenges to non-working or unaffordable patents.
- Enhance Public Health Safeguards in FTAs: Negotiate clear exceptions for essential medicines and green technology, ensuring that IP provisions do not override public interest obligations.
- Build Strategic Alliances with Global South: Collaborate with developing countries to collectively oppose IP-heavy provisions in trade deals and promote affordable access to medicines globally.
- Promote Indigenous Innovation and R&D: Invest in public sector research and incentivize Indian pharma and green tech innovation to reduce dependency on foreign patents and strengthen self-reliance.
Mains PYQ:
[UPSC 2024] Discuss the implications of Intellectual Property rights with respect to life materials? Although, India is second in the world to file patents, still only a few have been commercialized. Explain the reasons behind this less commercialization.
Linkage: This question directly asks about “Intellectual Property rights with respect to life materials” and patents. The article talks about the implications of India’s CETA commitments on its patent regime concerning “patented medicines” and the “patent system”. The “slip up” in the trade pact is precisely about India compromising its traditional stance on IPR, particularly regarding access to medicines, which is a direct implication of intellectual property rights on life materials.
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Why in the News?
New research shows that rain can reduce ocean buoyancy and stabilize tropical waters, challenging the belief that rain always enhances mixing.
About Buoyancy:
- What is it: It is the upward force exerted by a fluid (e.g., water) on an object submerged in it.
- It determines whether an object floats, sinks, or stays suspended.
- Buoyancy in Oceans: It depends on density differences in water.
- Lighter water above → unstable → mixing happens.
- Heavier water above → stable → mixing stops.
- Buoyancy Flux: Measures changes in buoyancy at the ocean surface over time.
- Freshwater from rain → makes surface lighter → positive flux → promotes mixing.
- Heat loss → cools surface → makes water denser → negative flux → resists mixing.
Key Findings of the Study:
- Light Rain (0.2–4 mm/hr): Often leads to positive buoyancy flux → supports ocean mixing.
- Heavy Rain:
- Usually results in negative buoyancy flux → surface becomes stable.
- Caused by cold pools that enhance heat loss.
- Day vs. Night Effect:
- Night: Rain destabilizes surface → mixing increases.
- Day: Rain promotes stability → due to added heat loss from sunlight blockage.
- Geographical Insights:
- Cold Rain Zones (Western Pacific, Indian Ocean): More stabilization.
- Hot Rain Zones (Central Pacific): More prone to mixing.
Significance of the Study
- Scientific Implications:
- Refutes the general belief that rain always increases buoyancy.
- Shows rain can both stabilize or destabilize the ocean surface depending on conditions.
- Climate Relevance:
- Ocean mixing is key to heat, carbon, and nutrient cycling.
- Misreading rainfall’s role can skew climate and weather models.
- Practical Impact:
- Improves forecasting accuracy in oceanography and climate science.
- Aids in understanding the climate-ocean feedback loop more precisely.
| [UPSC 2020] With reference to Ocean Mean Temperature (OMT), which of the following statements is/are correct?
1. OMT is measured up to a depth of 26°C isotherm which is 129 meters in the southwestern Indian Ocean during January — March.
2. OMT collected during January — March can be used in assessing whether the amount of rainfall in monsoon will be less or more than a certain long-term mean.
Select the correct answer using the code given below:
Options: (a) 1 only (b) 2 only* (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2 |
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Why in the News?
A new study by the Wildlife Institute of India (WII) reveals that wind farms in the Thar Desert, Rajasthan, have the highest recorded bird mortality rates globally.
Bird Mortality at Wind Farms: Key Findings
- Study Details: Conducted across 3,000 sq. km in Jaisalmer, Rajasthan, covering 90 wind turbines and 272 bird species, including the critically endangered Great Indian Bustard.
- Carcass Count: 124 bird carcasses found within 150m radius of turbines.
- Annual Mortality Estimate: 4,464 birds per 1,000 sq. km, after corrections for detection gaps and scavenger interference.
- Control Sites: 28 sites (500–2,000m from turbines) found zero carcasses — indicating turbines as the direct cause.
- Reasons:
- Policy Gap: Onshore wind projects in India do not require Environmental Impact Assessments (EIAs), which weakens ecological safeguards.
India’s Wind Energy Growth:
- Current Status: India added 3.5 GW of wind power in the first half of 2025 — an 82% YoY increase.
- Total Installed Capacity: Now stands at 51.3 GW.
- Untapped Potential: Estimated at 1163.9 GW at 150 meters above ground level (National Institute of Wind Energy).
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Comparison with Past Studies:
- 2019 Studies: Recorded just 0.47 bird deaths per turbine/year in Kutch and Davangere.
- Thar Desert Rate: 1.24 bird deaths per turbine/month — significantly higher.
- Contributing Factors:
- High bird density in Thar.
- Location along Central Asian Flyway.
- Collisions with turbine-linked power lines included in this study.
Proposed Mitigation Measures:
- Technological:
- Paint one turbine blade for visibility.
- Shut down turbines during peak migration or high-risk periods.
- Planning-Based:
- Careful Site Selection seen as most critical step.
- Use of tools like AVISTEP (Avian Sensitivity Tool for Energy Planning), which maps avian sensitivity across India.
- AVISTEP ranks zones as low to very high sensitivity — intended as a guide for site avoidance.
| [UPSC 2012] Vultures which used to be very common in Indian countryside some years ago are rarely seen nowadays. This is attributed to:
Options: (a) the destruction of their nesting sites by new invasive species disease among them
(b) a drug used by cattle owners for treating their diseased cattle persistent and fatal *
(c) scarcity of food available to them
(d) a widespread, persistent and fatal disease among them |
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Why in the News?
Harvard Scientists have recently used AI to design synthetic proteins that activate T Cells, offering a new path for cancer treatment and vaccine development.
What are T Cells?
- They are a type of white blood cell that play a central role in the immune system.
- Types of T Cells:
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- Helper T cells (CD4+): Activate and direct other immune cells.
- Killer T cells (CD8+): Destroy infected or cancerous cells.
- Memory T cells: “Remember” past invaders for faster response in the future.
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About the Study:
- Used artificial intelligence (AI) to design soluble proteins that activate ‘Notch Signalling’, a key immune pathway.
- These are synthetic molecular activators designed using advanced AI-driven protein design technologies.
- Unlike older lab-only methods, these proteins work inside the body (in vivo) and in lab settings.
- Result: Significant boost in T cell production from human progenitor cells.
What is Notch Signalling?
- A cell-to-cell signalling system that guides cell development.
- Crucial for forming T cells, which fight infections and cancers.
- No reliable therapeutic activator existed earlier.
Key Benefits Offered:
- Mass T Cell Generation: Meets clinical needs for CAR T Cell Therapy.
- Vaccine Support: Boosted Memory T cells in mice, improving long-term immunity.
- Cancer Therapy: Helps fight immune-suppressive tumour environments.
- Scalable & Soluble: Works in humans, not just in lab dishes.
- AI in Medicine: Shows AI’s growing role in designing immune therapies.
| [UPSC 2022] Which one of the following statements best describes the role of B cells and T cells in the human body?
Options: (a) They protect the body from environmental allergens.
(b) They alleviate the body’s pain and inflammation.
(c) They act as immunosuppressants in the body.
(d) They protect the body from the diseases caused by pathogens |
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Why in the News?
A Central Zoo Authority (CZA) report reveals a major conservation error — the critically endangered Alpine musk deer was wrongly replaced by the Himalayan musk deer in India’s breeding programmes.
Back2Basics: Central Zoo Authority (CZA):
- Establishment: Formed in 1992 under Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972.
- Mandate: Captive breeding, zoo oversight, and assigning species to zoos.
- Expanded Scope (2022): Includes rescue centres, off-display facilities, and conservation breeding centres.
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About Alpine Musk Deer (Moschus chrysogaster):
- Not a true Deer: closer to goats and antelopes (Bovidae).
- Musk Sac: Males have a visible musk sac between the testes.
- Canines: Grows fang-like canines during the mating season.
- Habitat: Found at 3,000–5,000 m in forests of the Himalayas.
- Range: India (J&K, HP, Uttarakhand, Sikkim, Arunachal), Nepal, Bhutan, China.
- Diet: Eats grasses, leaves, lichens, mosses, and twigs.
- Behaviour: Solitary and crepuscular (active at dawn/dusk).
- Legal Protection: IUCN Status Critically Endangered (2014), CITES Appendix I; Indian Wildlife Act- Schedule I.
- Threats: Poaching for musk and habitat loss.
- Key Habitats: Askot, Gangotri & Kedarnath Wildlife Sanctuaries (Uttarakhand).
| [UPSC 2020] Which of the following are the most likely places to find the musk deer in its natural habitat?
1. Askot Wildlife Sanctuary 2. Gangotri National Park
3. Kishanpur Wildlife Sanctuary 4. Manas National Park
Options: (a) 1 and 2 only * (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 3 and 4 only (d) 1 and 4 only |
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Why in the News?
At an event in New Delhi, Denotified, Semi-Nomadic and Nomadic Tribes (DNTs) strongly demanded a permanent National Commission to address their long-standing marginalisation.
Who are Denotified, Nomadic, and Semi-Nomadic Tribes (DNTs)?
- Denotified Tribes (DNTs):
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- Colonial Tag: Branded “criminal by birth” under the Criminal Tribes Act, 1871.
- Legal Reversal: Act repealed in 1949; tribes de-notified in 1952.
- Persistent Stigma: Continue to face police profiling and social exclusion.
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- Lifestyle: No fixed habitation; move cyclically for livelihood.
- Occupations: Animal herding, salt trading, performing arts, traditional healing.
- Semi-Nomadic Tribes (SNTs):
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- Hybrid Living: Alternate between mobile and semi-settled life.
- Movement: Shift seasonally but often retain a base settlement.
Current Status in India:
- Population Share: Around 10% of India’s population.
- Communities: ~150+ Denotified, 500+ Nomadic tribes.
- Major States: Maharashtra, Rajasthan, Gujarat, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Bihar, Madhya Pradesh.
- Examples of Communities (not exhaustive):
- Denotified: Bedia, Pardhi, Sansi, Kanjar, Lodha, Nat, Chhara, Bhantu
- Nomadic: Banjara, Gadia Lohar, Rabari, Madari, Kalbelia, Nat
- Semi-Nomadic: Abor, Adi, Aka, Apatani, Dafla, Galo, Nishi, Tagin
Major Committees & Commissions:
|
Year |
Contribution |
| Criminal Tribes Inquiry Committee |
1947 |
Criticized criminal branding |
| Ayyangar Committee |
1949 |
Led to repeal of Criminal Tribes Act |
| Kaka Kalelkar Commission |
1953 |
Recognized DNTs, no full classification |
| B.P. Mandal Commission |
1980 |
Suggested NTs for OBC list |
| Constitution Review Commission |
2002 |
Urged protective measures for DNTs |
| Renke Commission |
2008 |
Listed 500+ communities, lacked implementation resources |
| Idate Commission |
2017–2018 |
Listed 1,200+, proposed permanent commission |
| [UPSC 2019] Consider the following statements about Particularly Vulnerable Tribal Groups (PVTGs) in India:
1. PVTGs reside in 18 States and one Union Territory. 2. A stagnant or declining population is one of the criteria for determining PVTG status.
3. There are 95 PVTGs officially notified in the country so far. 4. Irular and Konda Reddi tribes are included in the list of PVTGs.
Which of the statements given above are correct?
Options: (a) 1, 2 and 3 (b) 2, 3 and 4 (c) 1, 2 and 4* (d) 1, 3 and 4 |
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Why in the News?
India has taken a significant step towards interplanetary human missions with the launch of the Human Outer Planet Exploration (HOPE) analogue station at Tso Kar, Ladakh.
About HOPE (Human Outer Planet Exploration):
- Purpose: Simulates Moon and Mars conditions to prepare for future human missions.
- Developer: Built by Protoplanet (Bengaluru); partially funded by ISRO.
- Location: Tso Kar, Ladakh (14,500 ft) — chosen for its lunar/Martian-like terrain.
- Features: Enables isolation research, tech trials, and crew training; 1 of 33 such stations globally.
- First Mission (2025): Two scientists (Rahul Mogalapalli, Yaman Akot) conducted a 10-day simulation focusing on resilience and mental health.
- Significance:
- Boosts India’s human spaceflight readiness.
- Supports goals like Bharatiya Antariksh Station (2035) and Moon mission (2040).
India’s Astronomical Assets in Ladakh:
- Location: Indian Astronomical Observatory (IAO), at Mt. Saraswati (4,500 m), Hanle; run by Indian Institute of Astrophysics.
- Key Instruments:
- Himalayan Chandra Telescope (optical/infrared)
- HAGAR (gamma rays, with Tata Institute of Fundamental Research)
- MACE (Cherenkov telescope, with Bhabha Atomic Research Centre)
- Stargazing hubs: Hanle, Nubra Valley, Pangong, Tso Moriri.
- Advantages & Recognition:
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- 270+ clear nights; low humidity; dark skies.
- Declared India’s 1st Dark-Sky Reserve (2022) to curb light pollution.
| [UPSC 2012] The world’s highest ground based telescopic observatory is located in
Options: (a) Colombia (b) India* (c) Nepal (d) Switzerland |
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Why in the News?
While most medicines are small molecule drugs with simple structures, a newer class—biologics and biosimilars—is reshaping modern medicine with their complex, targeted action.
What are Small Molecule Drugs?
- Definition: Chemically synthesised, low molecular weight compounds.
- Features: Fixed structure, chemically stable, easy to replicate, patent-protected.
- Cost Dynamics: Expensive while under patent; affordable generics post-expiry (e.g., Sovaldi dropped from $84,000 to $1,000).
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About Biologics & Biosimilars:
-
- Overview: Large, complex drugs made from living cells or organisms.
- Examples: Insulin (~5,800 daltons), Remicade (~150,000 daltons).
- Nature: Slight structural variations possible; used for cancer, autoimmune diseases, hormone therapy.
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- Overview: Near-identical versions of biologics, made after patent expiry.
- Not Generics: Due to complex cell-based production, they’re similar but not identical.
- Use: Offer lower-cost alternatives to high-end biologics.
Regulation and Reform:
- Current Barriers: Biosimilars need costly trials (animal + clinical), unlike generics.
- Global Moves: UK and USA are easing animal trial norms (organ-on-chip, human models).
- India: Still follows older norms; waivers under review, but clinical trials still mandatory.
Significance for India:
- Access: Generic small molecules transformed Indian healthcare.
- Opportunity: Affordable biosimilars can do the same for chronic and rare diseases.
- Urgency: Regulatory reform is key to reduce costs, speed up access, and widen healthcare coverage.
| [UPSC 2020] What is the importance of using Pneumococcal Conjugate Vaccines in India?
(1) These vaccines are effective against pneumonia as well as meningitis and sepsis. (2) Dependence on antibiotics that are not effective against drug-resistant bacteria can be reduced. (3) These vaccines have no side effects and cause no allergic reactions.
Options: (a) 1 only (b) 1 and 2 only* (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3 |
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PYQ Relevance:
[UPSC 2024] Right to privacy is intrinsic to life and personal liberty and is inherently protected under Article 21 of the Constitution. Explain. In this reference discuss the law relating to D.N.A. testing of a child in the womb to establish its paternity.
Linkage: The article highlights that data is the “digital era’s most valuable resource” and that compromising its control, including individual data, poses “serious security risks” and affects national competitive advantage. Safeguarding personal data is a crucial component of asserting digital sovereignty. |
Mentor’s Comment: The India–UK FTA, recently finalised, is hailed as a “gold standard” but raises concerns over digital sovereignty. India conceded access to source code and government data, weakening regulatory control and AI innovation leverage. The deal also marks a shift from India’s previous global stand on data localisation, contrasting positions taken even by countries like the US.
Today’s editorial analyses the concerns over digital sovereignty in the India-UK FTA. This topic is important for GS Paper II (International Relations) in the UPSC mains exam.
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Let’s learn!
Why in the News?
The India–United Kingdom Free Trade Agreement (FTA), officially called the Comprehensive Economic and Trade Agreement (CETA), is in the news because of a significant debate over its provisions for the digital sector and digital sovereignty.
What digital issues arise from the India-UK FTA?
- Unrestricted Use of Public Data: UK firms gain equal access to Indian public datasets, affecting domestic innovation potential. Eg: British companies can commercially exploit Indian transport or agricultural data.
- Weakened Data Localization Autonomy: India must engage in consultations before enacting data rules, reducing flexibility.
- No Safeguards for Critical Infrastructure: The deal doesn’t exempt sensitive sectors from source code restrictions. Eg: India can’t review software running in strategic areas like nuclear power plants.
- Lack of Coherent Digital Trade Policy: Commitments were made without a clear digital governance framework. Eg: Digital clauses went unchallenged, unlike the agricultural sector, which had strong negotiation backing.
- Restricted Source Code Access: India is barred from demanding source code or algorithms, limiting oversight.
What is Source Code?
Source code is the original set of instructions written by a programmer in a human-readable programming language (like Python, Java, or C++) that defines how a software program works. |
How does source code access loss affect India’s digital control?
- Weakens Cyber Sovereignty: Without access to source code, India cannot verify or modify software behavior, increasing reliance on foreign tech. Foreign telecom equipment may have backdoors compromising national security.
- Inhibits Regulatory Oversight: Lack of access hinders the ability of Indian regulators to audit algorithms or ensure compliance with local laws. Eg: India can’t fully inspect e-commerce platforms’ pricing algorithms for anti-competitive behavior.
- Compromises Data Privacy & Security: Source code opacity prevents India from detecting data leaks or unauthorized data transfers.
Why is a digital policy crucial for India’s trade interests?
- Ensures Data Sovereignty: A strong policy helps India control how data is stored and used globally. Eg: Prevents sensitive health data from being transferred without oversight.
- Protects Domestic Industry: Clear rules support Indian startups against unfair access by global players. Eg: Limits foreign firms from exploiting local e-commerce data.
- Strengthens Negotiation Power: Defined digital laws give India leverage in FTA talks. Eg: Helps resist pressure to allow free cross-border data flow in trade deals.
- Secures National Interests: Policy enables checks on cybersecurity threats and foreign surveillance. Eg: Restricts flow of defence-related digital information.
- Boosts Digital Economy: Promotes data-driven innovation and economic growth through regulation. Eg: Encourages investment in Indian cloud services by assuring legal clarity.
Way forward:
- Reassess Digital Commitments: Review FTA clauses that compromise digital sovereignty and seek renegotiation if needed.
- Strengthen Data Protection Laws: Enforce robust data localisation and privacy regulations to safeguard national interest.
- Ensure Source Code Access: Mandate conditional access to critical software for security audits and public interest.
- Promote Indigenous Tech: Invest in local AI and digital infrastructure to reduce foreign dependency.
- Align Trade with Policy: Harmonise trade agreements with India’s long-term digital and strategic goals.
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Why in the News?
Recently, US President Donald Trump has threatened additional penalties on Indian imports, specifically targeting India’s purchase of discounted Russian oil.
Why is India buying more oil from Russia?
- Steep Price Discounts: Russian crude is sold at prices significantly below global benchmarks. In FY 2024-25, India imported $56.9 billion worth of mineral fuels from Russia, up from $2.1 billion in 2020-21.
- Energy Security Priority: Ensuring affordable and reliable energy is vital for India’s economic stability and consumer welfare.
- No UN Sanctions: India legally continues trade since Russian oil is not under United Nations sanctions, unlike US/EU bans. India cites international legality and moral justification for its purchases.
- Strategic Pragmatism: India follows a non-aligned, interest-driven foreign policy, prioritizing national needs over bloc politics.
What are the impacts of the US and NATO warnings on India?
- Trade Penalty Threats: The US has imposed a 25% tariff on Indian goods and hinted at an additional penalty linked to India’s energy trade with Russia.
- Secondary Sanctions Warning: NATO has warned that countries continuing business with Russia may face secondary sanctions. NATO Secretary General Mark Rutte issued a caution to India, China, and Brazil for sustaining Russia’s wartime economy.
- Legislative Pressure in the US: A proposed US Congressional bill seeks a 500% duty on imports from nations trading in Russian-origin petroleum and uranium. If passed, this could impact Indian exports to the US due to its engagement in discounted Russian oil.
- Strained Strategic Ties: Continued trade with Russia risks diplomatic friction with key Western allies, affecting defence cooperation and technology sharing. India’s balancing strategy between Russia and the West becomes harder as the Western bloc consolidates against Moscow.
- Push for Energy Diversification: Western pressure is pushing India to rethink its energy security strategy and reduce dependence on Russian crude.
How can India change its strategy to buy oil from other countries?
- Diversify Import Sources: India can increase crude purchases from Gulf countries, the US, Latin America, and Africa to reduce dependence on Russia. Eg: India has ramped up imports from Iraq and Saudi Arabia, traditionally among its top suppliers.
- Sign Long-term Contracts: Establish long-term supply agreements with stable oil-exporting nations to ensure steady and secure inflow. Eg: India signed a long-term deal with Abu Dhabi National Oil Company (ADNOC) for crude supply and storage.
- Invest in Strategic Partnerships: Strengthen ties through energy diplomacy and joint ventures in oil exploration and production abroad. Eg: Indian PSUs like ONGC Videsh have stakes in oil fields in Vietnam, Venezuela, and Russia.
- Leverage Spot Market and Strategic Reserves: Use the global spot market for short-term deals and enhance strategic petroleum reserves (SPRs). Eg: India has bought crude from the US and Nigeria on the spot market during price dips.
- Boost Domestic Refining Flexibility: Upgrade refineries to process diverse crude grades, enabling imports from a wider range of countries. Eg: Reliance and Indian Oil refineries are capable of handling crude from the US, Middle East, and West Africa.
How can India protect its interests and handle pressure? (Way forward)
- Prioritize Strategic Autonomy: India should maintain an independent foreign policy, making decisions based on national interest rather than aligning with any geopolitical bloc.
- Engage in Diplomatic Dialogue: Proactively communicate with Western partners to explain its energy needs and seek carve-outs or exemptions from potential sanctions.
- Strengthen Domestic Resilience: Increase investments in renewable energy, expand strategic oil reserves, and boost refining capacity to reduce vulnerability to external shocks.
- Balance Competing Relationships: Carefully navigate ties with both Russia and the West, ensuring that economic cooperation does not compromise strategic partnerships elsewhere.
Mains PYQ:
[UPSC 2019] What introduces friction into the ties between India and the United States is that Washington is still unable to find for India a position in its global strategy, which would satisfy India’s National self-esteem and ambitions” Explain with suitable examples.
Linkage: This question highlights the tension arising when India seeks to act according to its “National self-esteem and ambitions” rather than conforming to a global strategy dictated by another power (the US). This strongly aligns with the idea of India making independent decisions guided by its own interests.
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Why in the News?
Recently, the International Court of Justice (ICJ) delivered a landmark advisory opinion on July 23, 2025, clarifying the legal obligations of states regarding climate change.
Note: The International Court of Justice (ICJ) is the principal judicial organ of the United Nations. While advisory opinions are not formally binding, they hold persuasive (Convince other) legal weight and reflect the Court’s authoritative interpretation of international law.
What does the ICJ say about saving nature and the climate?
- Nature is a climate actor, not just a victim: ICJ recognizes ecosystems like forests, oceans, and coral reefs as active parts of the climate system. Eg: Forests absorb CO₂ and regulate rainfall.
- Protecting nature is a legal climate duty: Countries have a responsibility to safeguard nature as part of their climate obligations. Eg: Wetlands must be preserved to manage floods and store carbon.
- Ecological literacy is essential: Decision-makers must understand ecosystem roles in climate regulation. Eg: Mangrove destruction worsens storm impact and carbon release.
- Biodiversity and climate are equal: Climate action must not come at the cost of biodiversity. Eg: Solar parks should not destroy grasslands or wildlife zones.
- Global justice includes nature’s rights: The ICJ promotes a shift from human-centred to eco-centred justice. Eg: Legal personhood to rivers (like Ganga) aligns with this approach.
How can India align the ICJ view with Articles 21 and 48A of the Constitution?
- Recognize environmental rights as part of Right to Life (Article 21): Link clean air, water, and a healthy ecosystem to the fundamental right to life. Eg: Supreme Court’s recognition of the right to a healthy environment in the Subhash Kumar case.
- Implement Directive Principle on environment (Article 48A): Strengthen policies to protect and improve forests, rivers, and biodiversity. Eg: Initiatives like Namami Gange align with this duty.
What are the roles of Tribals in India’s climate plans?
The roles of tribals in India’s climate plans are crucial because they are deeply connected with nature and are key to conservation and climate resilience.
- Traditional Ecological Knowledge: Tribals have deep understanding of local ecosystems, useful for conservation and climate adaptation. Eg: Bhil tribes, Madhya Pradesh – traditional water harvesting for drought resilience.
- Forest and Biodiversity Guardianship: Indigenous communities act as forest protectors and biodiversity custodians, aiding carbon sequestration. Eg: Dongria Kondh, Odisha – protect Niyamgiri Hills’ biodiversity.
- Sustainable Livelihood Practices: Tribes follow low-carbon, eco-friendly practices, supporting climate goals. Eg: Apatani tribe, Arunachal Pradesh – eco-friendly wet rice farming (growing rice in flooded fields).
- Community-Based Climate Adaptation: Local innovation enables faster climate resilience and resource management. Eg: Women in Kutch, Gujarat – build check dams for water security.
- Effective Implementation of Climate Schemes: Grassroots involvement improves policy success, ensures inclusive development. Eg: Van Dhan Yojana – empowers tribal collectives for sustainable forest use.
Which laws should India improve to better protect nature and fight climate change?
- Strengthen Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA): Make public consultations more transparent and science-based. Eg: Dilution in EIA 2020 draft faced criticism for reducing oversight on polluting projects.
- Amend Forest Conservation Act (FCA): Ensure tribal rights and ecological value are protected during land diversion. Eg: FCA 2023 allowed exemptions for some forest lands, risking biodiversity loss.
- Update Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981: Include stricter penalties and real-time monitoring for industrial emissions. Eg: Delhi’s recurring smog highlights the law’s limited deterrence.
|
Way forward:
- Empower Local Communities: Recognize and support tribal and grassroots climate efforts through legal rights, funding, and capacity building.
- Mainstream Climate in Policy Planning: Integrate climate adaptation and mitigation into urban planning, agriculture, and infrastructure development.
- Promote Green Finance and Innovation: Incentivize clean technologies, nature-based solutions, and public-private partnerships for sustainable development.
Mains PYQ:
[UPSC 2023] The most significant achievement of modern law in India in the constitutionalization of environmental problems by the Supreme Court. Discuss this statement with the help of relevant case laws.
Linkage: The article highlights that India’s Supreme Court has interpreted Article 21 (right to life) to include the right to a healthy environment, and the ICJ’s opinion internationalizes this idea, providing a strong basis for India’s legal framework to embrace a restorative vision.
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Why in the News?
The Ministry of Information and Broadcasting has announced the 71st National Film Awards.
About National Film Awards:
- Establishment: Instituted in 1954, administered by the Directorate of Film Festivals (DoFF) under the Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Government of India.
- Purpose:
- To encourage the production of films of aesthetic and technical excellence.
- Promote films that reflect the cultural and social fabric of India.
- Recognize and reward cinematic achievements across languages and formats.
- Award Components:
- Swarna Kamal (Golden Lotus): Includes medallion, certificate, and cash prize. Given in top categories.
- Rajat Kamal (Silver Lotus): Awarded in various other categories.
- Main Categories:
- Feature Films: For artistic and technical excellence across Indian languages.
- Non-Feature Films: For documentaries, shorts, and socially relevant content.
- Best Writing on Cinema: For books and critics advancing understanding of cinema.
- Eligibility Criteria:
- Films must be produced in India.
- Makers must be Indian nationals.
- Must be certified by CBFC between Jan 1 and Dec 31.
- Foreign co-productions have specific eligibility conditions.
- Jury and Selection:
- Independent juries for each category.
- No governmental or commercial influence in the selection process.
- Part of NFA.
- India’s highest cinematic honour.
- Instituted in 1969 to commemorate Dhundiraj Govind Phalke, India’s first filmmaker.
- Consists of:
- Swarna Kamal
- ₹10 lakh cash prize
- Certificate, silk roll, and shawl
- First recipient: Devika Rani Roerich
|
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Why in the News?
The Supreme Court of India has reserved its judgment (i.e. final decision is pending) in a set of petitions challenging the age-related eligibility criteria under the Surrogacy (Regulation) Act, 2021.
These cases involve couples who had initiated the surrogacy process prior to the enactment of the law on January 25, 2022, but are now disqualified due to the new age limits.
About the Surrogacy (Regulation) Act, 2021
- Objective: To regulate surrogacy in India, prohibit commercial surrogacy, and promote ethical, altruistic surrogacy based on medical necessity.
- Scope:
Key Provisions:
- Type Permitted: Only altruistic surrogacy (unpaid surrogate mother) is allowed; commercial surrogacy is banned.
- Eligibility Criteria for Intending Couples:
- Legally married for at least 5 years.
- Woman must be 23–50 years of age; man must be 26–55 years.
- Must not have any living biological, adopted, or surrogate child.
- Eligibility for Single Women:
- Only widows or divorcees between 35–45 years are eligible.
- Unmarried women are not eligible (currently under challenge).
- Surrogate Mother Criteria:
- Must be a close relative, married, and have at least one biological child.
- Age: 25–35 years.
- Certification Requirement: A Certificate of Essentiality is required, including:
- Proof of infertility
- Court order for parentage and custody
- Insurance for the surrogate mother
- Penalties: Commercial surrogacy invites imprisonment (up to 10 years) and fines (up to ₹10 lakh).
- Regulatory Structure:
- National Surrogacy Board at the central level.
- State Surrogacy Boards at the state level.
Issues Highlighted by the Supreme Court:
- No Transitional Provision: The Act lacks a grandfather clause to protect couples who began the surrogacy process (e.g., embryo freezing) before the law came into effect in January 2022.
- Rigid Age Limits: The court questioned the fairness of disqualifying couples solely on age grounds, especially when natural pregnancies at older ages are not prohibited.
- Violation of Fundamental Rights: Petitioners argued the age restrictions violate Article 14 (equality before law) and Article 21 (right to reproductive autonomy and personal liberty).
- Exclusion of Unmarried Women: The law permits only widows or divorcees (35–45 years) to pursue surrogacy, which the court noted may be arbitrary and discriminatory.
- Law’s Intent vs. Impact: The court stressed that while the law aims to prevent commercial surrogacy, it should not unreasonably prevent genuine intending parents from having children.
| [UPSC 2020] In the context of recent advances in human reproductive technology, “Pronuclear Transfer” is used for:
Options: (a) fertilization of egg in vitro by the donor sperm (b) genetic modification of sperm producing cells (c) development of stem cells into functional embryos (d) prevention of mitochondrial diseases in offspring* |
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Why in the News?
Researchers in Britain & Ireland are aiming to sequence all animals, fungi and plants under the Darwin Tree of Life (DToL) Project.
About Darwin Tree of Life (DToL) Project:
- Objective: To sequence the genomes of all ~70,000 known eukaryotic species (whose cells contain a nucleus and other membrane-bound organelles) found in Britain and Ireland.
- Initiated: In 2019 as a UK–Ireland contribution to the Earth BioGenome Project.
- Geographic Focus: Great Britain and Ireland, chosen for their well-documented and accessible biodiversity.
Key Features:
- Phases:
- Pilot Phase (2019–2022): Focused on collecting 8,000 species; targeted 2,000 genome assemblies.
- As of 2025: ~8,000 species collected; over 2,000 genomes sequenced.
- Approach:
- Systematic specimen collection and species verification.
- High-quality genome sequencing using advanced tools and curated pipelines.
- Public Access: All genome data is released openly via the DToL portal and public archives.
- Scientific Significance:
- Enhances understanding of evolution, adaptation, and species relationships.
- Supports conservation efforts amid growing biodiversity threats.
- Applications: Informs conservation biology, medicine, agriculture, and climate adaptation.
| [UPSC 2011] At present, scientists can determine the arrangement or relative positions of genes or DNA sequences on a chromosome. How does this knowledge benefit us?
1. It is possible to know the pedigree of livestock.
2. It is possible to understand the causes of all human diseases.
3. It is possible to develop disease-resistant animal breeds.
Options: (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2 only (c) 1 and 3 only* (d) 1, 2 and 3 |
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Why in the News?
The 155-year-old Patalpani–Kalakund heritage train services has resumed after a temporary halt.
About the Patalpani–Kalakund Heritage Line:
- Route: 9.5 km metre-gauge section between Patalpani and Kalakund in Madhya Pradesh.
- Section: Part of the Dr. Ambedkar Nagar (Mhow)–Khandwa route.
- Restoration Year: Revived in 2018 as a heritage line after being excluded from gauge conversion due to difficult terrain.
- Operational Details:
- Average speed: 5–10 km/h.
- Features scenic gorges, tunnels, embankments, Patalpani waterfall, and natural springs.
- Historical Origins:
- Proposed by Maharaja Tukoji Rao Holkar II in 1870.
- First constructed as part of Holkar State Railways, completed in 1878.
- Became part of Rajputana–Malwa Railway in 1881–82.
- Cultural Significance:
- Patalpani station named after Tantia Bhil, a tribal revolutionary.
- Kalakund station named after a local sweet delicacy.
Other Heritage Railways of India:
| Name & Route |
Details |
| Darjeeling Himalayan Railway |
- Location: West Bengal
- UNESCO Status: World Heritage Site (1999)
- Built: 1879–81
- Highlights: Batasia Loop, zigzags, colonial-era steam engines
- Route: New Jalpaiguri to Darjeeling (88 km, narrow gauge)
|
| Nilgiri Mountain Railway |
- Location: Tamil Nadu
- UNESCO Status: World Heritage Site (2005)
- Highlights: Only rack-and-pinion railway in India, steep climbs, vintage locomotives
- Route: Mettupalayam to Ooty (46 km, metre gauge)
|
| Kalka–Shimla Railway |
- Location: Himachal Pradesh
- UNESCO Status: World Heritage Site (2008)
- Built: 1898–1903
- Highlights: 102 tunnels, 800+ bridges; access to British summer capital
- Route: Kalka to Shimla (96 km, narrow gauge)
|
| Matheran Hill Railway |
- Location: Maharashtra
- UNESCO Status: Tentative World Heritage Site
- Built: 1907
- Highlights: Zigzags, tight curves, eco-sensitive, vehicle-free destination
- Route: Neral to Matheran (21 km, narrow gauge)
|
| Kangra Valley Railway |
- Location: Himachal Pradesh
- UNESCO Status: Tentative World Heritage Site
- Highlights: 971 bridges, 2 tunnels; scenic Dhauladhar views, access to ancient temples
- Route: Pathankot to Joginder Nagar (163 km, narrow gauge)
|
| [UPSC 2009] Recently, which one of the following was included in the UNESCO’s World Heritage list?
Options: (a) Dilwara Temple (b) Kalka-Shimla Railway* (c) Bhiterkanika Mangrove Area (d) Vishakhapatnam to Araku Valley railway line |
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Why in the News?
The Union Culture Ministry has successfully retrieved the sacred ‘Piprahwa’ Buddhist relics, which were set to be auctioned in Hong Kong.
About the Piprahwa Relics:
-
Discovery: Unearthed in 1898 by William Claxton Peppe, a British engineer, at Piprahwa (Siddharthnagar, Uttar Pradesh), near the Nepal border.
-
Historical Significance: Identified as ancient Kapilavastu, capital of the Shakya republic, where Prince Siddhartha (Buddha) lived before renunciation.
-
Findings at the Site: A buried stupa yielded a large stone coffer containing:
- Bone fragments believed to be Buddha’s relics
- Caskets made of soapstone and crystal
- A sandstone coffer
- Over 1,800 ornaments: pearls, rubies, sapphires, gold sheets
-
Legal Custody:
- The British Crown claimed the relics under the Indian Treasure Trove Act, 1878.
- Most artifacts were transferred to the Indian Museum, Kolkata.
Stupas with Buddha’s Relics:
- After the Buddha’s death (Mahaparinirvana), his cremated relics were divided among 8 kingdoms and a Brahmin named Drona, who coordinated their distribution.
- Each recipient built a Stupa to enshrine their share of the relics, creating important pilgrimage sites and early centers of Buddhist worship.
- The 9 stupas were located in Rajagriha, Vaishali, Kapilavastu, Allakappa, Ramagrama, Vethadipa, Pava, Kushinagar, and Pippalivana.
- Emperor Ashoka (3rd century BCE) redistributed the relics from these stupas into thousands of new stupas across his empire.
- The stupa at Ramagrama is unique because it is believed to remain untouched and still holds the original relics.
- A typical early Buddhist stupa included a hemispherical mound (anda), a square railing (harmika), a central pillar (yashti) with umbrellas (chatra), and a path for circumambulation (pradakshinapatha).
| [UPSC 2023] With reference to ancient India, consider the following statements:
1. The concept of Stupa is Buddhist in origin.
2. Stupa was generally a repository of relics.
3. Stupa was a votive and commemorative structure in Buddhist tradition. How many of the statements given above are correct?
Options: (a) Only one (b) Only two* (c) All three (d) None |
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PYQ Relevance:
[UPSC 2024] The world is facing an acute shortage of clean and safe freshwater. What are the alternative technologies which can solve this crisis? Briefly discuss any three such technologies citing their key merits and demerits.
Linkage: This question directly related to “alternative technologies” to address a critical global environmental and resource crisis (freshwater scarcity). This aligns with the broader theme that the world needs better and diverse green technologies to tackle urgent environmental problems and ensure resource self-sufficiency, as emphasized in the context of energy innovation. |
Mentor’s Comment: As the push for sustainable energy intensifies, concerns are rising over the efficiency limits of widely used silicon photovoltaics. With the growing need for green hydrogen and land constraints, experts are questioning whether next-gen solar technologies offer better solutions. India must invest in efficient, diverse, and scalable innovations to meet climate goals and ensure energy self-sufficiency.
Today’s editorial analyses the concerns that are rising over the efficiency limits of widely used silicon photovoltaics. This topic is important for GS Paper III (Environment) in the UPSC mains exam.
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Let’s learn!
Why in the News?
Recently, as the global need for clean energy has increased and countries aim to fulfill their climate promises, silicon solar panels have become the most popular choice, changing the look of places from city rooftops to large solar farms in villages.
What limits silicon photovoltaics in meeting India’s climate goals?
- Low Energy Efficiency: Silicon solar panels have an in-field efficiency of only 15–18%, meaning a significant portion of solar energy is not converted into electricity. Eg: In Rajasthan, more panels are required to meet energy demand, increasing cost and land use due to low conversion efficiency.
- High Land Requirement: Due to their low efficiency, silicon panels need a larger surface area to generate the same output compared to newer technologies. Eg: The Rewa Solar Park in Madhya Pradesh covers over 1,500 hectares, reducing land availability for agriculture and conservation.
- Slow Climate Impact: Despite growing solar capacity, CO₂ levels have risen from 350 ppm in 1990 to ~425 ppm in 2025, indicating renewables are not scaling fast enough. Eg: Even after installing 4.45 TWh of renewable energy by 2024, India remains behind on its climate targets.
- Environmental Footprint of Manufacturing: The production of silicon panels involves high energy use and toxic chemicals, partially offsetting their green benefits. Eg: Most panels are imported from China, where coal-powered factories dominate, adding to indirect emissions.
- Incompatibility with Advanced Applications: Silicon PVs are less suitable for high-efficiency applications like green hydrogen production, which needs more consistent, high-output energy. Eg: In pilot projects in Gujarat, using silicon panels reduces the overall efficiency of green hydrogen production due to energy losses.
Why rethink electrolysis-based green hydrogen?
- High Energy Consumption: Electrolysis requires more energy to produce green hydrogen than the energy hydrogen provides when used, making the process energy-inefficient. Eg: In India’s pilot projects in Ladakh, the high electricity input from solar panels results in low net energy gain, raising concerns about economic viability.
- Storage and Transportation Challenges: Hydrogen has very low density, making it difficult and expensive to store and transport, often requiring high-pressure tanks or cryogenic conditions. Eg: In hydrogen mobility projects, such as those in Delhi, leakage and compression issues have hampered safe and cost-effective deployment.
- Compounding Energy Losses in Conversion: Using green hydrogen to produce green ammonia or methanol, and then extracting hydrogen back, leads to multiple stages of energy loss. Eg: In proposed export hubs like Vizag, converting hydrogen to ammonia for shipping and then reconverting it abroad reduces overall energy efficiency.
How do land and efficiency issues impact India’s solar push?
- Low Efficiency Increases Land Requirement: Silicon solar panels with 15–18% efficiency require larger surface areas to generate the same energy as advanced solar technologies. Eg: In Rajasthan’s Bhadla Solar Park, vast desert land is used to compensate for low panel efficiency, which limits deployment in land-constrained states.
- Urbanisation Limits Land Availability: Rapid urban expansion and the need to conserve green zones reduce the availability of suitable land for large-scale solar projects. Eg: In Mumbai’s metropolitan region, limited open space has pushed the focus toward rooftop solar, which has its own technical and regulatory hurdles.
- Hinders Achievement of Renewable Energy Targets: The inefficient land-to-energy ratio slows down the pace of solar capacity expansion, affecting progress toward India’s net-zero commitments. Eg: In Tamil Nadu, where land is both fertile and scarce, competing demands between agriculture and solar installations have delayed key solar proposals.
What role can artificial photosynthesis play in renewable energy?
- Direct Conversion of Sunlight into Fuel: Artificial photosynthesis (APS) mimics natural photosynthesis to convert sunlight, water, and CO₂directly into fuels like green methanol or hydrogen, offering a clean, efficient alternative to traditional energy-intensive processes.
- Bypasses Inefficiencies in Current Technologies: APS has the potential to eliminate multiple energy-loss steps such as electrolysis, storage, and reconversion, thereby enhancing the overall energy efficiency of renewable fuel production systems.
Why invest in next-gen renewable tech like RFNBO? (Way forward)
- Enhances Energy Independence: Renewable Fuels of Non-Biological Origin (RFNBO) can reduce India’s heavy reliance on imported fossil fuels (currently ~85%), promoting energy self-sufficiency in a geopolitically volatile world.
- Supports Diverse and Efficient Decarbonisation: RFNBO technologies enable the production of cleaner fuels like green hydrogen, ammonia, and methanol using renewable electricity, offering higher efficiency and adaptability for industrial and transport sectors.
- Future-Proofing India’s Energy Strategy: Investing in RFNBO ensures India is aligned with global clean energy innovations, allowing it to meet net-zero targets and remain competitive in emerging green fuel markets.
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Why in the News?
The 25% tariff plus penalty imposed by U.S. President Donald Trump on Indian imports has brought renewed attention to the strain in India-U.S. trade relations.
Why did the U.S. impose a 25% tariff on Indian imports?
- High Tariff and Non-Tariff Barriers by India: The U.S. accused India of maintaining high import duties and regulatory restrictions that limited American market access. Eg: Trump repeatedly criticized India’s high tariffs on U.S. goods like motorcycles and dairy products.
- Geopolitical Frustration Over India-Russia Ties: India’s continued energy and defense cooperation with Russia, despite U.S. pressure, triggered punitive action. Eg: Trump expressed displeasure at India’s oil imports from Russia, linking them to trade penalties.
- Failure to Reach a Mini-Trade Deal: Repeated delays and stalemates in talks over a limited trade agreement led to frustration in the U.S.
What stalled the India-U.S. mini-trade deal?
- India’s Reluctance to Lower Tariffs: India resisted U.S. demands to reduce import duties, especially in agriculture and dairy, to protect domestic interests. Eg: India declined to open its dairy sector to U.S. exporters, citing religious and cultural concerns over feed practices involving animal blood, which conflict with Indian dietary norms.
- Unclear Negotiation Timelines: The deal lacked a defined timeline, and momentum stalled due to shifting priorities on both sides. Eg: U.S. Trade Representative Jamieson Greer stated the deal needed “some more negotiations,” while India stopped referencing the mini-deal, signaling disengagement.
How do India’s farm and dairy policies hinder trade talks?
- Protection of Domestic Farmers: India maintains high tariffs and import restrictions to shield small and marginal farmers from foreign competition. Eg: India imposes import duties of up to 100% on dairy products, making it difficult for U.S. exporters to access the Indian market.
- Cultural and Religious Sensitivities: Indian regulations emphasise vegetarian feed practices, which clash with Western livestock farming methods. Eg: India rejected U.S. dairy imports because American cows are often fed blood meal, violating Hindu dietary norms.
- Subsidy and MSP System: India’s Minimum Support Price (MSP) and subsidy policies create a non-level playing field, raising concerns about fairness among trade partners. Eg: The U.S. has objected to India’s public stockholding of food grains, which they claim distorts global agricultural trade.
How do India-Russia ties affect India-U.S. trade relations?
- Strategic Autonomy in Foreign Policy: India maintains a non-aligned stance, continuing strong ties with Russia, especially in defence and energy sectors, despite Western pressure. Eg: India’s purchase of the S-400 missile system from Russia triggered U.S. concerns under the CAATSA sanctions regime.
- Energy Trade with Russia: India increased crude oil imports from Russia due to discounted prices amid the Ukraine conflict, which contradicts U.S.-led sanctions. Eg: In 2023, Russia became one of India’s top oil suppliers, raising questions in Washington about India’s commitment to Western-led efforts.
How can India balance sovereignty with export interests? (Way forward)
- Assert Strategic Autonomy while Building Economic Alliances: India must uphold its sovereign right to choose partners (e.g., Russia) while diversifying export markets and enhancing trade ties with nations like the U.S., EU, ASEAN, to reduce dependency and mitigate tariff risks.
- Pursue Issue-Based Bilateral Negotiations: India can engage in sector-specific negotiations that safeguard sensitive areas (like agriculture) while offering market access in others (like pharmaceuticals or services), thereby balancing domestic priorities with global trade expectations.
Mains PYQ:
[UPSC 2018] How would the recent phenomena of protectionism and currency manipulations in world trade affect macroeconomic stability of India?
Linkage: The article is directly related to impact of “protectionism” on India’s macroeconomic stability. The “25% tariff ‘plus penalty’ on imports of Indian goods” by the U.S. is a clear example of protectionist measures in world trade. The article explicitly states that these tariffs place India at a “relative disadvantage”, directly relating to the “soured relations” and potential impact on India’s economic stability.
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