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August 2025
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Bacterial cause behind Mass Starfish Deaths

Why in the News?

Since 2013, over 5 billion starfish have died along North America’s Pacific coast due to a wasting disease now linked to Vibrio pectenicida, a cholera-related bacterium.

Bacterial cause behind Mass Starfish Deaths

About Starfish (Sea Stars):

  • Taxonomy: Belong to phylum Echinodermata; exclusively marine organisms.
  • Species: Brisingida, Forcipulatida, Velatida, Valvatida, Spinuloside
  • Body Structure:
    • Radial symmetry (adults), bilateral symmetry (larvae)
    • Calcareous exoskeleton for protection
    • Water vascular system for respiration and circulation
  • Unique Features:
    • Regeneration: Can regrow lost limbs
    • No blood or brain: Seawater circulates nutrients
    • Eyespots: At arm tips, help sense light
    • Tough skin: Made of calcium carbonate
  • Feeding: Carnivorous, detritivorous, and scavengers

Reasons for Mass Deaths (2013–2025):

  • Causal Agent: Identified in 2025 as Vibrio pectenicida, a bacterium related to cholera-causing strains.
  • Symptoms: Limb detachment; Tissue disintegration; Melting into a pile of gunk.
  • Most Affected Species: Sunflower sea stars, which saw a 90% population decline.
  • Geographical Spread: Along the Pacific coast from Alaska to Mexico.
  • Ecological Consequences:
    • Starfish are keystone predators, especially of sea urchins.
    • Their decline led to urchin population explosions, which overgrazed kelp forests.
    • Resulted in biodiversity loss and reduced carbon sequestration.
[UPSC 2012] Vultures which used to be very common in Indian countryside some years ago are rarely seen nowadays. This is attributed to:

(a) the destruction of their nesting sites by new invasive species disease among them (b) a drug used by cattle owners for treating their diseased cattle persistent and fatal (c) scarcity of food available to them (d) a widespread, persistent and fatal disease among them

 

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Festivals, Dances, Theatre, Literature, Art in News

In news: Lalit Kala Akademi 

Why in the News?

The 64th National Exhibition of Art (NEA), organized by the Lalit Kala Akademi, India’s National Academy of Art, was inaugurated in New Delhi.

About Lalit Kala Akademi:

  • Establishment: Located in New Delhi, as an autonomous organisation.
  • Inauguration: Launched on 5 August 1954 by Maulana Abul Kalam Azad, the then Minister for Education.
  • Legal Status: Granted statutory status in 1957 under the Societies Registration Act, 1860.
  • Funding: Supported by the Ministry of Culture, Government of India.
  • Structure: Operates through the General Council, Executive Board, and various Committees.
  • Regional Centres: Present in Chennai, Kolkata, Lucknow, Bhubaneswar, and Garhi (New Delhi).
  • Functions:
    • Scope of Work: Promotes modern, contemporary, folk, and tribal visual arts of India.
    • Art Collection: Maintains a permanent collection of Indian visual art.
    • International Role: Facilitates global cultural exchange through international cultural agreements.

Key Events and Initiatives:

  • National Exhibition of Art: Annual flagship event since 1955, showcasing artists from across India.
  • 64th Edition (2025): Held from 5 August to 15 September at Kamani Auditorium and Lalit Kala Art Galleries, New Delhi.
  • Triennale India: Major international art exhibition featuring global artists.
  • Print Biennale India: Dedicated to printmaking; 3rd edition scheduled for 2025–26.
  • Artist Promotion: Provides platforms for both emerging and established artists; strengthens India’s soft power through cultural diplomacy.
[UPSC 2009] Consider the following statements:

1. The National School of Drama was set up by Sangeet Natak Akademi in 1959.

2. The highest honour conferred by the Sahitya Akademi on a writer is by electing him its Fellow.

Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

(a) 1 only (b) 2 only  (c) Both 1 and 2*  (d) Neither 1 nor 2

 

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Russian Invasion of Ukraine: Global Implications

Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces (INF) Treaty

Why in the News?

Russia officially announced its exit from the 1987 Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces (INF) Treaty, marking a pivotal moment in the dismantling of Cold War-era nuclear arms control architecture.

What is the INF Treaty?

  • Signed In: 1987 by United States President Ronald Reagan and Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev.
  • Purpose: Banned ground-launched ballistic and cruise missiles with ranges between 500 and 5,500 kilometers.
  • Impact: Led to the elimination of 2,692 missiles by June 1, 1991.
  • Verification: Allowed on-site inspections, setting a benchmark for arms control agreements.
  • Scope: Covered both nuclear and conventional missile systems.
  • Significance: Became a key pillar of post-Cold War strategic stability.

Why did Russia exit the Treaty?

Implications:

  • Collapse of Arms Control: Removes a pillar of nuclear restraint.
  • Resurgence of Arms Race: Possible missile deployments in Europe & Asia-Pacific.
  • Regional Threats: NATO countries & East Asia more vulnerable.
  • Proliferation Risk: May embolden China, India, and others.
[UPSC 2011] The “New START” treaty was in the news. What is this treaty?

(a) It is a bilateral strategic nuclear arms reduction treaty between the USA and the Russian Federation.*

(b) It is a multilateral energy security cooperation treaty among the members of the East Asia Summit.

(c) It is a treaty between the Russian Federation and the European Union for energy security cooperation.

(d) It is a multilateral cooperation treaty among the BRICS countries for the promotion of trade.

 

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Port Infrastructure and Shipping Industry – Sagarmala Project, SDC, CEZ, etc.

Parliament passes Carriage of Goods by Sea Bill, 2025

Why in the News?

Parliament has passed the Carriage of Goods by Sea Bill, 2025, replacing the nearly century-old Indian Carriage of Goods by Sea Act, 1925.

About Carriage of Goods by Sea Bill, 2025:

  • Replaces: The colonial-era Indian Carriage of Goods by Sea Act, 1925.
  • Purpose: Regulates the rights, duties, liabilities, and immunities of parties involved in shipping goods by sea from Indian ports to domestic or international destinations.
  • International Alignment: Retains consistency with the Hague Rules (1924), which also formed the basis of the 1925 Act.
  • Objective: Modernises maritime law in line with global standards and boosts India’s ease of doing business in the maritime sector.

Key Features:

  • Bills of Lading Defined: It outlines the details of the shipment, including the type and quantity of goods, the origin and destination, and the terms of the agreement between the shipper and the carrier.
    • Includes details on goods’ type, quantity, condition, and destination.
    • Serves as a legally binding contract between the shipper and carrier.
  • Central Government Powers:
    • May issue directions for implementation.
    • Can amend the Schedule of Rules related to bills of lading.
  • Part of Broader Maritime Reforms:
    • Supports port development and coastal trade.
    • Encourages creation of State Maritime Boards and a Maritime State Development Council.
    • Covers port safety, disaster response, pollution control, and dispute resolution.
  • Global Compliance: Aligns India’s shipping laws with evolving international conventions and practices.
[UPSC 2016] The term ‘import cover’, sometimes seen in the news, refers to

(a) It is the ratio of value of imports to the Gross Domestic Product of a country

(b) It is the total value of imports of a country in a year

(c) It is the ratio between the value of exports and that of imports between two countries

(d) It is the number of months of imports that could be paid for by a country’s international reserves*

 

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Direct Benefits Transfers

[6th August 2025] The Hindu Op-ed: The technocratic calculus of India’s welfare state

The promise to deliver social welfare at scale, using data-driven algorithms, may be at the cost of ‘democratic norms’ and ‘political accountability’

India’s welfare model is undergoing a silent but radical transformation. What was once a deliberative system grounded in rights and citizen needs is now morphing into a technocratic model governed by data, code, and efficiency. This shift raises a key question: Can dignity and justice survive when welfare becomes measurable but impersonal?

From Entitlement to efficiency: The new welfare playbook

Over the past decade, India has moved from rights-based entitlements to an algorithm-led delivery model—what scholars call a technocratic calculus.

  • Aadhaar: Over 1 billion enrolled; enables biometric verification to curb duplicate beneficiaries.
  • DBT (Direct Benefit Transfers): 1,206 schemes unified under Aadhaar; ₹3.48 lakh crore saved via leakages plugged.
  • CPGRAMS and grievance portals: 36 digital platforms now streamline complaints.

That’s the infrastructure. But the implications run deeper. This marks a shift from deliberative welfare (based on rights and dialogue) to calculative welfare (based on metrics like coverage, leakage, speed).

Promises vs. Perils:

1. Efficiency vs. Empathy

Welfare delivery is now fast, traceable, and auditable. But it risks treating citizens as data profiles, not as individuals with needs. Algorithms can’t ask moral questions. Bureaucrats avoid hard choices by letting systems decide.

2. Political Accountability Diluted

Leaders now point to dashboards instead of taking responsibility. Decisions on who deserves support are increasingly delegated to code.

3. Institutions Under Strain

  • RTI backlog: Over 4 lakh pending cases (June 2024)
  • Vacant CIC posts: Weakens transparency
  • CPGRAMS: Acts more like a ticketing system, not a democratic grievance platform. Visibility is centralised, but not responsibility.

4. Shrinking Social Sector Investment

  • Welfare spending has dropped from 21% to 17% of GDP (2014–2025)
  • For vulnerable groups (SCs, minorities, labour, nutrition), allocations shrank from 11% pre-COVID to just 3%
  • The paradox: as delivery gets smarter, commitments get thinner.

The Deeper democratic concern:

When welfare turns technical, it becomes less political. Philosopher Habermas warned of this: expert-rule can silence democratic debate. In India’s case, welfare governance is increasingly auditable, but less answerable.

What Needs Fixing? 

  1. Embed human judgement in digital systems: Algorithms should aid, not override, political reasoning.
  2. Revive deliberative spaces: Local bodies, gram sabhas, and social audits must regain teeth.
  3. Reinvest in social sector spending: Efficiency must not justify austerity.
  4. Reimagine grievance redressal: Make platforms citizen-centric, not just data-driven.

Way forward:

  1. Federal Pluralism: Empower States to design context-sensitive welfare regimes, reinforcing federalism and pluralism.
  2. Impact Audits: Institutionalise community-driven impact audits through Rashtriya Gram Swaraj Abhiyan and Gram Panchayat Development Plans.
  3. Platform Cooperatives: Build platform cooperatives in all States with self-help groups as intermediaries, inspired by Kerala’s Kudumbashree.
  4. Civic Engagement: Incentivise civil society to promote grassroots political education and establish legal aid clinics for  stronger community accountability.
  5. Resilience Mechanisms: Strengthen and codify offline fallback systems, human feedback safeguards, and statutory bias audits.
  6. Digital Rights: Embed the “right to explanation and appeal” in digital governance frameworks, in line with UN Human Rights recommendations.

Digital welfare is not the problem. The problem is when it replaces, not supports, democracy. India must blend technology with trust, efficiency with empathy, and code with conscience. Only then can welfare remain a tool for justice—not just for savings.

Possible GS2 Mains Question:

  1. India’s welfare governance has shifted from rights-based entitlement to algorithmic delivery. Critically examine the democratic and institutional implications of this shift. Suggest reforms to align technology with constitutional values.

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J&K – The issues around the state

What will it take to restore J&K’s statehood? 

The J&K Reorganisation Act was passed in Parliament on August 6, 2019. It gave the Centre, through the Lieutenant Governor, a heightened legislative role in J&K, and put the bureaucratic apparatus in the UT under the Union Home Minister.

Importance of the topic:

The demand for restoring J&K’s statehood is central to ongoing political discourse, federalism, and Centre–State relations. It involves constitutional questions about autonomy, democratic representation, and legislative authority. Understanding this issue is essential for both Indian Polity and Governance sections of GS Paper II and current affairs-based Mains questions. Six years after the abrogation of Article 370 and the passage of the Jammu and Kashmir Reorganisation Act, 2019, the question of restoring full statehood to J&K is back in political and judicial discourse. While the Supreme Court upheld the abrogation in December 2023, it also urged the Union Government to restore statehood at the earliest, ideally before the next Assembly elections.

 

Understanding the Jammu & Kashmir Reorganisation Act, 2019

The J&K Reorganisation Act, passed in August 2019, radically altered the political geography of India by:

  1. Bifurcating the former state into two Union Territories (UTs): Jammu & Kashmir (with a legislative assembly) and Ladakh (without a legislative assembly)
  2. Repealing Article 370, which had conferred special status to J&K.
  3. Ending the state’s Constitution, flag, and autonomy in various matters.

How Was the Act Passed?

It was passed under Article 3 of the Constitution, which empowers Parliament to change the boundaries or status of any state. The Constitution (Application to J&K) Order, 2019 extended all provisions of the Indian Constitution to J&K. A Presidential Order, followed by resolutions in Parliament, enabled the effective nullification of Article 370.

This method has been legally contentious, with debates about: Whether Article 370 could be abrogated without the consent of the erstwhile State Assembly and Whether a UT can be created out of a full-fledged state without a constitutional amendment.

Why Restoration of Statehood is Important:

  1. Democratic Legitimacy: A Union Territory is governed by the Centre, with limited powers to the local legislature (like Delhi). Statehood would return full legislative powers and autonomy to the elected J&K government.
  2. Political Participation and Stability: Full statehood may encourage wider participation in elections and a return to mainstream politics in the Valley.
  3. Judicial Recommendation: The Supreme Court (2023) noted that UT status must be temporary and urged a time-bound plan for restoration.
  4. Rebuilding Trust: Statehood is seen as a step to win back the confidence of the local population, especially after internet shutdowns, detentions, and security clampdowns.

Challenges in Restoring Statehood

  1. Security Concerns: Terror threats and infiltration risks persist. The government may delay full devolution until there is a more stable security environment.
  2. Geopolitical Tensions: China and Pakistan continue to contest India’s sovereignty over J&K and Ladakh. Strategic concerns may shape decisions.
  3. Administrative Realignment: The reorganisation involved restructuring administrative units, services, and legal frameworks. Reversing some of those may create bureaucratic hurdles.
  4. Political Control by the Centre: The current arrangement allows the Centre direct control. Restoring statehood might reduce this control, especially if opposition parties dominate the future assembly.
  5. Need for Election Readiness

 

Value Addition:

Article 3 of the Constitution of India:

  • Article 3 of the Indian Constitution grants the Parliament significant powers related to the internal reorganization of the states and union territories within the Union of India.
  • Under Article 3, Parliament can:
    • Form new states by combining or separating territory from existing states or union territories.
    • Increase or decrease the area of any state.
    • Alter the boundaries or change the name of any state
  • For Parliament to exercise these powers, a Bill must be introduced with the President’s prior recommendation. If the Bill impacts a state’s area, boundaries, or name, the President must seek the state legislature’s views within a specified timeframe. However, these views are not binding on Parliament. Bills under Article 3 are passed by a simple majority and are not considered constitutional amendments under Article 368.

 

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Defence Sector – DPP, Missions, Schemes, Security Forces, etc.

India needs a ‘defence cess’ to fund military modernisation

With such a levy on high-end goods, spending on luxury will become a visible public act of support for the armed forces. In an era of evolving warfare, from stealth jets to AI-driven drones, India’s defence preparedness is no longer optional, it is existential. This article proposes a ‘Defence Cess’ on luxury goods and services, offering a creative, emotionally resonant, and fiscally sustainable mechanism to ring-fence funds for military modernisation. This issue links directly to GS Paper II (Governance), GS Paper III (Security and Economy), and GS IV (Ethics, especially public accountability and duty).

The Strategic Urgency: Why Modernisation Can’t Wait

India is increasingly surrounded by hostile neighbours with fast-upgrading military capacities:

  1. Pakistan may soon induct stealth fighters like J-20 or J-35 from China.
  2. China is testing sixth-generation aircraft and has strong cyber and drone warfare capabilities.
  3. The Indian Air Force (IAF), by contrast, operates only 32 squadrons vs the sanctioned strength of 42 — leaving India strategically exposed in contested airspace.

Key Quote: “Capability alone is not enough. The country cannot afford to be vulnerable.”

Modernisation is Existential, Not Aspirational

India’s military modernisation roadmap is ambitious but underfunded. It includes:

  1. Fifth-generation fighter aircraft development (AMCA)
  2. Indigenous jet engine programmes
  3. Strategic unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs)
  4. Electronic warfare (EW) and cyber-capacity enhancement

But while intent exists, execution suffers from fragmented schemes, budgetary limitations, and lack of dedicated long-term funding.

The Defence Cess Proposal: Key Features

  1. A 5–10% surcharge on ultra-luxury goods and services like High-end cars, Private jets, Imported luxury watches, Premium liquor, etc.
  2. Clearly itemised on invoices as “Raksha Cess”
  3. Funds are non-lapsable, targeted, and traceable
  4. Exclusively for capital expenditure in Procurement, R&D, Infrastructure for defence

Global Parallels and Precedents

Defence/Strategic Taxation Model
Italy Luxury tax on yachts and helicopters during Eurozone crisis
Sweden Long-standing luxury taxation for social balance
China Anti-extravagance drive redirected elite consumption toward strategic sectors

These countries have used fiscal mechanisms not just to fund strategy but to shape public narratives, blending consumption with national responsibility.

Why a Defence Cess Works for India

  1. Psychological and Symbolic Impact: The idea of contributing directly to the betterment of Indian defence through luxury spending has strong emotional appeal. It creates a moral linkage between indulgence and national duty converting private consumption into public solidarity. Naming it “Raksha Cess” makes it resonate with patriotism and responsibility.
  2. Fiscal Innovation Without Burdening the Masses: India’s direct tax base is relatively narrow, and increasing defence funding through general taxation could hurt the middle class or poor. This cess targets only high-end consumers, ensuring that additional fiscal pressure is placed on those most capable of bearing it. Luxury spending has grown significantly with India’s rising affluent class, this captures a booming sector for national good.
  3. Transparency and Traceability: Since the cess is itemised separately on invoices, it allows greater transparency. It increases trust in government utilisation and may lead to greater tax compliance if people know exactly where their money goes. With digitised billing and GST-era infrastructure, monitoring and reporting mechanisms already exist to track such surcharges.
  4. Dedicated, Ring-Fenced Defence Fund: Current defence allocations are diluted across revenue expenses and pensions. It helps bypass routine bureaucratic delays and ensures directed capital spending. A defence cess would be non-lapsable and strictly for capital expenditure — such as: Acquiring new aircraft, R&D in defence tech and Indigenous manufacturing. This enables long-term strategic planning free from annual budget cycles.
  5. Aligns India With Global Practices: Many countries (Italy, Sweden, China) have used luxury taxation or targeted levies to support strategic sectors or correct fiscal imbalances. India can draw from these models to introduce a fiscally sound and globally validated mechanism.
  6. Boosts the Narrative of Nation-Building: In an era where narratives matter, this proposal encourages voluntary nation-building and elite participation in national security. It sends a message that “those who benefit most from India’s rise should contribute most to its protection.”

Challenges in Implementing a Defence Cess:

  1. Legal and Fiscal Complexity: Introducing a cess outside the GST framework may face legal and administrative hurdles, requiring amendments or coordination with the GST Council. There may be opposition from States citing federal fiscal concerns
  2. Risk of Misuse or Leakage: Any fund not managed with full transparency and oversight can fall prey to inefficiency or corruption. Strong audit systems and public reporting mechanisms must be built into the cess architecture from the outset.
  3. Need for a Clear Governance Structure: A dedicated body or fund management unit should be created under the Ministry of Defence or PMO, preferably with civil society representation for accountability. Without such a structure, funds may be diverted or underutilised.
  4. Revenue Predictability and Scale: Luxury consumption is inelastic but cyclical, it may dip during economic downturns. The fund should not be over-relied upon for core defence needs; rather, it must act as a complementary booster.
  5. Perception Management and Political Pushback: Some may view this as a populist or performative move, or even as a “sin tax on success”. There must be consistent and transparent communication that this is about contribution, not punishment.
  6. Moral Optics and Class Tensions: Care must be taken to avoid triggering class resentment or elite backlash, especially if the tax seems punitive. Framing it as “a privilege with purpose” is crucial — the messaging has to be inclusive, not divisive.

Conclusion: From Passive Consumers to Active Nation-Builders

India’s national security demands not just better weapons, but a sustainable model of public contribution and political imagination. A well-designed defence cess could convert elite indulgence into national insurance, creating a visible alignment between privilege and responsibility.

Value Addition

India’s Defence Modernisation: 

What Has Been Done: What is being planned
  • Tejas Mk-1A production initiated (HAL)
  • Strategic partnerships under DPP-2020 for indigenous manufacturing
  • Agni Prime, INS Vikrant, and SAM systems development
  • Defence exports crossed ₹21,000 crore in 2023-24
  • Emergency procurement powers given to armed forces post-Galwan
  • AMCA (Advanced Medium Combat Aircraft) — 5th Gen fighter
  • Twin-engine deck-based fighter (TEDBF) for Navy
  • India-US Jet Engine Deal (GE-HAL) under iCET
  • India-France agreement for submarine co-development
  • Cyber and AI warfare units under Theatre Command model

Important Agreements and Collaborations:

Country Collaboration
USA iCET, Jet Engine tech transfer (GE -F414)
France Rafale aircraft, scorpene submarine
Israel Missile defence (Barak-8)
Russia S-400 Missile systems, AK-203 Rifles

Important Defence Policies:

  1. Defence Acquisition Procedure (DAP) 2020: Goal: To streamline the procurement process for the Indian Armed Forces, promoting indigenization and efficiency. Prioritizes “Buy Indian” categories, Enhanced Indigenous Content (IC), Simplification of Trial and Testing Procedures and has Emphasis on Make and Innovation.
  2. Innovations for Defence Excellence (iDEX): Goal: To foster an ecosystem for innovation and technology development in the defence and aerospace sectors, leveraging the potential of startups, MSMEs, academia, and individual innovators. It is managed by Defence Innovation Organization (DIO), a not-for-profit company founded by Hindustan Aeronautics Limited (HAL) & Bharat Electronics Limited (BEL).
  3. DRDO’s 5-Year Roadmap (Vision 2025): Goal: To lead India towards self-reliance in defence technologies and become a global leader in defence research and development.

 

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Electric and Hybrid Cars – FAME, National Electric Mobility Mission, etc.

Status of Ethanol Blended Petrol (EBP) Programme

Why in the News?

India met its 20% ethanol blending (E20) target in petrol by March 2025 — five years early. Talks are now on to raise the blending ratio further in the immediate future.

About Ethanol Blended Petrol (EBP) Programme:

  • Launched in 2003 by the Ministry of Petroleum and Natural Gas.
  • Objective: Promote use of renewable, domestically produced ethanol in petrol.
  • Nationwide rollout (except A&N and Lakshadweep) since April 2019.
  • Feedstock:
    • 1G Ethanol: From sugarcane molasses, maize, rice.
    • 2G Ethanol: From agricultural residues like rice straw, bamboo, bagasse.
  • Blending Progress:
    • 1.6% in 2013–14
    • 11.8% in 2022–23
    • 20% achieved in March 2025 (E20)
  • Future Plans:
    • Discussions on E27 blending target by 2030.
    • Government exploring flex-fuel vehicles (e.g., E85-capable (dual-fuel) cars).

India’s Achievements:

  • Environmental Gains: 19.2 million tonnes of CO₂ emissions avoided (2014–2021).
  • Economic Impact: ₹26,000 crore saved in foreign exchange via reduced oil imports.
  • Industrial Growth:
    • Distillery capacity scaled up with interest subvention support.
    • Flex-fuel vehicles showcased by major automakers in 2025.
  • Farmer Benefit: Creates demand for sugarcane and grains, increasing farm income.

Limitations:

  • Technical Challenges
    • Lower mileage with E20 due to reduced energy content.
    • Older vehicles may face engine compatibility issues.
    • Flex-fuel technology adoption still limited.
  • Economic Concerns
    • No drop in fuel prices despite ethanol savings.
    • Consumer hesitation due to lack of visible benefits.
  • Environmental Trade-offs
    • High land and water use for ethanol crops (especially sugarcane).
    • Food security risks from diverting food crops for fuel.
  • Need for Diversification
    • Majority of ethanol still from sugarcane; limited 2G ethanol usage.
    • Need to promote biomass-based ethanol (wood chips, crop residue).
[UPSC 2025] Consider the following statements:

Statement I: Of the two major ethanol producers in the world, i.e., Brazil and the United States of America, the former produces more ethanol than the latter.

Statement II: Unlike in the United States of America where corn is the principal feedstock for ethanol production, sugarcane is the principal feedstock for ethanol production in Brazil.

Which one of the following is correct in respect of the above statements?

(a) Both Statement I and Statement II are correct and Statement II explains Statement I

(b) Both Statement I and Statement II are correct but Statement II does not explain Statement I

(c) Statement I is correct but Statement II is not correct

(d) Statement I is not correct but Statement II is correct *

 

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Wildlife Conservation Efforts

Rhisotope Project

Why in the News?

In a move to combat rhino poaching, the University of the Witwatersrand in South Africa, supported by the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), has launched the Rhisotope Project.

What is Rhisotope Project? 

  • Launched By: University of the Witwatersrand, South Africa, with support from the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA).
  • Initiation: Concept began in 2021; formally launched in July 2024.
  • Objective: Prevent rhino poaching by making horns traceable and unsuitable for illegal trade.
  • Pilot Site: Waterberg Biosphere Reserve, South Africa.
  • Pilot Implementation: 20 rhinos injected with radioisotopes (exact isotope remains undisclosed) for testing.

How the Isotope Tagging Works?

  • Isotope Basics: Uses radioactive isotopes that emit detectable radiation as they decay.
  • Injection Method: A small hole is drilled into the horn; a low dose of isotope is inserted safely.
  • Detection Mechanism: Radiation Portal Monitors at ports can detect tagged horns—even inside 40-foot containers, as proven using 3D-printed horn simulations.

 

Significance:

  • Safety Assurance: No damage to rhinos observed; cytological tests showed no cellular or physiological harm.
  • Impact on Illegal Trade: Horn becomes detectable, unusable, and toxic for illegal human consumption.
[UPSC 2019] Consider the following statements:

1. Asiatic lion is naturally found In India only.     2. Double-humped camel is naturally found in India only.     3. One-horned rhinoceros is naturally found in India only.

Which of the statements given above is / are correct?”

Options:   (a) 1 only *  (b) 2 only   (c) 1 and 3 only    (d) 1, 2 and 3

 

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Wildlife Conservation Efforts

Population Census of Nilgiri Tahrs  

Why in the News?

A joint population census conducted by Kerala and Tamil Nadu has revealed the presence of 2,668 Nilgiri tahrs in the Western Ghats.

Population Census of Nilgiri Tahrs  

About Nilgiri Tahr (Nilgiritragus hylocrius):

  • Endemism: Found only in the Nilgiri Hills and southern Western Ghats of Tamil Nadu and Kerala, India.
  • Ecological Role: Key grazer in the montane grassland ecosystem, influencing plant growth and grassland regeneration.
  • Habitat:
    • Open montane grasslands interspersed with shola forests (South Western Ghats montane rain forests eco-region).
    • Occurs at elevations between 1,200 to 2,600 metres (3,900 to 8,500 feet).
    • Prefers steep rocky slopes, cliff edges, and grassy plateaus — areas with clear visibility to detect predators.
  • Population: Estimated 3,122 individuals in the wild; Locally extinct in about 14% of its historical habitat.
    • In Kerala (1,365): Eravikulam National Park (ENP) – largest single population (~841 individuals); Anamalai Hills landscape.
    • In Tamil Nadu (1303): Mukurthi National Park; Grass Hills National Park; Kalakkad-Mundanthurai Tiger Reserve (lesser presence)
  • Conservation Status:
    • IUCN Red List: Endangered
    • Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972: Schedule I
  • Cultural Significance:
    • Official state animal of Tamil Nadu.
    • Mentioned in Tamil Sangam literature (~2,000 years ago).
    • Seen in Mesolithic rock art (10,000–4,000 BC), indicating its deep historical importance.
[UPSC 2018] Consider the following fauna of India:

1. Gharial 2. Leatherback turtle 3. Swamp deer

Which of the above is/are endangered?

Options: (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 3 only (c) 1, 2 and 3 * (d) None

 

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Health Sector – UHC, National Health Policy, Family Planning, Health Insurance, etc.

What is Ayurveda Aahara?

Why in the News?

To align ancient Indian diets with modern nutrition, FSSAI and the Ministry of Ayush have released an official list of food items under the Ayurveda Aahara category.

What is Ayurveda Aahara?

About Ayurveda Aahara:

  • Definition: Refers to food products based on Ayurvedic dietary principles—focused on balance, seasonality, and natural, therapeutic ingredients.
  • Objective: Ensures standardisation, safety, and consumer trust in Ayurvedic dietary practices.
  • Legal Framework: Regulated under the Food Safety and Standards Authority of India’s Ayurveda Aahara Regulations (2022).
  • Textual Basis: Product list notified under Note (1) of Schedule B, grounded in classical Ayurvedic texts listed in Schedule A.
  • Standards: Foods must follow authentic Ayurvedic recipes, ingredients, and preparation methods.
  • New Product Inclusion: Food Business Operators (FBOs) can propose additions by citing authoritative Ayurvedic sources.
  • Institutional Support: Endorsed by the National Institute of Ayurveda and the Ministry of Ayush; the Ayush Aahara Compendium offers scientifically validated formulations for industry use.

Significance:

  • Health Benefits: Supports preventive health, digestion, and immunity through time-tested dietary wisdom.
  • Cultural Revival: Reconnects with India’s ancient food traditions, including those from the Sangam era; recognised globally alongside Yoga and Millets.
  • Regulatory Clarity: Provides structured guidelines to manufacturers, enabling ease of business and consumer confidence in authenticity.
[UPSC 2017] Which of the following are the objectives of ‘National Nutrition Mission’?

1. To create awareness relating to malnutrition among pregnant women and lactating mothers.

2. To reduce the incidence of anaemia among young children, adolescent girls and women.

3. To promote the consumption of millets, coarse cereals and unpolished rice.

4. To promote the consumption of poultry eggs.

Select the correct answer using the code given below:

Options: (a) 1 and 2 only* (b) 1, 2 and 3 only (c) 1, 2 and 4 only (d) 3 and 4 only

 

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Capital Markets: Challenges and Developments

Asset Under Management (AUM)

Why in the News?

India’s Mutual Fund (MF) industry has witnessed exponential growth, with Assets Under Management (AUM) reaching ₹74.40 lakh crore as of June 2025, a sevenfold increase over the past decade.

What are Assets Under Management (AUM)?

  • Definition: AUM refers to the total market value of financial assets (stocks, bonds, etc.) managed by an investment firm on behalf of clients.
  • Growth Drivers:
    • Net investor inflows and redemptions
    • Market performance
    • Dividend reinvestments
  • Importance:
    • Indicates fund size, investor confidence, and fund stability
    • Reflects fund manager performance and popularity
    • Higher AUM allows better liquidity and portfolio diversification
    • Impacts management fees and minimum investment limits

What is a Mutual Fund?

  • Definition: A mutual fund pools money from multiple investors to invest in a diversified portfolio.
  • Management: Handled by professional fund managers to balance risk and return.
  • Unit-Based Investment: Investors purchase fund units; each unit’s value is called the Net Asset Value (NAV), which changes with market movement.

Classification of Mutual Funds

a. Based on Asset Class:

  1. Equity Funds: Invest in stocks; includes large-cap, mid-cap, and small-cap funds.
  2. Debt Funds: Invest in bonds and other fixed-income instruments.
  3. Hybrid Funds: Mix of equity and debt for balanced risk-return.

b. Based on Investment Objective:

  1. Growth Funds: Focus on capital appreciation; suitable for long-term investors.
  2. Income Funds: Aim for regular income via bonds/dividends.
  3. Liquid Funds: Invest in short-term debt; low risk and high liquidity.
  4. Tax-saving Funds (Equity Linked Savings Scheme): Offer Section 80C tax benefits; equity-focused.
  5. Pension Funds: Meant for retirement; long-term return-focused.

c. Based on Structure:

  1. Open-ended Funds: Investors can enter or exit anytime; highly liquid.
  2. Closed-ended Funds: Fixed maturity; investments only during the initial offer period.
  3. Interval Funds: Allow purchase/redemption only at specific intervals.

 

[UPSC 2025] Consider the following statements:

I. India accounts for a very large portion of all equity option contracts traded globally, thus exhibiting a great boom. II. India’s stock market has grown rapidly in the recent past, even overtaking Hong Kong’s at some point in time. III. There is no regulatory body either to warn small investors about the risks of options trading or to act on unregistered financial advisors in this regard.

Which of the statements given above are correct?

Options:  (a) I and II only * (b) II and III only (c) I and III only (d) I, II and III

 

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Electoral Reforms In India

A Crisis of Trust in Electoral Democracy: The Need for a Transparent and Impartial Election Commission

As questions emerge over the conduct of elections in India, restoring faith in the Election Commission is crucial to safeguarding democratic legitimacy.

Context and Relevance (GS2 – Polity and Governance, Constitutional Bodies):

The Election Commission of India (ECI), a constitutionally mandated body under Article 324, is once again in the spotlight. Following the 2024 general elections, allegations from political leaders, including Rahul Gandhi and Tejashwi Yadav, have cast a shadow over the Commission’s neutrality and transparency. These charges revive a critical debate: Can India’s democracy survive without full public trust in its electoral machinery? The answer lies in the integrity, independence, and accountability of the Election Commission, one of the bedrocks of India’s representative democracy.

Why Is Electoral Credibility So Vital?

  1. Democratic legitimacy stems not just from elections being conducted, but from them being widely perceived as free, fair, and impartial.
  2. If losers in elections feel the process was biased or manipulated, public trust erodes, similar to a rigged court trial or fixed sporting match.
  3. Thus, electoral bodies must maintain absolute transparency to avoid a crisis of trust.

What are the Allegations?

  1. Discrepancies in Voter Rolls: A Member of Parliament has hinted at large-scale discrepancies in the 2024 elections. Tejashwi Yadav alleged that his name was missing from the electoral rolls in Bihar due to a mismatch in his EPIC (voter ID) number.
  2. Opacity in VVPAT Functioning: The Voter Verifiable Paper Audit Trail (VVPAT), a critical component of EVMs, has been flagged for lack of transparency. Unlike the Ballot Unit and Control Unit, the VVPAT contains software and is centrally programmed — raising questions about tamper-proofing and auditability.
  3. Arbitrary VVPAT Tallying: The process of randomly tallying VVPAT slips with EVM counts has become highly discretionary, leading to low public confidence.
  4. ECI’s Defensive Posture: Rather than addressing concerns head-on, the ECI has simply rejected tampering allegations and asked parties to raise objections “at the appropriate time”.

Wider Implications for Indian Democracy

  1. Public Trust in Institutions: Without visible impartiality, even a fair process may be discredited by perception. This impacts citizen engagement, voter turnout, and social cohesion.
  2. Level Playing Field in Elections: If major opposition leaders claim unfair treatment, it undermines the equality of contest fundamental to electoral democracy.
  3. Rule of Law and Accountability: The ECI is not above public scrutiny. While insulated from political pressure, it must remain answerable to constitutional values and public confidence.
  4. Judicial Oversight and Electoral Reforms: Calls may grow for stronger judicial or parliamentary oversight of ECI decisions — or reforms such as: Collegium system for appointing Election Commissioners, Mandatory disclosures of EVM-VVPAT audit protocols.

Way Forward

  1. Ensure Real Transparency: ECI should publish standard operating procedures for VVPAT tallying and voter roll revision.
  2. Independent Audit Mechanisms: Encourage third-party audits and real-time grievance tracking for electoral complaints.
  3. Reform ECI Appointments: Move from Executive-dominated selection to a multi-member collegium including CJI, opposition leaders, and the President.
  4. Digital Literacy and Voter Awareness: Boost public understanding of electoral tech like EVMs and VVPAT to counter misinformation and suspicion.

Conclusion:

India’s electoral democracy is only as strong as its citizens’ belief in its fairness. As a constitutional guardian of that belief, the Election Commission must go beyond legal compliance and strive to uphold both institutional credibility and democratic trust. A recalibration is urgently needed — not just for politicians or parties, but for the citizen-voter, who is the ultimate stakeholder in the democratic process.

 

Sample UPSC Mains Question (GS2 – Polity, 15 Marks)

“The credibility of democratic institutions lies not just in their constitutional design but in public perception of their impartiality.” In light of recent controversies, critically examine the functioning of the Election Commission of India. Suggest reforms to strengthen its autonomy and transparency.

 

Value Addition:

Constitutional Articles related to ECI

  • Article 324: Vests the superintendence, direction, and control of elections in the ECI.
  • Article 325: One general electoral roll for every territorial constituency.
  • Article 326: Elections to Lok Sabha and State Assemblies to be based on adult suffrage.
  • Article 327: Power of Parliament to make provisions with respect to elections.
  • Article 328: Power of State Legislature to make provisions relating to elections.
  • Article 329: Bar to interference by courts in electoral matters.

Voter Verified Paper Audit Trail (VVPAT)

  • VVPAT is an independent system attached to EVMs that allows voters to verify that their vote has been cast correctly.
  • It generates a printed slip with the candidate’s name and symbol, visible for 7 seconds before being dropped into a sealed box.
  • First used in India: 2013 in Nagam (Nagaland) by-election.
  • Nationwide use: Mandated by the Supreme Court in 2013; implemented in all 543 constituencies in 2019 General Elections.
  • SC 2019 ruling: 5 random VVPAT slips to be matched with EVMs per Assembly segment to increase transparency.

Electronic Voting Machines (EVMs) in India

  • Introduced on experimental basis in 1982 (Parur Assembly, Kerala).
  • Used in some constituencies in 1999 Lok Sabha elections.
  • Nationwide use: Since 2004 Lok Sabha elections.
  • EVMs have no internet connectivity, operate on standalone power, and are considered tamper-proof by EC.
  • Two parts: Control Unit & Balloting Unit, connected via cable.

Recent Issues in News Related to ECI

  • Demand for Collegium-style appointment of Election Commissioners:
    • The Supreme Court in 2023 ruled that CEC and ECs will be appointed by the President on recommendation of a committee comprising PM, LoP, and CJI.
    • Aims to reduce Executive influence and ensure independence of the ECI.
  • Delay in Disqualification under Anti-Defection Law:
    • ECI was criticized for delay in acting on defections in assemblies, e.g., Maharashtra political crisis.
    • Raises questions about the commission’s proactive powers under Tenth Schedule.
  • Electoral Roll Purification & Aadhaar-linkage:
    • Efforts to link voter ID with Aadhaar raised privacy concerns.
    • Opposition raised fears of disenfranchisement, especially of vulnerable communities.

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Agricultural Sector and Marketing Reforms – eNAM, Model APMC Act, Eco Survey Reco, etc.

How India’s Pesticide Market is Changing

The Growth is Now Coming Not from Insecticides or Fungicides, but Herbicides.

Understanding the Three Major Types of Pesticides:

Pesticides are chemical or biological substances used to protect crops by eliminating or controlling pests, diseases, or weeds. India’s pesticide market primarily consists of:

  • Insecticides: These control insects that damage crops by feeding on them or transmitting diseases.
  • Fungicides: These are used to prevent or eliminate fungal infections like mildew, blight, or rust that affect crop yield and quality.
  • Herbicides: These destroy or inhibit the growth of weeds that compete with crops for nutrients, water, and sunlight.

Herbicides – The New Growth Driver of India’s Pesticide Market:

India’s organised crop protection market is valued at approximately ₹24,500 crore. While insecticides (₹10,700 crore) remain the largest segment, herbicides (₹8,200 crore) have emerged as the fastest-growing category, with an annual growth rate exceeding 10%. This shift reflects a deeper transformation in India’s rural economy—one driven by labour scarcity, rising wage rates, and the need for mechanisation and efficiency in farm operations.

Why Herbicides Are Gaining Ground:

  1. Labour Shortages in Agriculture: Manual weeding is time-consuming and labour-intensive. A labourer takes 8–10 hours to weed one acre, and the average daily wage has increased from ₹326 in 2019 to over ₹447 in 2024. Moreover, rural youth are increasingly moving away from agricultural work. This has led to a surge in herbicide use as a labour-saving input, similar to how tractors reduced the need for manual ploughing.
  2. Time-Saving and Cost-Effective: Power weeders are limited in closely spaced or deep-rooted crops. Herbicides, on the other hand, can be sprayed easily and reduce both labour dependence and turnaround time between cropping cycles.
  3. Strategic Use Patterns Emerging: Earlier, herbicides were used only after weed emergence (“post-emergent”). Now, farmers increasingly apply “pre-emergent” herbicides at or just after sowing to prevent weed growth from the beginning—reflecting a shift from reactive to preventive agriculture.

Role of Indian Companies Amidst MNC Dominance:

India’s crop protection sector remains largely dominated by multinationals like Bayer (Germany), Syngenta (Switzerland), Corteva (USA), and Sumitomo (Japan). However, Indian companies like Crystal Crop Protection Ltd (CCPL) and Dhanuka Agritech are rising players:

  1. CCPL acquired rights for key herbicides like Ethoxysulfuron and Gramoxone from global majors.
  2. It has also developed new products like ‘Sikosa’ in partnership with Battelle (USA) and Mitsui (Japan), showing how Indian firms are strategically expanding through innovation and collaboration.

Why This Matters for India’s Agricultural Future

  1. Productivity Gains: Weeds reduce crop yield by competing for water and nutrients. Herbicides help ensure better resource absorption by crops.
  2. Supports Mechanisation: Like other farm machinery, herbicides reduce dependence on human labour and enable faster, scalable farming.
  3. Aligns with Climate-Resilient Agriculture: Timely and smart weed control reduces input waste and improves crop resilience.

Key Concerns

  1. Ecological Impact: Excessive herbicide use can lead to soil degradation, water contamination, and loss of biodiversity.
  2. Labour Displacement: As weeding becomes chemical-driven, demand for rural manual labour might further decline.
  3. MNC Monopoly: Unlike seeds and fertilisers, pesticides remain MNC-dominated, raising questions on strategic autonomy in agri-inputs.

Conclusion:

The rise of herbicides in India’s pesticide market marks a significant transformation in agricultural input use. While they offer a timely solution to labour shortages and boost farm efficiency, a cautious, balanced, and indigenously empowered approach is necessary.

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Foreign Policy Watch: India-United States

India– U.S. Trade Friction Escalates Amid Russian Oil Dealings

President Trump announces steep tariff hikes on Indian imports over continued Russian oil purchases; India calls it “unjustified and unreasonable”.

Context and Relevance (GS2 – International Relations, GS3 – Economy, Trade Policy):

In a move that has strained India–U.S. economic ties, U.S. President Donald Trump has announced plans to “substantially” increase tariffs on Indian goods. This decision comes days after a 25% tariff plus penalty was imposed, with Trump citing India’s oil imports from Russia as the trigger. India has hit back, defending its energy security needs and calling out the West’s own trade with Russia.

This development adds to the geopolitical-economic complexity facing India’s foreign policy and trade decisions in the wake of the Russia–Ukraine conflict.

What are Tariffs?

  1. A tariff is a tax imposed by a government on imported goods.
  2. Tariffs make foreign goods costlier, potentially protecting domestic industries but also risking retaliation and higher consumer prices.

Sectors Likely to Be Affected

  1. Pharmaceuticals – India is a major exporter of generic drugs to the U.S.; tariffs could increase prices and affect competitiveness.
  2. Metals and Engineering Goods – Steel, aluminum, and other value-added metals are vulnerable.
  3. Textiles and Apparel – A major Indian export to the U.S. which operates on thin margins.
  4. IT Services (Indirect Impact) – Not under direct tariff but can be impacted by broader deterioration in trade ties.
  5. Petrochemicals and Refined Products – As India refines and re-exports Russian crude, this area could come under scrutiny.
  6. Defence Procurement and Technology Sharing – Strategic relations could take a hit, affecting high-tech transfers.
  7. Startups and Digital Trade – New tech collaborations may slow if the overall atmosphere deteriorates.

Why is the U.S. Taking This Step:

President Trump’s reasoning includes:

  1. India allegedly buying “massive amounts of Russian oil” and re-exporting it for profits.
  2. High Indian tariffs and non-tariff barriers that restrict U.S. goods.
  3. India’s continued energy and defence cooperation with Russia.
  4. Trump’s argument taps into U.S. domestic concerns around trade imbalances and perceived strategic neutrality by India on the Russia–Ukraine issue.

India’s Stand: Energy Security First:

India’s Ministry of External Affairs (MEA) issued a strong rebuttal:

  1. India started buying from Russia when traditional suppliers diverted oil to Europe.
  2. The U.S. itself had encouraged these imports to stabilise global markets.
  3. Western nations continue trading with Russia in: LNG, uranium, palladium, fertilisers, and chemicals.
  4. EU–Russia bilateral trade in 2024 exceeded €84.7 billion (goods + services).

India argued that its trade was a “vital compulsion”, unlike the West’s “strategic choice”.

 

Economic and Strategic Implications for India:

Core Economic Concepts at Play

  1. Trade Diversion & Substitution: U.S. importers may turn to other countries, diverting trade away from India.
  2. Protectionism vs Globalisation: Rising protectionism threatens the rules-based global trade order.
  3. Non-Tariff Barriers Debate: Focus returns to India’s complex regulatory environment that discourages FDI and foreign trade.
  4. Elasticity of Demand for Indian Exports: Tariff hikes could reveal price sensitivity in sectors like pharma and textiles.

Foreign Policy and Strategic Autonomy

  1. India’s multi-alignment strategy is being tested.
  2. Strategic autonomy in energy choices now faces economic costs.

Impact on India’s Export Competitiveness

  • With countries like Vietnam, Mexico, and Indonesia unaffected by such tariffs, India faces a competitive disadvantage.

Investor Confidence

  • Heightened U.S.–India tensions could create policy uncertainty for foreign investors.

Way Forward for India:

  1. Bilateral Negotiations: Urgent dialogue needed through trade channels to de-escalate.
  2. Diversification: India must strengthen ties with other large markets (e.g., EU, ASEAN, Africa).
  3. Strengthen Domestic Industry: Boost manufacturing competitiveness through PLI schemes, FTAs, and ease of doing business.
  4. Energy Diplomacy: Deepen engagement with Gulf countries and renewables to reduce over-dependence on Russia.

Conclusion:

This episode is a litmus test for India’s balancing act between strategic autonomy and economic pragmatism. It also reflects the larger trend of global economic nationalism overshadowing multilateral cooperation. India will need to walk a tightrope between asserting its sovereign right to energy security and preserving its vital trade relationships.

 

Sample UPSC Mains Question (GS2/GS3 – 15 Marks)

In the wake of rising global protectionism and India’s continued energy trade with Russia, critically examine the impact of unilateral tariff impositions by developed nations on India’s strategic autonomy and export competitiveness. Suggest a multi-pronged approach to mitigate such risks.

 

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Electric and Hybrid Cars – FAME, National Electric Mobility Mission, etc.

[pib] India Electric Mobility Index (IEMI)

Why in the News?

To support India’s net-zero transport goal by 2070, NITI Aayog launched the India Electric Mobility Index (IEMI) to track and rank States/UTs on their shift to electric mobility.

[pib] India Electric Mobility Index (IEMI)

About India Electric Mobility Index (IEMI):

  • Launched by: NITI Aayog in 2024.
  • Purpose: To evaluate and benchmark the progress of Indian States and Union Territories (UTs) in achieving their electric mobility and transport decarbonization goals.
  • Scoring: States and UTs are scored out of 100 using 16 indicators grouped under 3 core themes.
  • Core Themes:
    1. Transport Electrification Progress – Measures EV adoption across segments (2W, 3W, 4W, buses, etc.)
    2. Charging Infrastructure Readiness – Assesses public charging station density, coverage, and policy support.
    3. EV Research & Innovation Status – Tracks EV startups, R&D activity, patents, and skilling efforts.
  • Significance:
    • Supports tailored policymaking and cross-learning.
    • Enables transparency and healthy competition among states.
    • Aligns with India’s net-zero emissions target by 2070.
  • Methodology: Based on VAHAN data, charging infrastructure maps, and stakeholder consultations.
  • Accessibility: Publicly available dashboard and report for rankings, scores, and methodology.

Key Highlights (2024 Edition):

  • Top Performers: Delhi, Maharashtra, and Chandigarh lead overall in EV readiness.
  • Category Leaders:
    • Transport Electrification: Delhi and Maharashtra.
    • Charging Infrastructure: Karnataka, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Ladakh.
    • Research & Innovation: Delhi, Tamil Nadu, Maharashtra, Karnataka, Telangana, Haryana.
  • EV Policy Status: 29 States/UTs have formal EV policies; 4 are in the draft stage.
  • EV Adoption Data:
    • EVs make up 5.3% of private vehicle sales in 2024.
    • Over 12 lakh EVs registered in India during the year.
  • Public Charging Network: India has over 25,000 public EV charging stations.
  • State Categories:
    • Performers: Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Uttar Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Odisha, Haryana, Goa.
    • Aspirants: Punjab, Rajasthan, Telangana, Andhra Pradesh, Assam, Bihar, Kerala, North-East states.
[UPSC 2024] Which one of the following is the exhaust pipe emission from Fuel Cell Electric Vehicles powered by hydrogen?

Options: (a) Hydrogen peroxide (b) Hydronium (c) Oxygen (d) Water vapour*

 

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Waste Management – SWM Rules, EWM Rules, etc

Sawalkote Hydro Project

Why in the News?

After suspending the Indus Waters Treaty, India is asserting water control in J&K by reviving the Sawalkote Hydroelectric Project — the UT’s largest planned hydro project.

Sawalkote Hydro Project

About Sawalkote Hydro Project:

  • Location: Ramban and Udhampur districts, Jammu and Kashmir.
  • River: Built on the Chenab River (a western river under the Indus Waters Treaty).
  • Agency: Implemented by National Hydroelectric Power Corporation.
  • History: Proposed in the 1960s; delayed due to Pakistan’s objections, environmental issues, and red tape. Revived after India suspended the Indus Waters Treaty post the April 2025 Pahalgam terror attack.
  • Status (2025): Forest clearance granted; tenders floated on 29 July 2025; declared a project of national importance.
  • Timeline: 96 months post-clearance; expected commissioning by or after 2032.

Key Features:

  • Type: Run-of-the-river (utilizes the natural flow and elevation drop of a river) hydroelectric project.
  • Capacity: 1,856 Megawatts (8 × 225 MW + 1 × 56 MW).
  • Dam: 192.5 m high, roller-compacted concrete gravity dam; reservoir holds 550 million cubic meters.
  • Powerhouse: Underground, with Francis turbines.
  • Cost: ₹22,704.8 crore (~2.6 billion United States Dollars).
[UPSC 2009] Gandhi Sagar Dam is a part of which one of the following?

Options: (a) Chambal Project * (b) Kosi Project (c) Damodar Valley Project (d) Bhakra Nangal Project

 

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Waste Management – SWM Rules, EWM Rules, etc

Pollution Control can levy Environmental Damages: SC

Why in the News?

In a landmark ruling, the Supreme Court has empowered Pollution Control Boards (PCBs) across India with the authority to impose and collect restitutionary and compensatory damages under the Water and Air Acts.

Key Highlights of Supreme Court Ruling:

  • Key Powers Granted:
    • Impose and collect restitutionary and compensatory damages.
    • Demand bank guarantees in anticipation of environmental harm.
  • Legal Basis:
    • Section 33A, Water Act, 1974: Power to issue directions for closure/regulation of industries and stoppage of utilities to enforce water pollution norms.
    • Section 31A, Air Act, 1981: Similar binding powers to control air pollution; non-compliance is a legal violation.

About Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB):

  • Established: September 1974 under the Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974; Also empowered under Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981.
  • Role: Statutory technical body to promote clean air and water; provides services under the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986.
  • Key Functions:
    • Control and abate water and air pollution; promote stream and well cleanliness.
    • Advise the Central Government on pollution-related issues.
    • Coordinate with and assist State Pollution Control Boards (SPCBs); resolve disputes.
    • Monitor pollution in Union Territories via delegated powers under Water, Air, and Water Cess Acts.
  • Develops and revises:
    • National Ambient Air Quality Standards.
    • Water Quality Criteria from various sources.
    • Emission/Discharge Standards under Environment Protection Rules, 1986.
    • Bio-Medical Waste Incineration Norms.
    • Noise/Emission Limits for diesel, LPG, and CNG generators.
  • Minimal National Standards (MINAS) Issuance:
    • Covers effluent, emission, noise, and solid waste across industries.
    • Mandatory for State adoption as baseline standards.
    • Publishes COINDS (Comprehensive Industry Documents), manuals, and codes for pollution treatment and control systems.

About State Pollution Control Boards (SPCBs):

  • Constitution: Formed by State Governments under the Water and Air Acts.
  • Functions:
    • Monitor and control local pollution.
    • Inspect industries and enforce compliance.
    • Advise state governments.
    • Conduct awareness campaigns.
    • Implement control programmes and collaborate with CPCB and local bodies.
[UPSC 2018] How is the National Green Tribunal (NGT) different from the Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB)?

1. The NGT has been established by an Act whereas the CPCB has been created by an executive order of the Government.

2. The NGT provides environmental justice and helps reduce the burden of litigation in the higher courts whereas the CPCB promotes cleanliness of streams and wells and aims to improve the quality of air in the country.

Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

Options: (a) 1 only (b) 2 only * (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2

 

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Wildlife Conservation Efforts

Asian Giant Tortoise reintroduced in Nagaland

Why in the News?

The Asian giant tortoise (Manouria emys), the largest tortoise in mainland Asia, has been reintroduced into the Zeliang Community Reserve in Nagaland’s Peren district.

Asian Giant Tortoise reintroduced in Nagaland

About Asian Giant Tortoise (Manouria emys):

  • It is the largest tortoise in mainland Asia.
  • Two subspecies: Manouria emys emys and Manouria emys phayrei.
  • Uniquely, it lays eggs above ground in leaf-litter nests.
  • Behaviour: It is solitary and active mostly during dawn and dusk.
  • Found in evergreen and bamboo forests across India, Bangladesh, Myanmar, Thailand, Malaysia, and Indonesia.
  • Habitat in India: Nengpui WLS, Nongkhyllem WLS, and North Cachar Hills.
  • Conservation status: IUCN – Critically Endangered; CITES – Appendix II; Wildlife Protection Act – Schedule IV.
  • Major threats: Illegal hunting for meat, habitat degradation, forest fires, and bamboo removal.
[UPSC 2017] In India, if a species of tortoise is declared protected under Schedule I of the Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972, what does it imply?

Options: (a) It enjoys the same level of protection as the tiger*

(b) It no longer exists in the wild, a few individuals are under captive protection; and how it is impossible to prevent its extinction

(c) It is endemic to a particular region of India

(d) Both (b) and (c) stated above are correct in this context.

 

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Innovations in Sciences, IT, Computers, Robotics and Nanotechnology

Blockchain-verified Quantum Randomness for Secure Communication

Why in the News?

A recent breakthrough demonstrated use of quantum science, blockchain, and cryptography to create truly random and secure numbers used in encryption for secure communication.

About the Technology:

  • Encryption: Converts readable data into unreadable code using a “key”; only someone with the correct key can decrypt the message.
  • Importance of Randomness: Secure encryption depends on unpredictable keys—predictable keys can be guessed or hacked.
  • Issue with Computers: Most keys are generated using pseudo-random algorithms, which appear random but are predictable if the method is known.

About the Breakthrough Lava Lamp Method:

  • Setup: 100 lava lamps placed on a wall at Cloudflare’s San Francisco office; a camera takes periodic photos of the moving blobs.
  • Process: Each photo is converted into numerical data, creating a random seed to generate encryption keys.
  • Why Lava Lamps? The heat-driven movement of wax blobs is unpredictable and creates unique images.
  • Limitations: Movements follow physics, so not truly random. Also, the algorithm that converts images is deterministic—reproducible if known.

Quantum Random Number Generation Protocol:

  • Why Quantum Physics: Subatomic particles like photons behave randomly; for example, a photon’s polarization is unknown until measured.
  • How It Works: Scientists used lasers to generate entangled photons and measured them millions of times to produce random results.
  • Data Conversion: The raw data (in binary) was biased, so a randomness extractor was used to generate a clean 512-bit unbiased number using a second random seed.
  • Blockchain Role: Each step was recorded on blockchain for transparency, with digital fingerprints (hashes) to ensure data integrity.
  • Team Involvement: National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST), University of Colorado, and DRAND each handled separate parts to ensure decentralization and trust.
  • Public Use: The final random numbers are shared via CURBy, a public distribution service.
  • Significance: Though still emerging, this method shows strong potential for future ultra-secure encryption systems.
[UPSC 2025] Consider the following statements:

I. It is expected that Majorana 1 chip will enable quantum computing. II. Majorana 1 chip has been introduced by Amazon Web Services (AWS). III. Deep learning is a subset of machine learning.

Which of the statements given above are correct?

Options: (a) I and only I (b) II and III only (c) I and III only* (d) I, II and III

 

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