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  • Women empowerment issues – Jobs,Reservation and education

    [pib] National Commission for Women

    | Polity | Mains Paper 2: Statutory, Regulatory & Various Quasi-Judicial Bodies

    The Central Government has nominated Smt. Rekha Sharma, as Chairperson of the National Commission for Women for another term of three years.

    National Commission for Women

    • The NCW is the statutory body generally concerned with advising the government on all policy matters affecting women.
    • It was established on 31 January 1992 under the provisions of the Indian Constitution as defined in the 1990 National Commission for Women Act.
    • The first head of the commission was Jayanti Patnaik.

    Constitutional provision

    • The Indian Constitution doesn’t contain any provision specifically made to favor women intrinsically.
    • Article 15 (3), Article 14 and Article 21 protect and safeguard women. They are more gender-neutral.

    Objectives

    • The objective of the NCW is to represent the rights of women in India and to provide a voice for their issues and concerns.
    • The subjects of their campaigns have included dowry, politics, religion, equal representation for women in jobs, and the exploitation of women for labor.
    • They have also discussed police abuses against women.

    Composition of National Commission for Women

    The Commission shall consist of:

    • A Chairperson, committed to the cause of women, to be nominated by the Central Government.
    • five Members to be nominated by the Central Government from amongst persons of ability, integrity and standing who have had experience in law or legislation, trade unionism, management of an industry potential of women, women’s voluntary organizations (including women activist), administration, economic development, health, education or social welfare;
    • Provided that at least one Member each shall be from amongst persons belonging to the Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes respectively;

    Powers of NCW

    • Provide consultation on all major policy matters that affect women.
    • Issuing summons for the examination of documents and the witnesses.
    • It has the power to make any public record.
    • Receiving evidence on affidavits
    • Discovery and production of documents
    • Summoning and enforcement

    Functions of the NCW

    • Presentation of reports: Table reports should be submitted to the Central Government every year. When the commission feels it’s appropriate. The reports upon the functioning and working of the safeguards.
    • Investigation and Examination: There should be proper investigation and examination made under the Constitution and other laws. This is related to the protection of the rights of women.
    • Review of laws: Constantly all laws are reviewed and scrutinized. And necessary amendments and alterations are made to meet the needs of the current world.
    • Cases of Violation: Ensure there is no violation against women and taking due care of such cases.
    • Suo Motu Notice: It takes care of complaints and also suo motu matters about the deprivation of rights of women. Implementation of laws favoring the welfare of women.
    • Evaluation: Assessing the development and the progress of the women community under the Center and State level.
    • Special studies and investigation: To understand the limitations in the system and curb it with strategic plans and mechanisms.

    Powers of the NCW

    • Not concrete powers: The NCW is only recommendatory and has no power to enforce its decisions. Often it takes action only if the issues are brought to light.
    • Legal powers: Commission lacks constitutional status, and thus has no legal powers to summon police officers or witnesses.
    • Less funding: NCW’s functions are dependent on the grants offered by the central government. Financial assistance provided to the Commission is very less to cater to its needs.
    • Political interference: It does not have the power to choose its own members.

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  • Higher Education – RUSA, NIRF, HEFA, etc.

    Who was Major Dhyan Chand?

    | Governance | Mains Paper 2: Health & Education

    The PM has announced that the Rajiv Gandhi Khel Ratna Award will now be named after Major Dhyan Chand.

    Despite being a trillion population, what ails India’s limted success (not failure) at the Olympics in your opinion?

    Spark the debate!

    Who was Dhyan Chand?

    • Quite simply, he was the first superstar of hockey, considered a wizard or magician of the game.
    • He was the chief protagonist as India won three consecutive Olympic hockey gold medals — Amsterdam 1928, Los Angeles 1932, and Berlin 1936.
    • He is said to have wowed the watching public with his sublime skills, intricate dribbling and gluttonous scoring ability.
    • During those tournaments, there was no team that could compete with India — and most of the matches saw huge victory margins.
    • India beat hosts the Netherlands 3-0 in the 1928 final, the US were thrashed by a scarcely-believable margin of 24-1 in the 1932 gold medal match, while Germany went down 8-1 in the 1936 decider.
    • In all, Dhyan Chand played 12 Olympic matches, scoring 33 goals.

    Legends associated with Dhyan Chand

    • It is said that once his sublime skill and close control of the ball aroused such suspicion that his stick was broken to see whether there was a magnet inside.
    • During the 1936 Berlin Games, Adolf Hitler offered him German citizenship and the post of Colonel in his country’s Army, a proposition the Indian ace refused.

    Why does the name evoke such emotion?

    • Dhyan Chand played during India’s pre-independence years, when the local population was subjugated and made to feel inferior by the ruling British.
    • Hence, seeing an Indian dominating the Europeans in a sport invented by them evoked a lot of pride in them.
    • There has been a long-running campaign arguing that Dhyan Chand be posthumously awarded the Bharat Ratna, the country’s highest honour.
    • Before Independence and for some years after that, hockey was the only sport in which India consistently excelled at the international and Olympic stage.
    • In fact, starting from Amsterdam 1928, India won seven of the eight hockey gold medals at the Games.
    • Apart from K D Jadhav’s wrestling bronze at Helsinki 1952, India had to wait until Atlanta 1996 and tennis player Leander Paes for an Olympic medal in a sport other than hockey.

    Why is the renaming of the award significant?

    • The eight gold medals in hockey have often been termed as the millstone around the necks of the subsequent generation of players.
    • The modern game is an altogether different sport from the one played in Dhyan Chand’s era.
    • The Europeans and Australians have become much more proficient over the decades, while the change of surface has put a premium on fitness, speed, stamina, and physical strength.
    • India had not managed to get into the top four at the Olympics since the boycott-affected Moscow Games in 1980.
    • The later generations may have felt out of touch with the golden years, about which one could only read in books or listen to in tales of the protagonists and those who witnessed the heroics.

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  • Honour of the National Flag

    | Polity | Mains Paper 2: Indian Constitution – historical underpinnings, evolution, features, amendments, significant provisions and basic structure

    Ahead of Independence Day, the Centre has urged all citizens not to use a national flag made up of plastic and asked states and Union Territories to ensure strict compliance with the flag code.

    Prevention of Insults to National Honour Act

    • The law, enacted on December 23, 1971, penalizes the desecration of or insult to Indian national symbols, such as the National Flag, the Constitution, the National Anthem, and the Indian map, as well as contempt of the Constitution of India.
    • Section 2 of the Act deals with insults to the Indian National Flag and the Constitution of India.

    Do you know?

    Article 51 ‘A’ contained in Part IV A i.e. Fundamental Duties asks:

    To abide by the constitution and respect its ideals and institutions, the National Flag and the National Anthem in clause (a).

    Other provisions

    • Section 3.22 of The Flag Code of India, 2002 deals with laws, practices and conventions that apply to the display of the national flag.
    • Section 3.58 says: On occasions of State/Military/Central Paramilitary Forces funerals, the flag shall be draped over the bier or coffin with the saffron towards the head of the bier or coffin.
    • The Flag shall not be lowered into the grave or burnt in the pyre.

    Try this

    Q.The national motto of India, ‘Satyameva Jayate’ inscribed below the Emblem of India is taken from:

    (a) Katha Upanishad

    (b) Chandogya Upanishad

    (c) Aitareya Upanishad

    (d) Mundaka Upanishad

    Answer this PYQ here:

    Use of flag in funerals

    • The flag can only be used during a funeral if it is accorded the status of a state funeral.
    • Apart from police and armed forces, state funerals are held when people who are holding or have held the office of President, Vice-President, PM, Cabinet Minister, or state CM pass away.
    • The status of a state funeral can be accorded in case of death of people not belonging to the armed forces, police or the above-mentioned categories by the state government.
    • Then too, the national flag can be used.

    Disposing of the national flag

    • A/c to the Flag Code, such paper flags are not to be discarded or thrown on the ground after the event.
    • Such flags are to be disposed of, in private, consistent with the dignity of the flag.

    Back2Basics:

    Story of our National Flag

     

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  • Modern Indian History-Events and Personalities

    Who was Dara Shikoh (1615-1659)?

    Prelims Only | | Mains Paper 1: Modern Indian History

    The final resting place of Mughal prince Dara Shikoh remains a mystery, with the Archaeological Survey of India saying it has not located the grave within the Humayun’s Tomb complex.

    Dara Shikoh

    • Dara Shikoh, who was Mughal emperor Shah Jahan’s son and expected heir, was killed on the orders of his brother Aurangzeb in 1659 after losing the war of succession.
    • He was the eldest son and heir-apparent of the Mughal emperor Shah Jahan.
    • Dara was designated with the title Padshahzada-i-Buzurg Martaba (Prince of High Rank) and was favored as a successor by his father and his older sister, Princess Jahanara Begum.
    • In the war of succession which ensued after Shah Jahan’s illness in 1657, Dara was defeated by his younger brother Prince Muhiuddin (Aurangzeb).
    • He was executed in 1659 on Aurangzeb’s orders in a bitter struggle for the imperial throne.

    His legacy

    • Dara was a liberal-minded unorthodox Muslim as opposed to the orthodox Aurangzeb.
    • He authored the work The Confluence of the Two Seas, which argues for the harmony of Sufi philosophy in Islam and Vedanta philosophy in Hinduism.
    • It was Dara Shikoh who was responsible for making the Upanishads available to the West as he had them translated.
    • He had commissioned a translation of Yoga Vasistha.
    • A great patron of the arts, he was also more inclined towards philosophy and mysticism rather than military pursuits.
    • The course of the history of the Indian subcontinent, had Dara Shikoh prevailed over Aurangzeb, has been a matter of some conjecture among historians.

    Q.Who among the following Mughal Emperors shifted emphasis from illustrated manuscripts to album and individual portrait?

    (a) Humayun

    (b) Akbar

    (c) Jahangir

    (d) Shah Jahan

    Answer this PYQ here:

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  • International Space Agencies – Missions and Discoveries

    CHAPEA Mission by NASA

    Prelims Only | Science Tech | Mains Paper 3: Awareness in various sc and tech fields

    NASA is seeking applications for its new mission called the Crew Health and Performance Exploration Analog (CHAPEA), which is related to Mars.

    CHAPEA

    • The mission is set to begin in 2022 and will give four successful applicants the chance to live and work in a 1,700 square-foot module that is created by a 3D printer and is called the Mars Dune Alpha.
    • The simulated quarters include a kitchen, areas for medical, recreation, fitness, work, crop growth, a technical work area and two bathrooms.
    • This habitat will simulate what it feels like to carry out missions on Mars including resource limitations, equipment failure, communication delays and any other environmental stressors.
    • The crew will be expected to perform simulated spacewalks, scientific research and use virtual reality and robotic controls and exchange communications.

    What is the purpose of this mission?

    • The habitat in which the crew members will stay will be as Mars-realistic as possible.
    • The results from this analog mission will provide scientific data that will help in validating the systems that will be used for actual missions to Mars and also help in solving problems for spaceflight research.
    • CHAPEA is not the only analog mission, there are others including Aquarius/NEEMO, Concordia, Desert RATS, and HESTIA.
    • Analog missions are required because not all experiments can be carried out in space because resources and money are limited.

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  • Innovations in Biotechnology and Medical Sciences

    What is Absorption Spectroscopy?

    Prelims Only | Science Tech | Mains Paper 3: Achievements Of Indians In S&T

    Researchers from IIT Madras and IISER Kolkata have developed a method to detect minute quantities of chemicals in solution using Absorption Spectroscopy.

    Note: These days there has been a rise in questions from biology (rather cell biology in particular).

    Absorption Spectroscopy

    • Absorption spectroscopy is a tool to detect the presence of elements in a medium.
    • Light is shone on the sample, and after it passes through the sample is examined using a spectroscope.
    • Dark lines are seen in the observed spectrum of the light passed through the substance, which correspond to the wavelengths of light absorbed by the intervening substance and are characteristic of the elements present in it.
    • In usual methods, about a cubic centimeter of the sample is needed to do this experiment.
    • In the method developed here, minute amounts of dissolved substances can be detected easily.
    • Usually in absorption spectroscopy, the principle used is that light because of its wavelike nature, shows diffraction patterns, that is, dark and light fringes, when it scatters off any object.

    Studying small objects

    • A related concept called the Abbe criterion sets a natural limit on the size of the object being studied.
    • According to this criterion, the size of the observed object has to be at least of the order of the wavelength of the light being shone on it.
    • If one wants to perform absorption spectroscopy using visible light, namely, blue, green and red, the wavelengths [of these colours] are about 400 nm, 500 nm and 600 nm, respectively.

    What has Indian researchers achieved?

    • In the method used by the researchers here, tiny, nano-sized particles that can absorb light being shone on them and re-emit red, blue and green light were employed.
    • The particles emit electric fields that are analogous to how a tiny magnet would give off magnetic lines of force – this is called a dipole, and the particle is like a tiny mobile phone’s antenna.
    • This dipole generates an electromagnetic field depending upon the quantum properties of the erbium dopants in the glass.
    • The absorption leaves a gap in the reflected light, which is what is observed and used to analyse the nature of the absorbing material.

    Applications of this technology

    • There are many potential applications.
    • Small molecules almost ten-millionth of an mm in diameter can be detected while these pass the emission region of the glass particle.
    • The future is to use it to measure individual molecules, see absorption spectroscopy of a single DNA or protein molecule.

    Try this

    Q.Which of the following statements are correct regarding the general difference between plant and animal cells?

    1. Plant cells have cellulose cell walls whilst animal cells do not.
    2. Plant cells do not have plasma membranes unlike animal cells which do.
    3. Mature plant cell has one large vacuole whilst an animal cell has many small vacuoles.

    Select the correct answer using the code given below:

    (a) 1 and 2 only

    (b) 2 and 3 only

    (c) 1 and 3 only

    (d) 1, 2 and 3

    Answer this PYQ here:

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  • Tax Reforms

    Taxation Laws (Amendment) Bill

    | Economics | Mains Paper 3: Indian Economy

    Context

    With the government proposing to repeal the ‘retrospective tax’ amendment introduced in the Union Budget 2012-13, a 14-year-story has come to an end.

    Background of retrospective tax

    • In 2007 Vodafone acquired Hutchison Essar, the telecom company, for $11 billion. But the deal did not take place in India.
    • Yet, Vodafone was slapped with a huge income tax demand in India.
    • The Supreme Court rule in favour of Vodafone and said that the Indian authorities could not tax a deal executed in Cayman Islands.
    • This verdict led to the 2012 amendment in the Income Tax Act, to the effect that if an Indian asset was held by a foreign company and an acquirer bought this holding company, such a transaction was deemed to be taxable in India because the underlying asset was located in India.
    • More importantly, this change was made retrospectively from 1962.
    • Now, the government has introduced The Taxation Laws (Amendment) Bill, 2021 to undo this insidious provision from the Finance Bill, 2012.
    • The government will not raise tax demands in any such case if the transaction occurred before 28 May 2012.
    • The tax on the indirect sale of assets located in India still stays on the statute books, but it is fully visible to and understood by any parties looking to enter into such a transaction.

    Why repeal of retrospective taxation is a good move?

    • Resolution of case the cases: This will potentially help resolve 17 cases in which income tax demand had been raised, including two high profile cases—Cairn and Vodafone.
    • Visibility and stability: The government is putting to rest the concept of retrospective taxation and is also creating visibility and stability for the future.
    • Predictability: The most important aspect of any tax regime is its predictability and this decision helps bring that.
    • Honouring the rule of law: It also reiterates India’s commitment to honour the rule of law and treaties.
    • Build confidence: Apart from the various reform measures and incentives being offered, the sanctity of contracts is a key factor that any investing entity will look at when deciding on expanding business operations in India.
    • The government’s move would help build confidence and provide a fillip to Atmanirbhar Bharat.

    Conclusion

    As the post-covid recovery picks up, focus needs to be on the future rather than keeping a sword of uncertainty for the past dangling on potential investors. Such a decision needs political capital and ownership, which comes through strongly in this case.

     

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  • Indian Ocean Power Competition

    Advocating for sustained focus on the maritime domain

    op-ed snap | Security Issues | Mains Paper 3: Various Security Forces, Agencies & Their Mandates

    Context

    In an innovative departure from normal practice, Prime Minister Narendra Modi will preside (in virtual mode) over the UN Security Council, on Monday (August 9) when India holds the President’s chair for one month. The subject of debate is maritime security.

    Issues with global maritime security

    • FON issue: There is  tension in the South China Sea over freedom of navigation (FON) rights in international waters and how China has laid claim to “territoriality” based on artificial structures (not natural islands).
    • This formulation has not been accepted by the US that has exercised transit rights in these waters.
    • Many ASEAN nations and Quad members such as Japan, Australia and India subscribe to the principle of FON and do not accept the Chinese interpretation of the “nine-dash-line”.
    • Traditional challenges: Piracy and non-traditional challenges at sea such as gun-running and smuggling are old chestnuts.
    • Maritime pollution: Accidents in the oceans have added to the anxiety about marine pollution and its downstream consequences for the health of the oceans.
    • Global warming: A UN report has come up with grim statistics about the impact of global warming on the chemistry of oceans.
    • This study notes that oceans have become more acidic as sea water absorbs more carbon dioxide.
    • Furthermore, the upper layers of the open ocean have lost between 0.5 per cent and 3.3 per cent of their oxygen since 1970 as temperatures have risen.

    Way forward for India at UNCS: Security and equitable growth

    • The subject to be deliberated upon by the UNSC members is “Enhancing maritime security: A case for international cooperation”.
    • This would be an extension of India’s advocacy of SAGAR (security and growth for all in the region) in relation to the Indian Ocean region (IOR).
    •  At the UNSC strategic and security issues such as the South China Sea and FON would find little consensus as China is a permanent member and would stall any meaningful debate.
    • Focus on global goods: What may find support for a useful debate at the UNSC would be those areas that could be brought under the rubric of the “global good”.
    • For instance, the welfare of seafarers who are the sinews of the global merchant marine, has received scant attention in this Covid-scarred period and the IMO (International Maritime Organisation) has been unable to effectively address such issues.
    • Correlation with globalisation: India can also advocate for sustained focus on the maritime domain and the correlation with globalisation, the blue economy, the health of the ocean and the overall impact on human security.

    Conclusion

    Security and equitable growth for all by husbanding the global ocean for future generations is a laudable goal and encouraging the UNSC to prioritise this issue is a worthy cause.

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  • Digital India Initiatives

    South Asia’s emerging digital transformation

    op-ed snap | Economics | Mains Paper 3: Indian Economy,S&T – Applications In Everyday Life

    Context

    COVID-19 has forced South Asia to take a quantum leap in digitalisation, which will help shape its future prosperity.

    Spike in digitisation due to Covid

    • In India, COVID-19 accelerated the launch of the National Digital Health Mission, enhancing the accessibility and the efficiency of health-care services by creating a unique health ID for every citizen.
    • Pandemic accelerated South Asia’s embrace of e-commerce, boosted by digital payment systems.
    • Bangladesh alone witnessed an increase of 70-80% in online sales in 2020, generating $708.46 million in revenues.
    • Even smaller nations such as Nepal recording almost an 11% increase in broadband Internet users.

    The dangers of a digital divide

    • A wide digital divide persists in access and affordability, between and within the countries of South Asia.
    • Despite having the world’s second-largest online market, 50% of India’s population are without Internet with 59% for Bangladesh and 65% for Pakistan.
    • This divide could permanently put children out of school, place girls at risk of early marriage, and push poor children into child labour costing economies billions of dollars in future earnings.
    • Businesses too have paid a heavy price for the gap in digital solutions, whereby many South Asian firms failing to embrace e-commerce or other cloud-based technologies to survive the financial chaos of the novel coronavirus pandemic.

    Asian digitalisation

    • Digital transformation is a global imperative with the adoption of advanced technologies.
    • At the forefront of Asian digitalisation are countries such as Singapore, Japan, and South Korea recognised as global technological hubs.
    • The digital boom in the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) economies is pushing a “common market” initiative, fostering regional economic integration and enhancing global competitiveness.
    • South Asia has also made significant strides in the adoption of digital technologies such as the Digital Bangladesh Vision 2021.

    How digitalisation can help South Asia?

    • The region still has a long way to go.
    • Jobs in e-commerce: E-commerce could drive the post-pandemic growth in South Asia, providing new business opportunities and access to larger markets.
    • In India, e-commerce could create a million jobs by 2030 and be worth $200 billion by 2026.
    • Growth driven by Fintech: Fintech could drive significant growth and reduce poverty by building financial inclusion.
    • Increase in productivity: A timely, inclusive, and sustainable digital transformation can not only bolster productivity and growth but also serve as a panacea for some of the region’s socio-economic divides.

    Steps need to be taken

    • To reap the dividends of digital transformation, South Asia needs to address legal, regulatory and policy gaps as well as boost digital skills.
    • Digital infrastructure: A robust digital infrastructure is a sine qua non and there exists a huge financing gap.
    • India alone needs an annual investment of $35 billion to be in the top five global digital economy.
    • Private-public partnership: Public-private partnership needs to be leveraged for the region’s digital infrastructure financing.
    • Regulatory roadblocks need to be addressed as e-commerce regulations are weak in South Asia.
    • Digital literacy: There would be no digital revolution without universal digital literacy.
    • Governments and businesses need to come together to revamp the education system to meet the demand for digital skills and online platforms.
    • Cybersecurity measures: The crossflow of data and personal information calls for stringent cybersecurity measures as many have experienced painful lessons in data privacy during the pandemic.
    • Digital Single Market Proposal: By addressing issues such as regulatory barriers on currency flows inhibiting online payment to transport-related constraints for cross-border e-commerce activities, South Asia can emulate the European Union’s Digital Single Market Proposal.
    • Collaboration: Concerted collaboration at all levels is needed to push South Asia out of stagnancy and towards a digital future of shared prosperity.
    • Partnership for digital revolution: During the pandemic, South Asian nations joined hands to collectively battle the crises by contributing towards a COVID-19 emergency fund, exchanging data and information on health surveillance, sharing research findings, and developing an online learning platform for health workers.
    • If the eight nations (Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Nepal, Maldives, Pakistan and Sri Lanka) can start walking the talk, partnership for a successful digital revolution is plausible.

    Conclusion

    A shared “digital vision” could place the region on the right track towards the Fourth Industrial Revolution.

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  • Minority Issues – SC, ST, Dalits, OBC, Reservations, etc.

    127th Constitutional Amendment Bill

    | Polity | Mains Paper 2: Indian Constitution – historical underpinnings, evolution, features, amendments, significant provisions and basic structure

    The Government will bring the 127th Amendment Bill to Parliament to clarify “some provisions in the 102nd Constitutional amendment Bill” to restore the power of the states to identify backward classes — a demand made by a number of regional parties and even the ruling party’s own OBC leaders.

    Try answering:

    Q. Consider the following statements:

    1. An amendment to the Constitution of India can be initiated by an introduction of a bill in the Lok Sabha only.
    2. If such an amendment seeks to make changes in the federal character of the Constitution, the amendment also requires to be ratified by the legislature of all the States of India.

    Which of the statements given above is/are correct? (CSP 2013)

    (a) 1 only

    (b) 2 only

    (c) Both 1 and 2

    (d) Neither 1 nor 2

     

    127th Constitutional Amendment Bill

    • The Constitutional 127th Amendment Bill will amend Articles 342 A — clauses 1 and 2 — and will introduce clause 342 A (3) specifically authorizing states to maintain their State List.
    • There will be a consequential amendment in Articles 366(26C) and 338B (9). States will then be able to directly notify OBC and SEBCs without having to refer to the NCBC.
    • There has been some confusion about what comprises a state and Central list, and this clause will clarify that.

    Why need amendment?

    • The Centre had earlier moved a review petition in the Supreme Court challenging the court’s interpretation of the 102nd amendment of the Constitution in the Maratha reservation judgment.
    • The 102nd CA had scrapped the power of the states to identify and notify socially and educationally backward classes.
    • The move is politically significant as the govt is banking heavily on OBC votes in key states that go to the polls next year.

    About the 102nd CAA

    • The 102nd  CAA, 2018 has given constitutional status to the National Commission for Backward Classes (NCBC).
    • With this, NCBC gets powers to examine the grievances in the implementation of the various welfare schemes meant for OBCs.
    • The status of the Central list of OBCs has been elevated by giving constitutional status to the list.
    • It has given powers to the Parliament to make changes in the Central OBC list.

    Back2Basics: Constitutional Amendment

    • Amending the Constitution of India is the process of making changes to the nation’s fundamental law or supreme law.
    • The procedure of amendment in the constitution is laid down in Part XX (Article 368) of the Constitution of India.
    • There is a limitation imposed on the amending power of the constitution of India.
    • The most famous among them is the Basic structure doctrine as laid down by the Supreme Court in the case of Kesavananda Bharati v. State of Kerala (1973).

    Procedure

    • An amendment of the Constitution can be initiated only by the introduction of a Bill in either House of Parliament.
    • The Bill must then be passed in each House by a majority of the total membership of that House and by a special majority of not less than two-thirds of the members present and voting.
    • There is no provision for a joint sitting in case of disagreement between the two Houses.
    • If the amendment seeks to make any change in any of the provisions mentioned in the provision to article 368, it must be ratified by the Legislatures of not less than one-half of the States.
    • Although there is no prescribed time limit for ratification, it must be completed before the amending Bill is presented to the President for his assent.

    Types:

    1. Simple majority of the Parliament: Creation of new states, Delimitation of constituencies etc.
    2. Special majority of the Parliament: for Fundamental rights and DPSPs
    3. Special majority of the Parliament and the ratification of at least half of the state legislatures: Election of the President and its manner, Supreme Court and high courts etc.

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