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  • Nuclear Energy

    [22nd September 2025] The Hindu Op-ed: Uranium unrest: On uranium mining in Meghalaya

    op-ed snap | Economics | Mains Paper 3: Infrastructure: Energy, Ports, Roads, Airports, Railways Etc.

    PYQ Relevance

    [UPSC 2018] Policy contradictions among various competing sectors and stakeholders have resulted in inadequate ‘protection and prevention of degradation’ to the environment. Comment with relevant illustration

    Linkage: The uranium mining push in Meghalaya illustrates a clear policy contradiction, India’s strategic and energy security imperatives versus constitutional safeguards for Scheduled/Tribal Areas and environmental sustainability. The Centre’s OM exempting uranium from public consultation shows how national security priorities often override local consent and ecological concerns, leading to inadequate protection. Thus, it serves as a live illustration of competing sectoral interests producing environmental degradation risks.

    Mentor’s Comment

    India’s renewed push for uranium mining in Meghalaya, despite strong tribal opposition, has reopened debates on resource governance, environmental justice, and constitutional safeguards. For UPSC aspirants, this case is not only about Meghalaya but about how India manages its uranium reserves, balances national security with sustainability, and navigates the tensions between state imperatives and community consent. This article integrates the editorial’s concerns with a broader analysis of uranium mining in India and its implications.

    Introduction

    The Union Environment Ministry’s office memorandum (OM) exempting uranium and other strategic minerals from public consultation has intensified unrest in Meghalaya. Tribal Khasi groups, opposing uranium extraction since the 1980s, see this as a denial of their constitutional and cultural rights. At the same time, India’s nuclear ambitions make uranium strategically vital. This tension between energy security and indigenous consent places India at a crucial crossroads of democratic governance and resource management.

    Why is this in the news?

    The Centre’s attempt to mine uranium in Meghalaya, against the backdrop of decades-long opposition, is a landmark moment in India’s mineral politics. For the first time, an executive order (OM) has bypassed community consultations for uranium mining. Given the toxic environmental footprint of uranium mining and its irreversible impact on tribal lands, the issue has become both a governance crisis and an ecological flashpoint.

    What is the history of uranium mining resistance in Meghalaya?

    1. Khasi opposition since the 1980s: Resistance in Domiasiat and Wahkaji has endured for four decades.
    2. Distrust from Jharkhand experience: Singhbhum mines faced protests due to radiation exposure and livelihood loss.
    3. Procedural unfairness: Hearings often conducted in unfamiliar languages, ignoring objections.

    Why is the new Office Memorandum controversial?

    1. Exempts strategic mineral mining from public consultation, silencing affected communities.
    2. Issued without parliamentary scrutiny, showing executive overreach.
    3. Weakens constitutional safeguards, turning stewards of the land into bystanders in decisions affecting their survival.

    What constitutional and legal protections are at stake?

    1. Sixth Schedule: Khasi Hills Autonomous District Council may invoke its autonomy.
    2. Judicial precedents: Niyamgiri (2013) recognized the primacy of tribal consent.
    3. Fifth and Sixth Schedules: Provide a strong legal basis for resistance.
    4. Global principle of FPIC (Free, Prior, and Informed Consent): Ignored in this decision.

    Why is uranium mining a risky proposition?

    1. Environmental hazards: Radioactive waste and contamination of water sources.
    2. Human health risks: Increased cases of radiation-linked illnesses reported in Singhbhum.
    3. Cultural disruption: Tribal communities lose ancestral land and cultural heritage.
    4. Short-term security vs long-term sustainability: Overemphasis on uranium undermines renewable energy pathways.

    Uranium Mining in India – An Overview

    Where is uranium mined in India?

    1. Jharkhand (Singhbhum district): Oldest uranium mines; key hub of Uranium Corporation of India Limited (UCIL).
    2. Andhra Pradesh (Tummalapalle, Kadapa district): Estimated to be one of the world’s largest uranium reserves (~150,000 tonnes).
    3. Telangana (Nalgonda district): Lambapur-Peddagattu reserves.
    4. Meghalaya (Domiasiat, Wahkaji): Rich reserves but stalled due to tribal opposition.
    5. Rajasthan (Rohil in Sikar district): Exploratory work underway.

    What are the requirements and process of uranium mining?

    1. Requirement of Environmental Clearances: Normally includes public consultation, impact assessments, and Forest Rights Act compliance (bypassed in the new OM).
    2. Mining process:
      • Open-cast mining: Surface excavation, highly polluting.
      • Underground mining: Safer but expensive.
      • Processing: Crushing ore, followed by leaching (acid/alkaline) to extract uranium oxide (yellowcake).
      • Radiation management: Requires robust safeguards in waste disposal, tailing ponds, and worker protection—areas where India has faced criticism.

    India’s standing in global uranium context

    1. Global reserves: Australia, Kazakhstan, Canada, Russia dominate.
    2. India’s share: About 1-2% of world reserves, modest compared to global leaders.
    3. Import dependence: Despite domestic efforts, India imports uranium from Kazakhstan, Russia, Uzbekistan, Canada.
    4. Nuclear energy contribution: Currently ~3% of India’s electricity; goal is 9-10% by 2040.

    Implications for India

    1. Energy security: Indigenous uranium critical for India’s nuclear power expansion under India’s three-stage nuclear program.
    2. Geopolitical leverage: Imports expose India to supply shocks and diplomatic constraints.
    3. Environmental justice: Mining projects risk alienating tribal populations and worsening ecological fragility.

    How should the state respond?

    1. Withdraw the OM to restore procedural legitimacy.
    2. Respect community consent to prevent democratic erosion.
    3. Explore alternatives like thorium-based nuclear energy (where India has rich reserves) and renewable energy strategies.
    4. Promote dialogue, not coercion, to avoid long-term alienation of tribal groups.

    Conclusion

    The uranium debate in Meghalaya is about much more than mining, it is about the soul of Indian democracy. By sidelining constitutional protections and environmental concerns, the state risks sacrificing long-term legitimacy for short-term gains. India’s future energy security cannot come at the cost of tribal survival, ecological stability, and democratic consent. A sustainable pathway lies in inclusive governance, diversified energy strategies, and respect for constitutional safeguards.

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  • The Crisis In The Middle East

    U.K, Australia and Canada recognise Palestine state in seismic shift

    Explained | International Relations | Mains Paper 2: Effect Of Policies & Politics Of World On India’S Interests

    Introduction

    On September 22, 2025, Britain, Australia, and Canada formally recognised Palestine as a sovereign state, a step that Portugal and potentially France are expected to follow at the UN General Assembly. This unprecedented shift, especially by G-7 members like the U.K. and Canada, alters decades of Western foreign policy and signals mounting pressure on Israel after nearly two years of the Gaza war that began with Hamas’s October 7, 2023 attack. While hailed as historic by Palestinians, Israel’s Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu condemned the move as an “absurd reward for terrorism.”

    Why is this development historic?

    1. First G-7 recognition: U.K. and Canada became the first G-7 nations to officially recognise Palestine, breaking with the long-standing Western alignment with Israel.
    2. Sharp contrast with past policy: For decades, Western countries had deferred recognition pending a negotiated two-state solution; this marks a direct policy shift.
    3. Conflict backdrop: The recognition comes amid international outrage over prolonged violence in Gaza since 2023, highlighting the urgency for peace.
    4. Special burden: The U.K.’s Deputy PM admitted Britain carries a “special responsibility” due to the 1917 Balfour Declaration, which paved the way for Israel’s creation.

    Why did the U.K., Australia, and Canada take this step?

    1. Reviving peace hopes: Leaders like Keir Starmer emphasised the recognition as a way to keep the two-state solution alive.
    2. International pressure: Growing calls for humanitarian accountability in Gaza pushed these governments to act.
    3. Alignment with Europe: Portugal announced recognition the same day, and France is expected to follow, indicating a coordinated Western European push.

    What has been Israel’s reaction?

    1. Harsh opposition: PM Netanyahu warned that calls for Palestinian statehood “endanger Israel’s existence.”
    2. Terrorism narrative: Israel frames recognition as a “reward for terrorism” in reference to Hamas’s October 7, 2023 attack.
    3. UN strategy: Netanyahu vowed to fight this recognition diplomatically at the ongoing UN General Assembly.

    What role does history play in this debate?

    1. Balfour Declaration, 1917: U.K.’s role in facilitating Israel’s creation still casts a shadow over West Asia’s conflict.
    2. Decades of stalemate: Palestinian statehood has been promised but deferred since the Oslo Accords of the 1990s.
    3. Burden of colonial legacy: Britain’s recognition is seen as part-redressal for its historical role.

    How does this reshape global geopolitics?

    1. U.S.–Western divide: Recognition creates divergence between U.S. policy (still opposed) and its closest allies like the U.K. and Canada, weakening the coherence of the Western bloc.
    2. Global South solidarity: Developing nations, many of whom already recognise Palestine, view this as overdue Western alignment, strengthening South–North convergence on justice and decolonisation.
    3. UN spotlight: With the General Assembly opening, Palestine’s legitimacy is expected to dominate the global agenda, elevating the conflict as a test case for multilateralism.
    4. Regional fault lines: Arab states may gain renewed diplomatic leverage, while Israel risks isolation beyond its traditional U.S. support base, potentially altering Middle East power balances.
    5. Strategic recalibration for India and Asia: Asian powers like India and China will have to navigate between historical solidarity with Palestine and strong bilateral partnerships with Israel, testing their strategic autonomy.
    6. Narrative of international law and legitimacy: Recognition by major Western democracies strengthens the normative argument for Palestinian statehood, challenging Israel’s framing of the issue as a security-only concern.

    Conclusion

    The recognition of Palestine by the U.K., Australia, and Canada is more than symbolic; it could catalyse a chain reaction of Western nations acknowledging Palestinian sovereignty. While it reignites hope for a two-state solution, it also risks deepening fault lines with Israel and the U.S.

    PYQ Relevance

    [UPSC 2018] India’s relations with Israel have, of late, acquired a depth and diversity, which cannot be rolled back.” Discuss

    Linkage: The recognition of Palestine by U.K., Australia, and Canada highlights how global powers are recalibrating their West Asia policies, creating new pressures on countries like India. While India recognised Palestine in 1988, it has simultaneously built deep and diverse ties with Israel in defence, agriculture, and technology. This mirrors the PYQ’s core theme—India’s Israel relationship is now structurally entrenched, even as balancing Palestine’s cause remains a diplomatic necessity.

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  • Economic Indicators and Various Reports On It- GDP, FD, EODB, WIR etc

    Why low inflation is the problem

    Explained | Economics | Mains Paper 3: Indian Economy

    Introduction

    Inflation in India has sharply declined in recent months, with CPI inflation at 2.27% (Aug 2024) and WPI inflation at just 0.52%. While households welcome subdued prices, this development has unsettled the government’s fiscal math. Nominal GDP growth, which forms the base for budget projections, has weakened. As a result, targets for revenue, deficit, and debt are under stress. This shift highlights the complex relationship between inflation, nominal GDP, and fiscal sustainability.

    The Problem with Low Inflation

    Why is low inflation in the news?

    India is currently witnessing one of the weakest inflation trajectories in recent years, with both CPI and WPI at historic lows. This is striking because inflation had been consistently higher earlier, often troubling households and RBI alike. Now, for the first time in years, inflation is falling so low that it is below the government’s own expectations, threatening fiscal stability. While consumers benefit from cheaper goods, the government risks losing lakhs of crores in projected revenue.

    Breaking Down the Fiscal Arithmetic

    What is the link between inflation and government finances?

    1. GDP measure: Nominal GDP = monetary value of goods/services at current prices, before adjusting for inflation.
    2. Government’s reliance: Budget estimates are framed on nominal GDP, not real GDP.
    3. Importance: Nominal GDP forms the denominator for deficit and debt ratios, making it central to fiscal health.

    How is low inflation disrupting budget math?

    1. Union Budget FY25-26 assumption: Nominal GDP growth at 10.5%, implying GDP of ₹357 lakh crore.
    2. Reality: Q1 nominal GDP growth just 8%, well below target.
    3. Revenue impact: FY26 central govt. net tax revenue projected at ₹33.1 lakh crore; lower inflation could cut receipts by ₹57,314 crore.

    Why is nominal GDP growth so crucial?

    1. Fiscal deficit & debt ratio: Targets (fiscal deficit 4.4%, debt-GDP ratio 56.1%) are achievable only if nominal GDP grows as expected.
    2. Current scenario: With weak inflation, nominal GDP falls, making deficit/debt appear larger relative to GDP.
    3. Result: Fiscal stress and need for adjustments in spending or borrowing.

    Is low inflation always bad?

    1. Positive side: Consumers enjoy stable prices, reduced cost of living, relief from food price spikes.
    2. Negative side: Weak inflation = lower nominal GDP = poor revenue realization for the government.
    3. RBI view: Deputy Governor (May 2024) warned that while lower prices help consumers, oversupply and weak pricing power can dampen private investment and industrial margins.

    What are the long-term risks?

    1. Corporate health: Lower pricing power can affect profits, discouraging capex.
    2. Employment: Weak demand growth can limit job creation.
    3. Cycle of slowdown: Weak inflation → lower nominal GDP → fiscal squeeze → reduced spending → slower growth.

    Conclusion

    Low inflation, though a blessing for households, poses structural challenges for India’s fiscal health. When inflation falls below government assumptions, it erodes revenue potential and distorts deficit ratios, threatening fiscal sustainability. Policymakers thus face the paradox of balancing consumer welfare with fiscal prudence. For India, the task ahead is not merely curbing inflation but maintaining it at an optimal, stable level to sustain growth, revenue, and investment.

    PYQ Relevance

    [UPSC 2019] Do you agree with the view that steady GDP growth and low inflation have left the Indian economy in good shape? Give reasons in support of your arguments.

    Linkage: The question assumes that low inflation alongside steady GDP growth indicates economic strength. However, as the article shows, low inflation with weak nominal GDP growth can actually strain fiscal math, reduce revenues, and slow investment. Thus, while consumers benefit, the economy may not necessarily be in “good shape” if fiscal sustainability and growth momentum are undermined.

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  • Agmark, Hallmark, ISI, BIS, BEE and Other Ratings

    Centre to simplify Quality Control Order (QCO) framework

    Prelims Only | Economics | Mains Paper 3: Effects Of Liberalization On The Economy, Changes In Industrial Policy and their effects on Industrial Growth

    Why in the News?

    A NITI Aayog panel has proposed easing India’s Quality Control Orders (QCOs) by simplifying certification, assessments, and inspections to support MSMEs amid domestic and global criticism.

    About Quality Control Orders (QCOs):

    • Overview: Issued under the Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS) Act, 2016, QCOs make Indian Standards compulsory for specific products in public interest (health, environment, security, fair trade).
    • Voluntary vs. Mandatory: Normally BIS certification is voluntary, but under QCOs manufacturers/importers must obtain a BIS licence or Certificate of Conformity before production, imports, or sales.
    • Standard Mark: Products under QCOs carry the ISI mark (or Hallmark for jewellery) to indicate conformity.
    • Legal Backing: Governed by BIS (Conformity Assessment) Regulations, 2018; violation punishable with fines or imprisonment.
    • Imports: Applies equally to foreign manufacturers via the Foreign Manufacturers Certification Scheme (FMCS).
    • Coverage: Of ~23,000 BIS standards, only 187 QCOs covering 770 products exist; 84 QCOs covering 343 products issued in the last three years.
    • Example: QCOs for compressors & ACs (2023) boosted compressor output from <2 million (2021–22) to 8 million (2023–24); ACs to 12 million+ units.

    Challenges Related to QCOs:

    • High Costs: Certification involves inspections, documents, and assessments—burdening MSMEs.
    • Non-Tariff Barrier Issues: US, EU, UK, NZ claim India’s QCOs exceed global norms. USTR (2025) flagged BIS marks even for chemicals, requiring site visits.
    • Industry Pushback: MSMEs fear inflationary costs; imports of cheaper raw materials/components restricted.
    • Limited Enforcement: Only 187 of 23,000 standards notified, mainly steel, electronics, chemicals.
    • Implementation Delays: Licence approvals slow; procedures disrupt production and supply chains.
    • Conflicting Views: Some MSMEs benefit (e.g., Birla Aircon turnover jumped ₹7 crore to ₹42 crore after QCO on water coolers), others call it “malign intervention” (NITI Aayog VC Suman Berry).

    Steps Taken by Government:

    • Digitisation: Simplified certification covering 750+ products; licences granted in 30 days.
    • MSME Outreach:
      • Jan Sunwai: Online open-house thrice weekly.
      • Manak Manthan: BIS field initiative for MSME support.
      • Regional Conferences: Led by Department of Consumer Affairs to resolve issues.
    • Capacity Building: Of 50,753 BIS certifications, ~40,000 (≈80%) issued to MSMEs; 24,625 voluntarily obtained for credibility/exports.
    • Trade Readiness: Govt projects QCOs as tools to raise quality and global competitiveness.
    • WTO Consistency: Justified if linked to health, safety, environment, deceptive trade, or security, in line with WTO Technical Barriers to Trade (TBT) Agreement.
    [UPSC 2017] With reference to `Quality Council of India (QCI)’, consider the following statements:

    1. QCI was set up jointly by the Government of India and the Indian Industry.

    2. Chairman of QCI is appointed by the Prime Minister on the recommendations of the industry to the Government.

    Which of the above statements is/are correct?

    Options: (a) 1 only (b) 2 only (c) Both 1 and 2* (d) Neither 1 nor 2

     

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  • International Space Agencies – Missions and Discoveries

    Extreme Nuclear Transients (ENTs) and the Big Bang

    Prelims Only | Science Tech | Mains Paper 3: Awareness in various sc and tech fields

    Extreme Nuclear Transient

    Why in the News?

    New research by the University of Hawaii has discovered Extreme Nuclear Transients (ENTs), the most powerful explosions since the Big Bang, surpassing even gamma-ray bursts (GRBs) in energy output.

    Back2Basics: Big Bang

    • Proponent: In 1927 by Georges Lemaître.
    • Timeline: Universe originated ~13.7–13.8 billion years ago from a singularity.
    • Phases: Began with cosmic inflation, followed by expansion, cooling, and formation of matter, light, and four fundamental forces.
    • Cosmic Evolution: Led to atoms, stars, galaxies, and planets; universe still expanding.
    • Evidence: Supported by cosmic microwave background radiation and Hubble’s observations of galaxy redshifts.

    About Extreme Nuclear Transients (ENTs):

    • Discovery: First reported by astronomers at the University of Hawaii’s Institute for Astronomy (IfA).
    • Cause: Triggered when massive stars (≥3 times Sun’s mass) are torn apart by supermassive black holes at galactic centers.
    • Energy Output: Release ten times more energy than gamma-ray bursts (GRBs), earlier considered the brightest cosmic events.
    • Duration: Remain luminous in radio wavelengths for years, unlike short-lived bursts.

    How ENTs differ from other cosmic events?

    • Gamma-Ray Bursts (GRBs): They come from collapsing stars or mergers; short-lived but highly energetic. ENTs are more powerful and last longer.
    • Tidal Disruption Events (TDEs): TDEs also shred stars, but ENTs involve larger black holes and massive stars, making them rarer.
    • Fast X-ray Transients (FXTs): They are faint, brief X-ray bursts from trapped jets in supernovae. ENTs are brighter, multi-wavelength, and more energetic.

    Scientific Importance of ENTs:

    • Most Energetic Events: Represent the most powerful class of transients ever observed.
    • Black Hole Studies: Offer insights into supermassive black hole dynamics and their role in galactic evolution.
    • Early Universe Clues: Help probe massive stars soon after galaxy formation.
    • Future Observations: Key targets for next-generation telescopes like the Vera C. Rubin Observatory and Nancy Grace Roman Space Telescope.
    [UPSC 2012] Which of the following is/are cited by the scientists as evidence for the continued expansion of the universe?

    1. Detection of microwaves in space

    2. Observation of redshift phenomenon in space

    3. Movement of asteroids in space

    4. Occurrence of supernova explosions in space

    Select the correct answer using the code given below:

    (a) 1 and 2 * (b) 2 only (c) 1, 3 and 4 (d) None of the above.

     

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  • Innovations in Sciences, IT, Computers, Robotics and Nanotechnology

    How different are Supercomputers to normal computers?

    Prelims Only | Science Tech | Mains Paper 3: Awareness in various sc and tech fields

    Why in the News?

    This newscard is an excerpt from the original article published in The Hindu.

    What is a Supercomputer?

    • Overview: A high-performance computing system capable of trillions to quintillions of calculations per second.
    • Parallel Computing: Uses thousands of processors working together instead of relying on a single fast processor.
    • Applications: Climate modelling, nuclear simulations, black hole research, drug discovery, and artificial intelligence training.
    • Performance Measure: FLOPs (floating-point operations per second); advanced machines now achieve exaflop levels (10¹⁸ calculations/sec).

    How Supercomputers Differ from Normal Computers

    • Speed: Laptops perform billions of FLOPs; supercomputers perform quintillions.
    • Parallelism: PCs use one or few processors; supercomputers employ thousands to millions of cores.
    • Structure: Built of interconnected nodes (processor + memory bundles) linked by ultra-fast networks.
    • Storage: Manage petabytes of data, unlike gigabytes/terabytes in personal devices.
    • Cooling & Power: Need specialised cooling (water/immersion) and consume electricity equal to a small town.
    • Usage: PCs run interactive apps; supercomputers run scheduled jobs remotely for scientists and researchers.

    India’s journey in Supercomputing:

    • Early Efforts: Began with C-DAC’s PARAM 8000 (1991) after Western import restrictions.
    • National Supercomputing Mission (2015): Jointly by DST & Ministry of Electronics and IT; implemented by C-DAC and IISc to build 70+ systems.
    • Major Systems (2025):
      • AIRAWAT-PSAI (C-DAC, Pune) – fastest in India (8.5 PF, global rank 136).
      • PARAM Siddhi-AI – global AI leader.
      • Pratyush (IITM, Pune) – weather & climate (3.76 PF).
      • Mihir (NCMRWF, Noida) – medium-range weather (2.57 PF).
      • PARAM Pravega (IISc, Bengaluru) – academic use (>3.3 PF).
    • Indigenous Push: PARAM Rudra (2024) with Indian servers and software stack.
    • Applications: Monsoon forecasting, Himalayan research, defence simulations, AI, drug design, materials science.
    • Current Capacity: 34+ supercomputers with ~35 petaflops; plans for exascale systems underway.
    [UPSC 2014] Param Padma, which was in the news recently, is:

    (a) a new Civilian Award instituted by the Government of India

    (b) the name of a supercomputer developed by India *

    (c) the name given to a proposed network of canals linking northern and southern rivers of India

    (d) a software programme to facilitate e-governance in Madhya Pradesh

     

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  • Biofuel Policy

    Is it feasible to blend Isobutanol and Diesel? 

    Prelims Only | Science Tech | Mains Paper 3: Awareness in various sc and tech fields

    Why in the News?

    The Union Transport Minister has announced that the Automotive Research Association of India (ARAI) is studying the feasibility of blending Isobutanol with Diesel after ethanol–diesel blending attempts failed.

    About Isobutanol:

    • What is it: A four-carbon alcohol (C₄H₁₀O), clear, flammable, and traditionally used as a solvent in paints, coatings, and chemical industries.
    • Production: Derived either from petrochemical processes or by fermenting sugarcane, molasses, and grains with engineered microbes.
    • Fuel Properties:
      • Higher energy density than ethanol, closer to diesel.
      • Lower hygroscopicity (absorbs less water), reducing rust and corrosion in engines and pipelines.
      • Higher flash point than ethanol, making it safer for storage and transport.

    Isobutanol–Diesel Blending and Benefits:

    • Compatibility: Unlike ethanol, isobutanol blends well with diesel without extra chemicals.
    • Economic Feasibility: Can be produced in existing ethanol plants with minor changes.
    • Agricultural Support: Creates demand for sugarcane by-products, helping farmers and managing sugar surplus.
    • Energy Security: Reduces reliance on imported fossil fuels and saves foreign exchange.
    • Global First: Pilot studies may make India the first country to use isobutanol–diesel blends.

    Challenges and Risks:

    • Combustion Issues: Has a lower cetane number than diesel, causing poor combustion quality.
    • Engine Risks: Can trigger diesel knock (uneven burning, power loss, engine damage).
    • Mixing Limitations: Blending challenges exist but can be partly solved with biodiesel addition.
    • Cost Factor: Requires additives to restore cetane number, increasing costs.
    • Blending Limit: Experts suggest ≤10% blending to avoid harm.
    • Pilot Phase: Testing will take ~18 months before possible large-scale adoption.
    [UPSC 2020] With reference to green hydrogen, consider the following statements:

    1. It can be used directly as a fuel for internal combustion.

    2. It can be blended with natural gas and used as fuel for heat or power generation.

    3. It can be used in the hydrogen fuel cell to run vehicles.

    How many of the above statements are correct?

    Options: (a) Only one (b) Only two (c) All three* (d) None

     

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  • Air Pollution

    ‘Smog-eating’ photocatalytic coatings on roads to curb pollution

    Prelims Only | Enviro & Biodiversity | Mains Paper 3: Conservation, Environmental Pollution & Degradation, Eia

    Why in the News?

    Delhi government has announced a feasibility study to test photocatalytic coatings on roads, pavements, and public spaces to bring visible improvements in air quality.

    About Smog:

    • Overview: Combination of smoke and fog, forming smoky fog with soot, gases, and moisture.
    • Components: Includes soot particulates, sulphur dioxide (SO₂), nitrogen dioxide (NO₂), hydrocarbons, carbon monoxide (CO), and ozone (O₃).

    • Types:

      1. Sulfurous Smog (London Smog) – Caused by burning coal and sulphur-bearing fuels; worsened by dampness and particulates.
      2. Photochemical Smog (Los Angeles Smog) – Produced when NOₓ and hydrocarbons react under sunlight, forming ozone; appears as a brownish haze with respiratory effects.

    • Pollutants:

      1. Primary pollutants: Directly emitted (NO₂, SO₂, hydrocarbons).
      2. Secondary pollutants:  Formed via reactions (ozone, acid rain).
    • Haze vs. Smog: Haze = dry particles reducing visibility; Smog = pollutants with condensation.
    • Effects: Respiratory distress, eye irritation, plant damage, reduced visibility, carcinogenic risk, worsened by inversion layers and low rainfall.

    What are “Smog-Eating” Coatings?

    • Technology: Photocatalytic coatings using titanium dioxide (TiO₂) on roads, pavements, and public surfaces.
    • Function: Under sunlight, TiO₂ breaks down pollutants like NO₂ and hydrocarbons into less harmful compounds.
    • Advantages: Low-cost, stable, compatible with traditional materials, effective in depollution and creating self-cleaning surfaces.

    Delhi Government Plan

    • Plan: If viable, Cabinet proposal for citywide rollout at busy corridors, markets, and public spaces.
    • Evaluation: Study to assess cost-effectiveness, safety, and sustainability while shortlisting suppliers.
    • Strategic Context: Part of a 24×7, year-round environmental action plan using technology-driven interventions.
    [UPSC 2013] Photochemical smog is a resultant of the reaction among-

    (a) NO₂, O₃ and peroxyacetyl nitrate in the prescence of sunlight *

    (b) CO₂, O₂, and peroxyacetyl nitrate in the presence of sunlight

    (c) CO, CO₂, and NO₂ at low temperature

    (d) high concentration of NO₂, O₃ and CO in the evening

     

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  • Terrorism and Challenges Related To It

    [20th September 2025] The Hindu Op-ed: The Saudi-Pakistan pact is a dodgy insurance policy

    op-ed snap | International Relations | Mains Paper 2: Effect Of Policies & Politics Of World On India’S Interests

    PYQ Relevance:

    [UPSC 2018] In what ways would the ongoing US–Iran Nuclear Pact controversy affect the national interest of India? How should India respond to this situation?

    Linkage: The Saudi–Pakistan SMDA, like the earlier US–Iran Nuclear Pact controversy, reshapes West Asian alignments and directly impacts India’s energy security, diaspora safety, and regional stability. Just as India had to balance between Iran, the U.S., and Gulf partners in 2018, it must now carefully hedge between Riyadh and Islamabad while safeguarding its own strategic interests.

    Mentor’s Comment

    The Strategic Mutual Defence Agreement (SMDA) signed between Saudi Arabia and Pakistan in September 2025 has been described as a pact of optics rather than substance. Its timing, context, and asymmetrical calculations raise questions on whether it strengthens West Asian security or merely signals short-term adjustments. For UPSC aspirants, this episode provides insights into the shifting geopolitics of South West Asia, Pakistan’s strategic opportunism, Saudi Arabia’s security dilemmas, and India’s balancing role.

    Introduction

    On 17 September 2025, Saudi Crown Prince Mohammed bin Salman and Pakistani Premier Shahbaz Sharif signed the Strategic Mutual Defence Agreement (SMDA) in Riyadh, with Field Marshal Asim Munir in attendance. While presented as a landmark pact, its real significance lies in the optics of security reassurance amid the shifting sands of Middle Eastern politics. Both nations have a chequered past of military cooperation, rooted in shared faith but divided by divergent threat perceptions. The agreement’s asymmetrical benefits, U.S. undertones, and implications for India make it geopolitically consequential.

    Why is the SMDA in the news and why is it significant?

    1. First major pact in decades: The last high-point of Saudi–Pakistan defence ties was in the 1979–89 period, when 20,000 Pakistani troops protected Saudi Arabia and the Holy Harams.
    2. Optical reassurance: The SMDA is viewed more as a symbolic gesture than a substantive alliance, designed to show unity amidst rising threats from Iran, Yemen, and Israel.
    3. Geopolitical urgency: Triggered by the September 9 Israeli air strike in Doha (Qatar), the pact signals waning U.S. credibility as a security guarantor for the Gulf.
    4. Big deal: Pakistan is now a declared nuclear state, raising speculation of nuclear cooperation with Riyadh, though practical transfer remains improbable.

    What has been the history of Saudi-Pakistan defence cooperation?

    1. Golden phase (1979–89): 20,000 Pakistani soldiers stationed in Saudi Arabia to protect the monarchy and act against Iran and Yemen.
    2. Saudi view: Treated Pakistani forces as paid Praetorian Guards, limiting their autonomy.
    3. Pakistani view: Resented lack of command; exclusion of Shia troops created tensions.
    4. 1990 onwards: Pakistan refused Saudi requests during major crises (Iraq’s Kuwait invasion, Yemeni war), limiting its role to protecting the Holy Harams.

    How has the United States influenced the SMDA?

    1. Pentagon as the guarantor: U.S. historically underpinned Saudi–Pak defence ties “over-the-horizon.”
    2. Trump’s role: In June 2025, Field Marshal Munir’s “private lunch” with Trump in Washington signalled Washington’s blessing.
    3. Israeli factor: Saudi Arabia wanted a U.S. defence pact and nuclear technology in exchange for recognising Israel. The Hamas attack on Israel in Oct 2023 derailed the plan, leaving the SMDA as a consolation prize.
    4. Credibility gap: The U.S. failure to defend Qatar against Israeli strikes exposed fragility in Gulf security guarantees.

    What are Riyadh’s calculations from the SMDA?

    1. Avoid Arab troops: Past experience with Arab/Turkish troops created risks of “political pollination.
    2. Massive arms imports: Saudi Arabia has ordered $100 billion worth of U.S. weapons in 2025.
    3. Nuclear hedge: Pakistan’s nuclear capability could deter Iran if it goes nuclear.
    4. Chinese factor: Pakistan’s ties with China may complicate Riyadh’s trust.
    5. Realistic expectation: Riyadh foresees smaller Pakistani footprints than before, given past frictions.

    What are Islamabad’s calculations from the SMDA?

    1. Asymmetrical gains: No intention to fight Saudi wars against Iran, Yemen, or Israel.
    2. Strategic opportunism: Exploit Saudi insecurity to gain funds, oil, defence hardware, and training.
    3. Personal aggrandisement:Pakistan’s military elite aim to monetise “IOUs” from Riyadh and Washington.
    4. Regional calculus: Hopes trilateral axis will offset its strategic disadvantage against India.

    What does the SMDA mean for India?

    1. Energy linkages: India is the third-largest oil importer and among Saudi’s top trade partners.
    2. Diaspora factor: Largest expatriate community in Saudi Arabia, valued for skills and neutrality.
    3. Diplomatic capital: Post-2014 outreach has created defence and intelligence-sharing frameworks.
    4. Saudi balancing act: Riyadh assured Reuters that ties with India remain “robust,” acknowledging India’s nuclear status and geoeconomic heft.
    5. Implication: India must remain vigilant, building greater Arabian Sea synergies to counterbalance tactical moves by Pakistan.

    Conclusion

    The Saudi–Pakistan pact is less a robust security alliance and more a political insurance policy, crafted in haste amid shifting regional dynamics. While it temporarily reassures Riyadh and monetarily benefits Islamabad, its sustainability remains doubtful due to divergent threat perceptions, nuclear sensitivities, and overlapping U.S.–China rivalries. For India, the SMDA underscores the need to strengthen its energy diplomacy, diaspora leverage, and strategic partnerships with Riyadh, while maintaining watchfulness over Pakistan’s manoeuvres.

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  • Health Sector – UHC, National Health Policy, Family Planning, Health Insurance, etc.

    A climate-health vision with lessons from India

    Explained | Enviro & Biodiversity | Mains Paper 3: Conservation, Environmental Pollution & Degradation, Eia

    Introduction

    At the Global Conference on Climate and Health (July 2025, Brazil), 90 countries shaped the Belém Health Action Plan, which will guide the climate-health agenda at COP30 (Nov 2025). Ironically, India, despite having some of the most instructive welfare experiences linking climate and health, was not officially represented, a missed opportunity to emerge as a global exemplar.

    India’s non-health interventions like the Pradhan Mantri Poshan Shakti Nirman (PM POSHAN), Swachh Bharat Abhiyan, Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (MNREGA), and Pradhan Mantri Ujjwala Yojana (PMUY) offer rich lessons for operationalising an integrated climate-health framework. They reveal that intentional, intersectoral action can yield multiple dividends: improved nutrition, reduced pollution, restored ecosystems, and healthier communities.

    Why is this news significant?

    India’s absence at Belém stands out because for the first time a global platform is drafting a climate-health action plan. While India has often been viewed through the prism of its energy transition challenges, this moment presented a chance to highlight its homegrown welfare successes with global resonance. The paradox is striking: even without designing policies as “climate policies,” India has reaped climate-health co-benefits, unlike many countries still struggling to integrate the two. Yet, persistent failures like high LPG refill costs in PMUY and siloed governance highlight the scale of unfinished work.

    What is the Belém Health Action Plan (BHAP)?

    • The BHAP is a strategic framework being finalized ahead of COP30 (Nov 2025, Belém, Brazil) intended to integrate health into climate change adaptation.
    • It emphasizes health equity, climate justice, and social participation alongside strengthening health systems to be resilient in face of climate change.

    Key Features / Action Lines

    Some of its priority action lines include:

    • Surveillance & Monitoring:
      • Linking climate/environmental data with health surveillance, early warning systems (for heatwaves, epidemics, etc.).
      • Real-time data, local / community-level monitoring.
    • Evidence-Based Policy Strategy & Capacity Building:
      • Training health workforce, integrating mental health & psychosocial support measures.
      • Gender-responsive, inclusive policies, recognizing most vulnerable groups (women, Indigenous people, persons with disabilities).
    • Innovation & Production:
      • Resilient infrastructure and services (e.g. climate-adapted health facilities), sustainable supply chains.
      • Focus on blended financing and mobilizing investments to make health systems adaptive and equitable.
    • Cross-cutting priorities:
      • Health equity & climate justice: ensuring that adaptation efforts do not further marginalize vulnerable groups.
      • Leadership & governance: accountability, social participation from civil society, clear institutional roles.

    What lessons do India’s welfare programmes offer for climate-health synergy?

    1. PM POSHAN: Covers 11 crore children in 11 lakh schools, linking nutrition, agriculture, and education. Promotion of millets strengthens climate-resilient food systems.
    2. Swachh Bharat Abhiyan: Improved sanitation, public health, and environmental sustainability, while embedding dignity and cultural symbolism via Gandhi’s vision.
    3. MNREGA: Enhanced livelihood security while simultaneously restoring degraded ecosystems through water conservation and afforestation.
    4. PM Ujjwala Yojana (PMUY): Transition to clean cooking fuel cut household air pollution — a leading cause of respiratory illness — while reducing carbon emissions.

    How has leadership and community engagement shaped outcomes?

    1. Political leadership: Direct involvement of the Prime Minister gave Swachh Bharat and PMUY inter-ministerial traction and public legitimacy.
    2. Community engagement: PM POSHAN leveraged parent-teacher committees, Swachh Bharat invoked cultural pride in cleanliness, ensuring local ownership.
    3. Cultural anchoring: Climate action framed as health protection resonates more deeply than carbon metrics.

    What structural challenges persist in implementation?

    1. Administrative silos: Divergent sectoral mandates limit integrated outcomes.
    2. High refill costs in PMUY: Oil marketing interests often outweigh beneficiary affordability.
    3. Social barriers: Gender norms and cultural practices limit uptake of clean fuel and sanitation.
    4. Output vs. outcome gap: Programmes measure immediate coverage but not long-term health-climate impact.

    What framework does India’s experience suggest for climate-health governance?

    1. Strategic prioritisation: Frame climate action as immediate health security, not distant environmental risk.
    2. Procedural integration: Embed health impact assessments into energy, transport, and urban policies.
    3. Participatory implementation: Leverage ASHA workers, SHGs, Panchayats as health-climate advocates.

    Why is this vision critical for the future?

    1. High stakes: Delinking climate and health crises leads to fragmented solutions with escalating costs.
    2. Transformative potential: An intersectoral, whole-of-society approach could position India as a global leader in climate-health governance.
    3. Clear choice: Continue piecemeal efforts or pioneer a bold model aligning welfare with planetary health.

    Conclusion

    India’s welfare architecture has shown that policies designed for social welfare can unintentionally become climate-health interventions. The challenge now is to make this synergy intentional and institutionalised, with robust political framing, procedural integration, and community mobilisation. At a time when the world is drafting a global climate-health action plan, India’s absence from the table is a wake-up call: to convert scattered lessons into a coherent model of governance that others can emulate.

    Value Addition

    Key Concepts

    1. Climate-Health Nexus: Environmental policies often have unintended health impacts; health policies also influence climate outcomes.
    2. Co-Benefits Approach: One intervention (e.g., PMUY for clean cooking fuel) yields multiple dividends (better health, women’s empowerment, reduced emissions).
    3. Whole-of-Society Approach: Intersectoral coordination between ministries, communities, and local bodies ensures impact.
    4. Output vs Outcome Gap: Many Indian schemes achieve outputs (LPG connections, toilets built) but outcomes (sustained use, cleaner air, health equity) remain weak.

    Important Data / Reports

    1. WHO Report (2021): Air pollution causes 7 million premature deaths annually worldwide.
    2. Lancet Countdown on Health and Climate Change (2022): South Asia faces one of the highest global burdens of climate-related health risks.
    3. India’s National Family Health Survey (NFHS-5, 2021): Despite welfare schemes, 35.5% of children under 5 are stunted and 32.1% are underweight, showing links between nutrition, climate resilience, and health.
    4. UNDP (2023): Every $1 invested in resilience and adaptation yields $4 in avoided losses.
    5. Global Conference on Climate & Health (Belém Plan, 2025): First global blueprint on climate-health integration.

    PYQ Linkage:

    [UPSC 2017] ‘Climate Change’ is a global problem. How India will be affected by climate change? How Himalayan and coastal states of India will be affected by climate change?

    Linkage: India’s welfare schemes like PM POSHAN, PMUY, Swachh Bharat and MNREGA demonstrate that non-health interventions can mitigate climate impacts while improving public health. The Himalayan and coastal states, most vulnerable to warming, floods, and sea-level rise, can benefit from such intersectoral, resilience-building models. Thus, India’s climate-health vision provides practical pathways to address both regional vulnerabilities and national climate commitments.

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