The worldâsfirst wood-panelled satellite, LignoSat, was recently launched to test the use of timber as a renewable material for future space missions.
AboutLignoSat Satellite:
Details
Purpose
To test the potential of wood as a renewable building material in space applications.
Developed By
Kyoto University and Sumitomo Forestry of Japan.
Launch Details
Launched on November 5 aboard a SpaceX Dragon cargo capsule.
Mission Duration
Spend a month at the International Space Station (ISS) before being deployed into Earthâs orbit for six months to test its performance.
Size and Weight
Measures 4 inches (10 cm) per side and weighs 900 grams.
Material
Built with magnolia wood panels, using a traditional Japanese technique that avoids screws and glue.
Construction
Combines wood-panel casings with aluminium structures and standard electronic components.
Durability Testing
Designed to withstand extreme temperature fluctuations in space, ranging from -100 to 100 degrees Celsius every 45 minutes.
LignoSat as a Renewable Solution for Space Construction
Reduced Environmental Impact: Unlike conventional aluminium-based satellites, LignoSat reduces pollutants like aluminium oxides that damage the ozone layer upon re-entry.
Sustainable Material: Wood is a renewable, lightweight, and corrosion-resistant material in space, as there is no water or oxygen to accelerate degradation.
Long-Term Vision: The satellite could pave the way for sustainable space construction, with future plans to use wood in building structures on the Moon and Mars.
Mitigating Orbital Congestion: As satellite constellations grow, sustainable materials like wood could help reduce space debris and pollution in Earth’s orbit.
PYQ:
[2016] With reference to âAstroSatâ, the astronomical observatory launched by India, which of the following statements is/are correct?
1. Other than USA and Russia, India is the only country to have launched a similar observatory into space.
2. AstroSat is a 2000 kg satellite placed in an orbit at 1650 km above the surface of the Earth.
Select the correct answer using the code given below:
Since smallpox was eradicated in 1980, research on mpox has highlighted how the virus mutates, particularly through the APOBEC family of immune system proteins.
AboutAPOBEC
APOBEC (Apolipoprotein B mRNA Editing Enzyme, Catalytic Polypeptide-Like) is a family of proteins involved in regulating the genetic material of viruses and cells.
They are part of the human immune system and play a crucial role in protecting against viral infections by editing RNA and DNA.
APOBEC consists of several enzymes, with APOBEC1, APOBEC3 family members being the most well-known.
There are 11 identified members of the APOBEC family, primarily named APOBEC1, APOBEC2, and APOBEC3, with APOBEC3 being the most studied due to its antiviral properties.
It has a Zinc Finger Domain, which is essential for their enzymatic activity and ability to bind to DNA or RNA.
APOBEC proteins are found in various tissues and cells, but they are notably present in the immune cells such as T-cells, B-cells, and macrophages.
Role in Immune Defense:
APOBEC proteins contribute to the innate immune response by editing viral genomes, preventing the replication of viruses, and reducing the ability of viruses to establish infections.
They are known to be cytosine deaminases, which means they modify cytosine bases in nucleic acids to uracil, leading to mutations that can prevent successful viral replication.
APOBEC proteins target the genomes of several viruses, including retroviruses (like HIV), hepatitis B virus, and poxviruses (such as mpox and smallpox).
Functions of APOBEC Proteins:
DNA Editing: APOBEC proteins can deaminate cytosine bases in single-stranded DNA, converting them into uracil, which can lead to mutations.
This introduces errors in the viral genome and inhibits replication.
RNA Editing: Some APOBEC proteins, like APOBEC1, are involved in editing mRNA. In the case of APOBEC1, it helps edit the mRNA of apolipoprotein B, which is crucial for lipid metabolism.
Antiviral Activity: APOBEC3 proteins, particularly APOBEC3G, inhibit the replication of HIV and other retroviruses by editing viral DNA during reverse transcription.
They also reduce the replication of poxviruses (such as mpox), making them crucial in controlling infections caused by these viruses.
Cytosine Deamination in Viral RNA: APOBEC proteins induce mutations in viral RNA, reducing the virus’s ability to efficiently replicate and spread. This helps prevent viral evolution and adaptation.
Inhibition of Viral Resistance: By causing mutations in viral genomes, APOBEC proteins prevent viruses from easily developing resistance to the immune systemâs defenses.
Interaction with Other Immune Mechanisms: APOBEC proteins work in concert with other immune mechanisms, like interferons, to enhance antiviral responses and limit infections.
PYQ:
[2016]Â In the context of the developments in Bioinformatics, the term âtranscriptomeâ, sometimes seen in the news, refers to:
(a) a range of enzymes used in genome editing
(b) the full range of mRNA molecules expressed by an organism
(c) the description of the mechanism of gene expression
(d) a mechanism of genetic mutations taking place in cells
The Asia Tea Alliance (ATA) resolved to reject Genetically Modified (GM) Tea in response to climate challenges affecting global tea production.
With India’s tea production down by 10% this year due to climate change, certain companies have advocated for GM tea.
About Asia Tea Alliance (ATA)
Founded: April 19, 2019, in Guizhou, China.
5 Members: India, China, Indonesia, Sri Lanka, and Japan.
Goals: Enhance tea trade, cultural exchange, and globally promote tea.
About Indian Tea Industry:Â
India is the second-largest tea producer and largest black tea producer after China, and also the fourth-largest tea exporter worldwide.
India is the largest consumer of black tea, accounting for 18% of global tea consumption.
The Indian tea industry directly employs 1.16 million workers, with an equal number indirectly associated.
It is governed by the Tea Board of India and under Union Government control by an Act of Parliament.
Geographical conditions:
Northeast India (including Assam), north Bengal (such as Darjeeling, Terai and the Dooars), and the Nilgiris in south India.
Tropical and subtropical climates, with regions concentrated in Asia, Africa, and South America favours tea cultivation.
It requires cool to warm temperatures (15â23°C) with at least 5 hours of sunlight daily; annual rainfall should be 150-200 cm.
Darjeeling Tea known as the “Champagne of teas,” for its aroma was the first to GI tag in 2004â05.
PYQ:
[2020] âThe crop is subtropical in nature. A hard frost is injurious to it. It requires at least 210 frost-free days and 50 to 100 centimeters of rainfall for its growth. A light well-drained soil capable of retaining moisture is ideally suited for the cultivation of the crop.â Which one of the following is that crop?
Recent research by scientists at the University of Nottingham’s has found that a chemical produced by a fungus growing on caterpillars may slow cancer cell growth.
What is Caterpillar fungus?
Cordyceps militaris, also known as caterpillar fungus, is a parasitic fungus that primarily infects caterpillars and other insects.
Found in the Himalayan region and parts of Asia, it is valued in traditional Asian medicine for its health benefits, including immune support, anti-inflammatory properties, and energy enhancement.
It is considered a delicacy in some Asian cultures and has long been used for its purported wellness effects.
How it can slow down growth of cancer cells?
Researchers from the University of Nottingham’s School of Pharmacy have identified cordycepin, a compound produced by Cordyceps militaris, as potentially effective in slowing cancer cell growth.
Cordycepin works by interrupting overactive cell growth signals in cancer cells, which prevents rapid multiplication and allows for more targeted treatment.
This approach may be less harmful to healthy tissues compared to conventional cancer treatments, offering a promising direction for targeted cancer therapies.
Other observations and significance of the species
In addition to its traditional uses, Cordyceps militaris is significant for its role in ecological balance, helping control insect populations in forest ecosystems.
Advances in research have enabled large-scale studies on cordycepinâs effects, with future studies focusing on derivatives of cordycepin for potentially enhanced anti-cancer properties.
The fungus illustrates how natural compounds can contribute to sustainable medical practices, offering less toxic alternatives for disease treatment, especially in oncology.
PYQ:
[2019] Recently, there was a growing awareness in our country about the importance of Himalayan nettle (Girardinia diversifolia) because it is found to be a sustainable source of:
The International Diabetes Federation (IDF) is developing new Type 2 diabetes treatment guidelines in collaboration with a global expert panel.
These guidelines aim to integrate scientific evidence and clinical practice, adapted to the healthcare environment of specific countries.
What is Type 2 Diabetes?
Type 2 Diabetes is a chronic condition where the body becomes resistant to insulin or doesnât produce enough, leading to high blood sugar levels.
It is commonly linked to obesity, physical inactivity and poor diet.
Symptoms include increased thirst, frequent urination, fatigue, and blurred vision.
Treatment involves lifestyle changes like a healthy diet, regular exercise, and weight management.
Medications such as Metformin help regulate blood sugar levels, and in some cases, insulin therapy may be required.
About International Diabetes Federation (IDF):
Details
About
Established in 1950; Brussels, Belgium;
Members: Over 230 national diabetes associations in 170 countries and territories.
Collaborations: Partners with global organizations like the World Health Organization (WHO), UNICEF, and others for global health initiatives.
Led by an elected President with the support of a Board of Directors from member countries.
Regional offices: Operates regional offices in Africa, Europe, North America, Asia, Latin America, and the Middle East.
Aims and Objectives
To improve the care and lives of people with diabetes and promote its prevention worldwide.
Advocacy, research, education, and raising awareness to reduce the global burden of diabetes.
Key Programs
World Diabetes Day (November 14)
Global Diabetes Atlas
Educational initiatives for healthcare professionals
Diabetes Types Covered
Type 1 Diabetes: Primarily affects children and young adults, where the bodyâs immune system attacks the insulin-producing cells in the pancreas.
Type 2 Diabetes: The most common form, often linked to lifestyle factors and obesity. It involves insulin resistance and eventually pancreas dysfunction.
Gestational Diabetes: A type of diabetes that occurs during pregnancy and increases the risk of developing Type 2 diabetes later in life.
Other Forms: Covers genetic forms, latent autoimmune diabetes in adults (LADA), and MODY (Maturity Onset Diabetes of the Young).
Q) Describe the major outcomes of the 26th session of the Conference of the Parties (COP) to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). What are the commitments made by India in this conference? (UPSC CSE 2021)
Q) Do you think India will meet 50 percent of its energy needs from renewable energy by 2030? Justify your answer. How will the shift of subsidies from fossil fuels to renewables help achieve the above bjective? Explain. (UPSC CSE 2022)
Q) Explain the purpose of the Green Grid Initiative launched at the World Leaders Summit of the COP26 UN Climate Change Conference in Glasgow in November 2021. When was this idea first floated in the International Solar Alliance (ISA)? (UPSC CSE 2021)
Mentorâs Comment:At COP28, 63 countries pledged to reduce cooling emissions by 68% by 2050 through the Global Cooling Pledge. Hence, expanded commitments are necessary at COP29 to enhance participation in global cooling initiatives and strengthen partnerships across sectors.
Todayâs editorial emphasizes the critical role of international cooperation in developing sustainable cooling technologies to combat climate change. It underscores the importance of collaboration among nations to develop clean technologies that not only address immediate cooling needs but also contribute to long-term sustainability goals.
_
Let’s learn!
Why in the News?
The recent international agreements and initiatives, such as the Wilmington Declaration by the Quad nations and commitments made at COP28 focuses on the urgent need for sustainable cooling technologies in the context of global warming and climate change.
Key Initiatives and Collaborations taken by countries:
â˘Wilmington Declaration: Issued by the Quad nations (Australia, India, Japan, and the U.S.) on September 21, 2024. It focuses on sustainable energy solutions with an emphasis on high-efficiency cooling systems. â˘Montreal Protocol and Kigali Amendment: The Kigali Amendment, adopted in 2016, aims to phase down hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), potent greenhouse gases commonly used in refrigeration and air conditioning. Initiatives like the Kigali â˘Cooling Efficiency Program (K-CEP) provide technical support and capacity building for countries, particularly those in the developing world. â˘U.S.-India Partnership: India has committed to significant investments in solar and cooling infrastructure in the Indo-Pacific region. Joint plans include expanding manufacturing capacities for energy-efficient air conditioners and ceiling fans.
What were the key Commitments from COP28? â˘On Energy Transition Goals: Countries committed to double the global average annual rate of energy efficiency improvements by 2030. A goal was set to triple global renewable energy capacity to 11,000 GW by 2030. â˘On Global Stocktake (GST): The first GST assessed progress towards the Paris Agreement, emphasizing the need for significant reductions in fossil fuel consumption by 2050. ⢠On Loss and Damage Fund: An agreement was reached to establish a Loss and Damage Fund with initial contributions of about $800 million to support vulnerable nations affected by climate change. â˘On Methane Emissions Reduction: Countries committed to reducing global methane emissions by 30% from 2020 levels by 2030, with new regulations introduced by several nations. While no complete fossil fuels phase-out was agreed upon, discussions included calls for the gradual elimination of inefficient fossil fuel subsidies. â˘On Sustainable Agriculture Initiatives: Nearly 160 nations signed a declaration to integrate food systems into their Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs) by 2025. Around $12.8 billion was pledged to the Green Climate Fund to support developing nations in their climate efforts.
Significance of Global Collaborations for Clean Technologies
Accelerating Innovation: Countries can combine their scientific knowledge, leading to faster advancements in clean technologies.
Collaborative efforts can attract funding and resources, speeding up the development of critical solutions.
Addressing Global Challenges: Coordinated responses are essential for tackling climate change effectively, as seen with initiatives like the Global Cooling Pledge.
International partnerships help establish common standards, facilitating trade and effective implementation of technologies.
Economic Growth: Investing in clean technologies creates new industries and job opportunities, driving economic growth.
Supporting Developing Economies: Involving diverse stakeholders ensures that solutions are accessible and meet the needs of vulnerable populations and their capacity building.
What role do emerging markets play in the global cleantech landscape?
Growing Energy Demand: Emerging markets are expected to account for 90% of global energy demand growth by 2035, making them crucial for shaping future energy consumption.
Decarbonization Efforts: These markets contribute about 75% of global carbon emissions, highlighting the need for sustainable practices to achieve climate goals.
Innovation Hubs: Emerging economies are becoming centers for innovation in clean technologies, supported by initiatives that address barriers to investment.
Renewables now make up around 75% of new power generation in emerging markets, presenting significant investment potential for clean energy projects.
International Collaboration: Global cooperation is essential to help these markets transition to clean energy by aligning regulations and sharing best practices.
Transitioning to renewable energy can alleviate energy poverty, providing access to electricity and clean cooking solutions for underserved Nations.
What are the challenges and opportunities associated with financing clean technology initiatives?
1) Challenges:
High Cost of Capital: Clean energy projects in emerging markets often face financing costs that are significantly higher than in developed countries, sometimes up to seven times more expensive, which inflate risk premiums for investors.
Limited Access to Funds: Emerging economies account for two-thirds of the global population but receive only one-fifth of clean energy investments. This disparity creates a funding gap that hinders the transition to sustainable energy systems.
High Reliance on Public Financing: Many clean energy projects in developing countries rely heavily on public sources of finance. However, these sources are often insufficient to meet the growing investment needs, especially post-COVID-19, which has strained public finances further.
Regulatory and Policy Barriers: Uncertain regulatory environments and lengthy procedures for project approvals can deter investment. For example, subsidies favoring fossil fuels and restrictions on foreign investment further complicate financing efforts.
2) Opportunities:
Growing Demand for Clean Energy: The increasing global focus on sustainability and the urgent need to reduce carbon emissions create a favorable environment for investing in clean technologies. Emerging markets are positioned to lead this transition by leveraging their renewable resources.
Innovative Financing Models: Blended finance approaches, which combine public and private funding, can help mitigate risks and attract investment in clean technologies. Development Finance Institutions (DFIs) can play a crucial role by providing guarantees or risk capital.
Technological Advancements: Advances in clean technology are reducing costs and improving efficiency, making it easier to attract investment.
For example, technologies like solar PV and wind power are becoming more financially viable, encouraging investment from both domestic and international sources.
Carbon Markets: The establishment of domestic carbon markets provides new revenue streams for clean energy projects, enhancing their financial viability. This can attract both local and international investors looking for sustainable investment opportunities.
International Collaboration: Global partnerships can facilitate knowledge sharing and provide access to capital for clean technology initiatives.
For example, initiatives like the World Economic Forum‘s efforts to mobilize investment in emerging economies highlight the importance of collaborative approaches
Way Forward: While financing clean technology initiatives faces notable challenges, particularly in emerging markets. Addressing the barriers effectively could unlock substantial investments needed for a successful transition to clean energy systems globally. COP29 must build on the momentum of COP28 by expanding cooling commitments.
On the evening of November 8, 1895, Wilhelm Conrad RĂśntgen was conducting experiments in his laboratory at the University of WĂźrzburg in Germany when he made an unusual discovery.
Did you know the RĂśntgen’s discovery story of X-rays?
While experimenting with cathode rays in a glass vacuum tube, RĂśntgen noticed a fluorescent screen glowing at a distance, despite being too far to be affected by the rays he was studying.
Intrigued by this unexpected glow, he wondered if this mysterious ray could penetrate organic materials, so he experimented by photographing his wifeâs hand, capturing her bones and ring. This was the worldâs first recorded X-ray image of the human body.
RĂśntgen documented his findings in an article titled âOn a new kind of rays,â in 1895 which was published by introducing “X-rays” to the scientific community.
How did RĂśntgen’s discovery transform Medical practices and Diagnostics?
Revolution in Diagnostic Medicine: Physicians rapidly adopted X-rays, which allowed them to view the human body without surgery. This was transformative for diagnostics, especially in orthopedics and internal medicine.
Surgical Advancements: By February 1896, British physician Major John Hall-Edwards had successfully used X-rays to guide the surgery. Within months, armies began using X-ray technology to locate bullet wounds and diagnose fractures, marking the beginning of its use in trauma care.
What are the long-term implications of RĂśntgen’s discovery on Public health and Safety?
Development of Radiology: this discovery led to the birth of radiology, with subsequent advancements leading to CT, MRI, ultrasound, and other imaging technologies that are essential in modern medicine.
Radiation Safety and Awareness: Initially, x-rays were used liberally, even for non-medical purposes (such as in shoe stores to fit footwear), with little awareness of potential harm. It wasnât until early reports of radiation burns and later research in the early 20th century that the health risks of radiation exposure were acknowledged, prompting the development of safety protocols.
Ongoing Safety Protocols: Today, radiation safety is central to radiology practices. Equipment advancements and regulatory standards have minimized exposure risks, making x-rays safe for patients and medical personnel while ensuring their continued benefits.
Public Health and Preventive Care: The ability to detect diseases, fractures, and other internal injuries without invasive procedures has been crucial for preventive care, enabling early detection and treatment. This has significantly impacted patient survival rates and quality of care, solidifying diagnostic imaging as a pillar of modern public health.
Issues related to X-ray machines in Rural areas:
Limited X-ray Equipment: Rural Community Health Centres (CHCs) in India often need more X-ray machines, with only 68% of available units functioning, primarily due to high operational costs and shortages of technicians.
Maintenance and Operational Delays: Even when X-ray machines are present, many remain non-functional due to installation delays and insufficient maintenance, as imaging services are not prioritized in CHC guidelines.
Access and Specialist Shortages: Rural patients face long travel distances to access imaging services, further limited by a concentration of radiologists in urban areas, reducing timely access to diagnostic interpretation.
Way forward:Â
Strengthen Infrastructure and Access: Increase the availability and functionality of X-ray machines in rural areas by improving equipment maintenance, investing in portable and mobile X-ray units to bring diagnostic services directly to underserved populations.
For example, Teleradiology enables remote interpretation of images, improving access to diagnostic services.
Telemedicine and Remote Diagnostics: Expand telemedicine platforms like âXraySetuâ, enabling healthcare workers in rural areas to share X-ray images for remote analysis by radiologists, improving diagnostic capabilities without requiring patients to travel long distances.
Mains PYQ:
Q Appropriate local community level healthcare intervention is a prerequisite to achieve âHealth for Allâ in India. Explain. (UPSC IAS/2018)
In a 4:3 majority decision, the Supreme Court overturned its 1967 Azeez Basha ruling, which had denied Aligarh Muslim University (AMU) minority status, directing that AMUâs status be reassessed according to the principles outlined in the current judgment.
Constitutional Provisions and Historical Background of the case:
The Aligarh Muslim University (AMU) was founded in 1875 and incorporated by imperial law in 1920.
Article 30 of the Constitution empowers religious and linguistic minorities to establish and administer educational institutions – AMU had enjoyed minority status.
A 1951 amendment to that imperial law, the AMU Act, did away with compulsory religious instructions for Muslim students.
In India, compulsory religious instruction is prohibited in state-funded educational institutions under Article 28.
In S. Azeez Basha vs. Union of India (1967), the SC ruled that AMU could not be considered a minority institution, as it was established by a central act, categorizing it as a central university.
This ruling denied AMU the rights of minority institutions under Article 30 of the Indian Constitution.
In 1981, an amendment to the AMU Act attempted to restore AMU’s minority character, aiming to secure rights for it as a minority-administered institution.
The Allahabad High Court (2006) struck down the 1981 amendment, reinforcing the Supreme Courtâs earlier ruling and reasserting that AMU did not qualify as a minority institution.
What criteria will be used to assess AMU’s minority status?
The SC emphasized that an educational institution must be established by a minority community to qualify for minority status under Article 30(1) of the Indian Constitution.
This involves examining who initiated the idea of the institution and whether it was primarily intended to benefit that community.
Holistic Two-Fold Test: The Court introduced a two-fold test:
First Limb: Identify the “brain behind” the establishment, which includes reviewing correspondence and documentation that reflect the intentions of the founders.
Second Limb: Assess whether the administrative structure of the institution affirms its minority character and serves to protect and promote the interests of the minority community.
Broad Interpretation of “Established”: The ruling clarified that “established” should be interpreted broadly, meaning that an institution can still be considered a minority institution even if it is governed by a statutory body or has undergone changes in its legal status over time.
How does this ruling affect the legal precedent set by the 1967 Azeez Basha case?
The overruling of Azeez Basha: The SC’s decision effectively overruled its previous 1967 ruling, which had declared AMU as not being a minority institution because it was established through a government statute rather than directly by a minority community.
New Framework for Minority Status: This ruling marks a shift towards a more inclusive interpretation of what constitutes a minority institution, allowing for a reassessment of AMU’s status based on historical context and community intent rather than solely on formal legal definitions.
Legal Autonomy Reaffirmed: The judgment underscores that legislative recognition does not negate an institution’s minority character, challenging previous interpretations that linked statutory establishment with loss of minority status.
What are the implications of this ruling for Educational rights and Reservations?
Potential for Reservations: If AMU is recognized as a minority institution, it could reserve seats specifically for Muslim students in various programs without needing to adhere to general reservation policies applicable to Scheduled Castes (SC), Scheduled Tribes (ST), and Other Backward Classes (OBC) under Article 15(5) of the Constitution.
Autonomy in Administration: The ruling provides AMU greater autonomy in managing its affairs, including admissions and staff appointments, thereby allowing it to align its policies with the interests of the Muslim community it serves.
Broader Educational Rights: This decision reinforces the constitutional rights granted to minorities under Article 30(1), ensuring that they can establish and administer educational institutions without undue interference from state laws, thereby promoting educational diversity in India.
Way forward:Â
Define Minority Status Framework: Parliament could establish a clear legislative framework based on the Supreme Court’s criteria, ensuring consistent and streamlined recognition of minority institutions across India.
Balance Autonomy and Accountability: Policies should support minority institutionsâ autonomy while maintaining accountability to uphold educational standards, ensuring both community-focused goals and inclusive, high-quality education.
Mains PYQ:
Q Major cities of India are becoming vulnerable to flood conditions. Discuss. (UPSC IAS/2016)
The Karnataka Waqf Board has identified 17 monuments within the historic Bidar Fort as its own property.
These include the 16-Khamba Mosque (Sixteen Pillar Mosque) and 14 tombs of Bahmani rulers and their family members, including Ahmed Shah-IV, Allauddin, Hassan Khan, and others.
AboutBidar Fort:
It is situated in Bidar City on the northern plateau of Karnataka, India.
The fort’s history dates back over 500 years, beginning with the Western Chalukya dynasty.
Sultan Ahmed Shah Wali of the Bahmani dynasty made Bidar his capital in 1430 and renovated it into a strong citadel.
Architectural Features:
Constructed from trap rock with stone and mortar used for walls.
Notable for its Islamic and Persian architectural elements, including:
Seven main entrances
37 octagonal bastions equipped with metal-shielded cannons
Mosques, mahals, and over 30 Islamic monuments
The entrance gate features a lofty dome painted in bright colors.
About the Bahmani Kingdom
The Bahmani Kingdom was established in 1347 when Ala-ud-din Hassan Bahman Shan revolted against Muhammad Bin Tughlaq of the Delhi Sultanate.
This marked the creation of the first independent Islamic kingdom in South India.
The kingdom covered areas in present-day Karnataka, Maharashtra, and Andhra Pradesh.
Initially, the capital was set in Ahsanabad (Gulbarga) but was later moved to Bidar.
The Bahmani Kingdom had 14 sultans in total, with prominent rulers like Alauddin Bahman Shah, Muhammad Shah I, and Firoz Shah.
One of the kingdom’s notable statesmen, Mahmud Gawan, served as the Prime Minister for 23 years, from 1458 to 1481.
Under his guidance, the kingdom expanded its territories, including reclaiming Goa from the Vijayanagar Empire.
The Bahmani Kingdom began to decline around 1518 when Krishnadeva Raya of the Vijayanagar Empire defeated its last ruler, leading to the dissolution of the Bahmani rule in the region.
PYQ:
[2021] With reference to Indian history, which of the following statements is/are correct?â
1. The Nizamat of Arcot emerged out of Hyderabad State.â
2. The Mysore Kingdom emerged out of Vijayanangara Empire.â
3. Rohilkhand Kingdom was formed out of the territories occupied by Ahmad Shah Durrani.â
Select the correct answer using the code given below:
Philippine forces conducted combat exercises in the South China Sea to practice retaking the Loaita Island in the disputed waters.
About Loaita Island:
Loaita Island, also known as Kota Island, has an area of 6.45 hectares and is the 10th largest of the naturally-occurring Spratly Islands.
The island is administered by the Philippines as part of Kalayaan, Palawan, and is also claimed by China, Taiwan, and Vietnam.
Loaita Island fringes the Loaita Bank, which includes shoals and reefs, and its western side features calcarenite outcrops visible at low tide.
The island is covered with mangrove bushes, coconut palms, and other small trees.
On May 22, 1963, a sovereignty stele was rebuilt on Loaita Island by South Vietnam, marking its claim.
The Philippines has stationed soldiers on the island since 1968, and the island contains minimal structures serving as shelters for the soldiers.
China also reasserted its claim over Flashpoint Reef (the Scarborough Shoal) in the South China Sea following Philippinesâ establishment of defined sea boundaries.
About the Flashpoint ReefÂ
Flashpoint Reef generally refers to Scarborough Shoal (part of the
Spratly Islands), a contested reef in the South China Sea.
Known as Huangyan Dao in China, this reef has become a focal point of territorial disputes between China and the Philippines.
Flashpoint Reef lies close to the Philippinesâ Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ); which asserts control over the entire South China Sea under its nine-dash line claim.
China took control of the shoal in 2012 after a standoff with the Philippines, despite an international tribunal ruling in 2016 that invalidated Chinaâs claims.
Do you know?
Fiery Cross Reef is a rock located in the Spratly Islands. China first took possession of the feature in 1988.
Mischief Reef is a Low-Tide Elevation (LTE) within the Philippinesâ EEZ. It is part of the submerged continental shelf of the adjacent coastal state, which is the Philippines.
PYQ:
[2018] Consider the following pairs:
Regions sometimes Country mentioned in news
Catalonia â Spain
Crimea â Hungary
Mindanao â Philippines
Oromia â Nigeria
Which of the pairs given above are correctly matched?
