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  • International Space Agencies – Missions and Discoveries

    Circumstellar Discs: Insights into Planetary Formation

    Prelims Only | Science Tech | Mains Paper 3: Awareness in various sc and tech fields

    Introduction

    • The formation of planets within protostellar discs, swirling reservoirs of gas and dust, remains a captivating field in astrophysics.
    • Recent advancements in computer simulations have unveiled the unexpected flattened shapes of nascent gas planets within these discs, providing critical understanding of planetary genesis.

    What are Circumstellar Discs?

    • Protoplanetary Discs: These discs, comprised of dust, gas, and other celestial objects, orbit newly formed stars and serve as the birthplace of planets.
    • Composition and Evolution: Initially predominantly gas, protoplanetary discs evolve, hosting various materials including asteroids, comets, and planets.
    • Findings: Hubble Space Telescope offers detailed views of these regions, aiding astronomers in studying planet formation dynamics.

    Distinctive Shape of Protoplanets

    • Unique Structure: Protoplanets exhibit oblate spheroid shapes, highly flattened, resembling discs with up to 90% flattening.
    • Growth Dynamics: Gas accumulation primarily occurs through poles rather than equators, impacting observed properties and interpretation of observations.

    Formation Mechanisms

    • Core Accretion vs. Disc Instability: These two prominent theories offer models for planet formation, emphasizing diverse mechanisms contributing to planetary systems’ complexity.
    • Role of Disc Instability: This mechanism, explaining rapid gas giant formation, aligns with observations of certain exoplanetary systems, highlighting the interplay of formation processes.

    Challenges in Observation

    • Limited Detection: Observing nascent protoplanets within these discs poses challenges, with only a few detected to date, such as within the PDS 70 system.
    • Temporal Constraints: The short duration of planetary formation phases necessitates precise timing for observational opportunities.

    Insights from Simulations

    • Computational Studies: High-resolution simulations elucidate thermal conditions influencing gas protoplanet properties within the discs, offering invaluable insights into their formation.
    • Resolution and Analysis: These simulations, computationally demanding, trace protoplanet evolution from condensation to provide a deeper understanding.

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  • Artificial Intelligence (AI) Breakthrough

    Understanding Large Language Models (LLMs)

    Prelims Only | Science Tech | Mains Paper 3: Awareness in various sc and tech fields

    llm

    Introduction

    • The introduction of generative AI, like OpenAI’s ChatGPT, has sparked widespread discussions about artificial intelligence, allowing computers to learn, think, and communicate.
    • At the heart of this technology lies Large Language Models (LLMs), empowering computers to understand and generate human-like text.

    What is an LLM?

    • LLMs, according to Google, are large language models capable of solving common language problems through extensive training.
    • These models are trained on large datasets and can handle various language-related tasks across different areas.

    Key Features of LLMs

    • Large: LLMs are trained on vast amounts of data and have many parameters, which determine their abilities.
    • General Purpose: They can tackle a wide range of language tasks, regardless of specific topics or resource limitations.

    Types of LLMs

    • Architecture: LLMs come in different types, each suited for specific language tasks.
    • Training Data: They can be trained in various ways, including on specific topics or for multilingual understanding.
    • Size and Availability: LLMs differ in size and availability, with some being freely accessible and others proprietary.

    How LLMs Work?

    • LLMs use deep learning techniques, like artificial neural networks, to predict the next word or sequence based on previous inputs.
    • Similar to how a baby learns language through exposure, LLMs analyze patterns in data to make predictions.

    Applications of LLMs

    • LLMs are used for text generation, conversation, translation, and summarization, among other tasks.
    • They are vital for content creation, marketing, and virtual assistance.

    Advantages offered

    • Versatility: LLMs can handle various tasks due to their general language understanding.
    • Generalization: They can apply patterns learned from data to new problems, even with limited information.
    • Continuous Improvement: LLMs get better with more data and parameters, ensuring ongoing development.

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  • Gravitational Wave Observations

    Blanets: Worlds around Black Holes

    Prelims Only | Science Tech | Mains Paper 3: Awareness in various sc and tech fields

    blanet

    Introduction

    • In Christopher Nolan’s 2014 sci-fi masterpiece Interstellar, three planets (aside from Earth) captivate viewers with their extreme environments.
    • Surprisingly, these worlds, technically termed Blanets, may not be purely fictional and could exist in reality.

    What are Blanets?

    • Formation Theory: In 2019, Japanese scientists proposed a theory suggesting that planets could form within massive dust and gas clouds surrounding supermassive black holes.
    • Unique Characteristics: Blanets, unlike Earth, are not expected to resemble habitable worlds due to their formation near black holes.
    • Surrounding Environment: Black holes are encircled by colossal discs of gas and dust, influenced by the black hole’s gravitational pull and heating effects.
    • Galactic Presence: Nearly every galaxy is believed to harbor a supermassive black hole at its center, acting as a gravitational nucleus around which stars organize.

    Formation Process

    • Similar Mechanism: Planets near young stars form from the collision and aggregation of dust and gas particles in swirling disks. A comparable process could occur near supermassive black holes.
    • Blanet Characteristics: Blanets are anticipated to be approximately 3,000 times larger than Earth and must orbit the black hole at a distance of about 100 trillion km to avoid gravitational disruption during their formation.

    Implications and Speculations

    • Extreme Environments: Blanets represent worlds of extremes, vastly different from habitable planets like Earth.
    • Scientific Inquiry: The study of blanets offers insights into the dynamic interactions between black holes and their surrounding environments, pushing the boundaries of astrophysical understanding.

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  • Banking Sector Reforms

    RBI Directs NPCI to Assess Paytm’s TPAP Request

    Prelims Only | Economics | Mains Paper 3: Indian Economy

    Introduction

    Understanding TPAP

    • Role: TPAPs facilitate UPI-based transactions by providing compliant applications to end-users, ensuring adherence to security protocols and regulatory standards.
    • Infrastructure: They leverage NPCI’s UPI framework and collaborate with payment service providers (PSPs) and banks to enable seamless transactions.

    Implications of TPAP Approval

    • Operational Continuity: TPAP approval is vital for Paytm to sustain UPI-based transactions, ensuring uninterrupted service for customers.
    • Migration Process: If approved, Paytm’s ‘@paytm’ handles will transition seamlessly to designated banks to prevent service disruptions, with OCL prohibited from adding new users until successful migration.
    • Risk Mitigation: RBI mandates certification of multiple banks as PSPs to manage high-volume UPI transactions, minimizing risk and enhancing system resilience.

    Recent Developments

    • PPBL Closure: Following RBI’s directive to shut Paytm Payments Bank (PPBL) operations by March 15, 2024, Paytm’s existing TPAP registration for UPI transactions faces uncertainty.
    • RBI Intervention: In response to PPBL’s impending closure, RBI has tasked NPCI with evaluating OCL’s request to maintain TPAP status, crucial for Paytm’s UPI operations continuity.

    Current Landscape

    • Presently, 22 NPCI-approved third-party UPI apps, including Google Pay, PhonePe, and Whatsapp, facilitate peer-to-peer transactions via UPI IDs.
    • RBI’s directive underscores the regulatory focus on maintaining stability and security in India’s digital payments ecosystem.

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  • Artificial Intelligence (AI) Breakthrough

    Hanooman: The Indic AI model by BharatGPT

    Prelims Only | Science Tech | Mains Paper 3: Awareness in various sc and tech fields

    Introduction

    • The BharatGPT group, comprising IIT Bombay and the Department of Science and Technology, is set to launch its first ChatGPT-like service named Hanooman next month.

    Large Language Models (LLMs)

    • LLMs utilize deep learning methodologies to process extensive text data, enabling them to grasp linguistic nuances and semantic relationships.
    • These models are trained on vast datasets like Wikipedia and OpenWebText, allowing them to comprehend and generate natural language by discerning patterns and meanings from the provided text.

     About Hanooman

    • Multilingual Capability: Hanooman is a series of large language models (LLMs) proficient in 11 Indian languages initially, with plans to expand to over 20 languages, including Hindi, Tamil, and Marathi.
    • Functionality: Beyond a mere chatbot, Hanooman serves as a multimodal AI tool, capable of generating text, speech, videos, and more across various domains such as healthcare, governance, financial services, and education.
    • Customized Versions: One notable variant, VizzhyGPT, tailored for healthcare applications, showcases Hanooman’s versatility in fine-tuning AI models to specific sectors.
    • Scale: The size of these AI models ranges from 1.5 billion to an impressive 40 billion parameters, reflecting their robustness and complexity.

    Challenges and Considerations

    • Quality of Datasets: Concerns regarding the quality of datasets in Indian languages, emphasizing the prevalence of synthetic datasets derived from translations, may lead to inaccuracies or distortions.
    • Competition: Alongside BharatGPT, several startups like Sarvam and Krutrim, supported by prominent VC investors such as Lightspeed Venture Partners are developing AI models tailored for India, indicating a burgeoning ecosystem in this domain.

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  • Railway Reforms

    PM inaugurates Banihal-Sangaldan Railway Line

    Prelims Only | Economics | Mains Paper 3: Infrastructure: Energy, Ports, Roads, Airports, Railways Etc.

    Introduction

    • Prime Minister Narendra Modi inaugurated the Banihal-Sangaldan section, connecting Baramulla in North Kashmir to Udhampur in Jammu.
    • The inaugural also marked the flagging off of Jammu and Kashmir’s first electric train from Sangaldan to Srinagar and Baramulla.

    About Banihal-Sangaldan Railway Line

    • Route: Over 90% of the 48-km railway line between Banihal to Sangaldan passes through tunnels in the mountainous Ramban district, including the country’s longest 12.77-km tunnel (T-50), with 16 bridges.
    • Safety Measures: Three escape tunnels totaling 30.1 km ensure passenger safety during emergencies.

    Significance of the Railway Section

    • Alternative Travel Route: The railway provides an alternative route between Jammu and Kashmir when National Highway-44 is closed due to landslides.
    • Boost to Tourism and Economy: Opening up remote areas for tourism and economic activities, such as the nearby Gool Valley and hot water springs, previously inaccessible due to poor road connectivity.

    History of Railways in Jammu and Kashmir

    • British Era: The first railway line between Jammu and Sialkot was built in 1897.
    • Modernization: The extension of the railway network began in 1983 with the Jammu-Udhampur line, followed by the Udhampur-Srinagar-Baramulla Railwayline project approved in 1995.
    • Challenges and Innovations: Seismic activity and challenging terrain necessitated innovative approaches like the Himalayan Tunneling Method.

    Expansion of the Network

    • Ongoing Work: Completion of the Udhampur-Srinagar-Baramulla railway line, with 209 km out of 272 km commissioned.
    • Upcoming Milestone: Valley’s connection to the Indian railways network expected by May this year.
    • Remarkable Infrastructure: Notably, a 63 km stretch in Reasi district features the world’s highest single arch railway bridge over the Chenab riverbed.

    Benefits of the Railway Section

    • Reduced Travel Time: The train journey between Srinagar and Jammu is expected to be shortened to three to three-and-a-half hours.
    • Economic Impact: Facilitates transport of goods like apples, dry fruits, and handicrafts, boosting local economies.
    • Cargo Terminals: Four cargo terminals will be established between Banihal and Baramulla, streamlining logistics and trade.

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  • Roads, Highways, Cargo, Air-Cargo and Logistics infrastructure – Bharatmala, LEEP, SetuBharatam, etc.

    Sudarshan Setu: India’s Longest Cable-Stayed Bridge

    Prelims Only | Economics | Mains Paper 3: Infrastructure: Energy, Ports, Roads, Airports, Railways Etc.

    Introduction

    • Prime Minister inaugurated ‘Sudarshan Setu’, the country’s longest cable-stayed bridge, connecting Beyt Dwarka Island to mainland Okha in Gujarat’s Devbhumi Dwarka district.

    About Sudarshan Setu

    • Length: Sudarshan Setu spans 2.32 km, making it India’s longest cable-stayed bridge.
    • Location: Situated in the Gulf of Kutch, it links mainland Gujarat with Bet Dwarka island off the Okha coast in Devbhumi Dwarka.

    Technical Details

    • Cable-Stayed Design: The bridge is Gujarat’s longest cable-stayed bridge, featuring a total length of 4,772 meters. Unlike shorter cable-stayed bridges in the state, Sudarshan Setu’s 900-meter cable-stayed section sets it apart.
    • Purpose: Designed to provide all-weather road connectivity to Bet Dwarka, it serves as a crucial link for the island’s residents and visitors.
    • Navigation Section: Supported by 32 piers, the bridge features seven cable-stayed spans facilitating the movement of fishing boats to and from Dalda Bandar harbour.

    Significance of Bet Dwarka

    • Religious Hub: Bet Dwarka is renowned as a major pilgrimage and religious tourism destination, housing the revered Shree Dwarkadhish Mukhya Mandir and numerous Hindu temples.
    • Economic Activities: Fishing and tourism are the primary economic activities on the island, attracting thousands of pilgrims and tourists annually.

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  • Historical and Archaeological Findings in News

    Ancient Chalukyan Temples and Inscription Found

    Prelims Only | History | Mains Paper 1: Arts & Culture

    chalukya

    Introduction

    • Recent archaeological findings in Mudimanikyam village, Nalgonda district, unveiled two Badami Chalukya temples dating back 1,300-1,500 years and a label inscription from the 8th or 9th century AD.
    • These discoveries shed light on the rich historical heritage of the region.

    Ancient Mudimanikyam Temples

    • Dating: The two temples, constructed between 543 AD and 750 AD, exhibit the distinctive Kadamba Nagara style in the Rekha Nagara format, a rarity in Telangana.
    • Architectural Significance: Research emphasizes the importance of these temples as testimonies to the Badami Chalukya period. With minimal restoration, they can serve as valuable relics of ancient architecture in Telangana.
    • Comparison: Apart from the Badami Chalukya temples at Alampur, these temples stand out as exceptional examples of architectural prowess from that era.

    Details of Label Inscription

    • Discovery: The label inscription, found on a pillar of a group of five temples in the village, dates back to the 8th or 9th century AD.
    • Meaning: While the exact meaning of the inscription, ‘Gandaloranru,’ remains unclear, ASI suggests it may denote a heroic title, with ‘Ganda’ in Kannada meaning ‘hero.’
    • Historical Context: The presence of the inscription indicates the existence of five temples, known as Panchakuta, during the late Badami Chalukya period. However, these temples are no longer in use, with one missing the Shivalinga and another containing a Vishnu idol.

    Badami Chalukyas: Legacy and Achievements

    • Establishment: Pulakeshin I founded the Chalukya dynasty in 550, establishing Badami (Vatapi) in present-day Karnataka as the capital.
    • Extent of Empire: The Badami Chalukyas ruled over territories encompassing modern Karnataka and large parts of Andhra Pradesh.
    • Pulakesi II’s Reign:
      1. Notable Conquests: Pulakeshin II expanded the empire northwards, halting Harsha’s advance and defeating the Vishnukundins in the southeastern Deccan.
      2. Diplomatic Relations: His reign saw diplomatic exchanges with Chinese and Persian empires, highlighting the dynasty’s international stature.
    • Vikramaditya Dynasty: The dynasty experienced resurgence under Vikramaditya I, who expelled the Pallavas from Badami, and reached its zenith under Vikramaditya II, who conquered Kanchipuram from the Pallavas.
    • Decline and End: The Rashtrakuta Dantidurga dethroned the last Badami Chalukya king, Kirtivarman I, in 753, ending the dynasty’s rule.

    Cultural Feats

    • Art and Architecture: The era witnessed the emergence of Vesara architecture, blending South Indian and North Indian styles, epitomized by monuments like the rock-cut temples of Pattadakal, Badami, and Aihole.
    • Coinage: Unique Coinage: Chalukya coins bore legends in Nagari and Kannada scripts, featuring symbols like temples, lions, and lotuses.
    • Religious Patronage: Initially adherents of Vedic Hinduism, the Chalukyas later embraced Shaivism, fostering sects like Pashupata, Kapalikas, and Kalamukhas, while also promoting Jainism.

    Government and Administration:

    • Military Prowess: The Chalukya army, comprising infantry, cavalry, and a formidable navy, employed innovative strategies, including intoxicating elephants before battle.
    • Administrative Structure: The empire was divided into provinces, districts, and smaller administrative units, with feudal lords governing autonomous regions.

    Try this PYQ from CSP 2019:

    Q. Building ‘Kalyaana Mandapas’ was a notable feature in the temple construction I the kingdom of:

    a) Chalukya

    b) Chandela

    c) Rashtrakuta

    d) Vijayanagara

    Post your answers here.

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  • Modern Indian History-Events and Personalities

    200 Years of Kittur Uprising: Commemorating Rani Chennamma

    Explained | | Mains Paper 1: Modern Indian History

    kittur

    Introduction

    • In 1824, a fleet of 20,000 British soldiers attempted to invade the former princely state of Karnataka, positioning themselves at the foothills of the Kittur fort.
    • However, Rani Chennamma, the Queen of Kittur, led a valiant resistance, marking one of the earliest woman-led anti-colonial struggles in India.

    Kittur Uprising: Historical Context

    • Background: Rani Chennamma’s rebellion against the British East India Company in 1824 is celebrated as a significant event in Karnataka’s political history.
    • Revolt Catalyst: The Company’s refusal to recognize Shivalingappa, adopted as the successor of Kittur under the ‘doctrine of lapse’, triggered the conflict.
    • Military Confrontation: Rani Chennamma led the Kittur army in a fierce battle against the British forces, resulting in the death of British official John Thackery.

    Doctrine of Lapse

    • Introduced by Lord Dalhousie in 1848, the Doctrine of Lapse aimed at expanding British territories in India.
    • The policy was based on the principle that a princely state without a suitable heir should become part of the British Empire.
    • Applied to princely states where the ruler died without a natural or legally adopted male heir, enabling the British to annex those states.
    • The policy was seen as illegitimate by many Indian rulers and played a role in the Indian Rebellion of 1857.
    • Several states annexed due to this Doctrine, include Satara (1848), Jaitpur (1849), Sambalpur (1849), Udaipur (1850), Jhansi (1853), and Nagpur (1854).
    • Prior to the Doctrine of Lapse, princely states had a traditional practice of selecting an heir from a group of candidates known as bhajans.
    • The policy was abandoned in 1859, two years after the end of the Company Rule in India.

    Legacy of Rani Chennamma

    • Political Leadership: Rani Chennamma’s role as an astute administrator and seasoned stateswoman is highlighted in historical records.
    • Popular Perception: Despite her contributions, Rani Chennamma’s significance in national consciousness emerged later, as Karnataka became a state much later than other regions.
    • Historical Interpretation: Folklore and local traditions fondly remember Rani Chennamma’s bravery and resilience, portraying her as a protector and guardian in Kannada lavanis or folk songs.

    Post-Rebellion Period

    • Imprisonment and Death: Following the British capture of Kittur Fort in 1824, Rani Chennamma and her family were imprisoned. She passed away in captivity in 1829.
    • Historical Records: Historians emphasize Rani Chennamma’s commitment to serving her people, even during her imprisonment, as evidenced by her efforts to support her family and people.

    Commemoration and Contemporary Relevance

    • Naanoo Rani Chennamma Campaign: Social groups across India are organizing a national campaign on February 21, commemorating Rani Chennamma’s rebellion.
    • Campaign Objectives: The campaign aims to mobilize women against patriarchal, anti-democratic, and casteist forces, invoking Rani Chennamma’s memory as a symbol of resistance and empowerment.
    • Political Significance: The campaign underscores the need for gender equality, representation, and social justice, drawing inspiration from Rani Chennamma’s legacy of courage and leadership.

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  • ISRO Missions and Discoveries

    PAPA: Plasma Analyser Package for Aditya L1

    Prelims Only | Science Tech | Mains Paper 3: Awareness in various sc and tech fields

    papa

    Introduction

    • India’s pioneering solar mission, Aditya-L1, has achieved a significant milestone as advanced sensors onboard successfully detected the impact of coronal mass ejections (CMEs), marking a leap forward in space exploration.

     Coronal Mass Ejections (CMEs)

    • CMEs were discovered in 1971 and established their importance in solar-terrestrial relations later in the 1980s.
    • It consists of massive clouds of solar plasma and magnetic field lines.
    • It typically accompanies solar flares and filament eruptions.
    • The frequency of CMEs varies with the 11-year solar cycle, with about one a week observed during solar minimum and an average of two to three CMEs per day observed near solar maximum
    • They travel at thousands of km per hour.
    • They can lead to geomagnetic storms, aurorae, and in extreme cases, damage to electrical power grids.
    • They are primarily detected using coronagraphs aboard spacecraft such as SOHO and STEREO.
    • Not all CMEs interact with Earth, but those that do can cause disruptions to satellite communications and power grids.
    • Halo CMEs are Earth-directed CMEs visible as rings in white-light coronagraph observations.

    About Plasma Analyser Package for Aditya (PAPA)

    • Purpose: PAPA is an energy and mass analyser tailored for in-situ measurements of solar wind electrons and ions within the low energy range.
    • Sensor Composition: PAPA comprises two sensors—Solar Wind Electron Energy Probe (SWEEP) and Solar Wind Ion Composition Analyser (SWICAR)—facilitating comprehensive observations of solar phenomena.
    • Functionalities: Sensors not only measure electrons and ions’ energy but also ascertain their direction of arrival, enabling a holistic understanding of solar wind dynamics.

    CME Detection and Analysis

    • Observations: PAPA detected CME events, notably on December 15, 2023, and during February 10-11, 2024.
    • December 15, 2023: Single CME event marked by a sudden increase in electron and ion counts, aligning with solar wind parameters and magnetic field measurements.
    • February 10-11, 2024: Multiple minor CME events observed, showcasing nuanced variations in electron and ion counts over time.

    Performance Evaluation and Continuous Observations

    • PAPA sensors are currently operational in default mode, demonstrating adherence to design specifications across all operational modes.
    • Continuous observations underscore PAPA’s efficacy in monitoring space weather conditions and its adeptness in detecting and analyzing solar phenomena.

    Back2Basics: Aditya-L1

    • Launched successfully by ISRO on September 2.
    • Orbits around the Lagrangian Point 1 (L1), maintaining a stable position 1.5 million km from Earth in the direction of the Sun.
    • Hosts seven payloads dedicated to studying various aspects of the Sun, encompassing both remote observations and in-situ measurements.

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