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Climate Change Negotiations – UNFCCC, COP, Other Conventions and Protocols

Historic biodiversity deal gets the nod at COP15 summit in Canada

Prelims Only | Enviro & Biodiversity | Mains Paper 1: Important Geophysical Phenomena
Negotiators reached a historic deal at a UN Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) conference that would represent the most significant effort to protect the world’s lands and oceans and provide critical financing to save biodiversity in the developing world.

Key outcomes

[A] 30×30 Deal
- Delegates committed to protecting 30% of land and 30% of coastal and marine areas by 2030, fulfilling the deal’s highest-profile goal, known as 30-by-30.
- Currently, 17% of terrestrial and 10% of marine areas are protected.
- Indigenous and traditional territories will also count toward this goal, as many countries and campaigners pushed for during the talks.
- The deal also aspires to restore 30% of degraded lands and waters throughout the decade, up from an earlier aim of 20%.
- And the world will strive to prevent destroying intact landscapes and areas with a lot of species, bringing those losses “close to zero by 2030”.
[B] Money for nature
- Signatories aim to ensure $200 billion per year is channeled to conservation initiatives, from public and private sources.
- Wealthier countries should contribute at least $20 billion of this every year by 2025, and at least $30 billion a year by 2030.
- This appeared to be the Democratic Republic of Congo’s main source of objection to the package.
[C] Big companies report impacts on biodiversity
- Companies should analyse and report how their operations affect and are affected by biodiversity issues.
- The parties agreed to large companies and financial institutions being subject to “requirements” to make disclosures regarding their operations, supply chains and portfolios.
- This reporting is intended to progressively promote biodiversity, reduce the risks posed to business by the natural world, and encourage sustainable production.
[D] Harmful subsidies
- Countries committed to identify subsidies that deplete biodiversity by 2025, and then eliminate, phase out or reform them.
- They agreed to slash those incentives by at least $500 billion a year by 2030, and increase incentives that are positive for conservation.
[E] Pollution and pesticides
- One of the deal’s more controversial targets sought to reduce the use of pesticides by up to two-thirds.
- But the final language to emerge focuses on the risks associated with pesticides and highly hazardous chemicals instead, pledging to reduce those threats by “at least half”, and instead focusing on other forms of pest management.
- Overall, the Kunming-Montreal agreement will focus on reducing the negative impacts of pollution to levels that are not considered harmful to nature, but the text provides no quantifiable target here.
[F] Monitoring and reporting progress
- All the agreed aims will be supported by processes to monitor progress in the future, in a bid to prevent this agreement meeting the same fate as similar targets that were agreed in Aichi, Japan, in 2010, and never met.
- National action plans will be set and reviewed, following a similar format used for greenhouse gas emissions under U.N.-led efforts to curb climate change.
- Some observers objected to the lack of a deadline for countries to submit these plans.
Back2Basics: Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD)
- The CBD (wef 1993) known informally as the Biodiversity Convention, is a multilateral treaty.
- The convention has three main goals:
1. the conservation of biodiversity
2. the sustainable use of its components
3. the fair and equitable sharing of benefits arising from genetic resources
- Its objective is to develop national strategies for the conservation and sustainable use of biological diversity, and it is often seen as the key document regarding sustainable development.
- It has two supplementary agreements, the Cartagena Protocol and Nagoya Protocol.
(1) Cartagena Protocol
- It is an international treaty governing the movements of living modified organisms (LMOs) resulting from modern biotechnology from one country to another.
(2) Nagoya Protocol
- It deals with Access to Genetic Resources and the Fair and Equitable Sharing of Benefits Arising from their Utilization (ABS).
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Liquor Policy of States

In news: Bihar Hooch Tragedy and Alcohol Ban

| Governance | Mains Paper 2: Laws, Institutions & Bodies Constituted For The Vulnerable Sections
The official death toll from the latest hooch tragedy in “dry” Bihar has mounted to 38. Bihar has completely prohibited alcohol.

Alcohol Ban in India
- India has a long history of banning alcohol, with prohibition a part of the Directive Principles of State Policy in the Constitution and also among the key Gandhian principles.
- Gandhi wrote, “Alcohol makes a man forget himself and while its effects last, he becomes utterly incapable of doing anything useful. Those who take to drinking, ruin themselves and ruin their people.”
How the Indian constitution views alcohol?
- One of the DPSP mentions that “in particular, the State shall endeavour to bring about prohibition of the consumption except for medicinal purposes of intoxicating drinks and of drugs which are injurious to health.”
- While DPSPs are not in themselves legally enforceable, they set goals that the state should aspire towards to establish conditions under which citizens can lead a good life.
- According to the Seventh Schedule, alcohol is a state subject, i.e. state legislatures have the right and responsibility to draft laws regarding it.
- This includes “the production, manufacture, possession, transport, purchase and sale of intoxicating liquors.
- Thus, laws regarding alcohol differ from state to state, falling in the whole spectrum between prohibition and private sale.
Why do all states not have prohibition?

Ans. Huge Liquor Revenues
- While the Constitution sets prohibition on alcohol as a goal, for most states, it is very difficult to declare a ban on alcohol.
- This is primarily because liquor revenues are not easy to ignore and have consistently contributed a large share of state governments’ revenue.
- For instance, in Maharashtra, state liquor revenues amounted to Rs 11,000 crore in April 2020 (during the nationwide Covid lockdown), compared with Rs 17,000 crore in March.
- The state government attributed much of this drop to the closure of liquor stores, later categorising them as an essential service, in part due to the industry’s contribution to tax revenues.
- The day liquor stores were reopened, the Maharashtra government collected Rs 11 crore revenue from liquor sales in a single day.
States with complete ban
- All states have some regulations with regards to alcohol consumption and sale (like age requirements or dry days).
- Currently, there are five states with total prohibition and some more with partial prohibition:
(1) Bihar
- Both the sale and prohibition of liquor was completely banned by the Nitish Kumar government back in 2016, in keeping with a promise made to the women of Bihar ahead of the Assembly polls.
- Severe punishments were imposed on those found to be flouting the ban, including heavy fines and prison sentences.
- Earlier this year, the Bihar government passed an amendment to its prohibition laws, which dials down on punishment to first-time “drinkers” and lets them get away with a fine rather than face arrest.
- This was done to unclog Bihar’s already overcrowded jails and focus the government’s attention on sellers and distributors rather than consumers of liquor.
(2) Gujarat
- Gujarat has had prohibition since it came into existence as a state in 1960.
- In the 62 years since prohibition has been around in Gujarat, the Act has seen several amendments.
- Notably, in 2009, then CM introduced the death penalty for sellers/producers if their spurious alcohol caused deaths.
- However, Gujarat has provisions for special alcohol licences for hospitality establishments as well as individuals.
(3) Lakshadweep
- The Union Territory bans both the consumption and sale of alcohol keeping in mind the culture and sentiments of its predominantly Muslim population.
- However, the island of Bangram has a resort with a bar which is allowed to legally serve liquor.
(4) Mizoram
- In 2019, Mizoram became a “dry state” once again after the new government reintroduced prohibition that was repealed in 2015.
- Previously, Mizoram had seen prohibition for 18 years.
- The Mizo National Front (MNF) government had prohibition as one of its most important pre-poll promises.
- Here, the loss of revenue is much less than the loss of human life and suffering. Larger societal benefit is considered more vital.
- Only military personnel and those with “medical needs” are allowed to consume alcohol.
(5) Nagaland
- Nagaland introduced total prohibition in 1989 due to “moral and social” reasons, for the greater good of its citizens.
- However, in recent times, the Naga government has mulled partially lifting prohibition due to various reasons.
Partial prohibitions in some states
- Some states with partial prohibition are Karnataka, which specifically banned country-made arrack in 2007.
- In Maharashtra, the districts of Wardha and Gadhricholi have banned on production and sale of liquor.
- In Manipur, districts of Bishnupur, Imphal East, Imphal West and Thoubal have prohibition.
- In 2014, then CM Oomen Chandy announced that Kerala would implement prohibition in a phased manner.
- However, the state has since gone back on this promise.
Reason behind Bihar tragedy: Alcohol Ban
- Critics have claimed that one of the reasons behind the tragedy is the state’s prohibition policy.
- An official ban on alcohol leads to a thriving underground economy where such spurious alcohol is produced and sold.
Does prohibition really work?
- Creates no deterrence: There is evidence to show that, prohibition creates opportunities for a thriving underground economy that distributes liquor, outside the regulatory framework of the state.
- Rise of mafias: This creates its own problems, from strengthening organized crime groups (or mafias) to the distribution of spurious liquor.
- No evidence of progress: In the case of Bihar, a year after prohibition was enforced, there was a spike in substance abuse.
- Anti-poor: In the case of Bihar, a majority of cases registered under its prohibition laws are on the less privileged.
Limited benefits
- Prevented crime against women: Various studies have provided evidence linking alcohol with domestic abuse or domestic violence. In India, prohibition has often been framed as a “women’s rights” issue.
- Prevented domestic violence: Prohibition might have some limited benefits as well. Various studies have provided evidence linking alcohol with domestic abuse or domestic violence.
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Modern Indian History-Events and Personalities

In news: Goa Liberation Day

Prelims Only | | Mains Paper 1: Modern Indian History
The President of India tweeted her greetings to the nation on December 19, marking Goa Liberation Day, which is celebrated annually to mark the success of ‘Operation Vijay’ undertaken by the Indian armed forces to defeat Portuguese colonial forces and liberate Goa in 1961.

What is the news?
- Goa was liberated 15 years after India attained freedom.
- Last year PM Modi accused Nehru as guilty of leaving satyagrahis in the dismay, refusing to send the Indian Army to liberate Goa, even after 25 of them were shot dead by the Portuguese Army.
Goa’s Colonization: A backgrounder
- Goa became a Portuguese colony in 1510, when Admiral Afonso de Albuquerque defeated the forces of the sultan of Bjiapur, Yusuf Adil Shah.
- The next four and a half centuries saw one of Asia’s longest colonial encounters — Goa found itself at the intersection of competing regional and global powers.
- It received a religious and cultural ferment that lead eventually to the germination of a distinct Goan identity that continues to be a source of contestation even today.
- By the turn of the twentieth century, Goa had started to witness an upsurge of nationalist sentiment opposed to Portugal’s colonial rule, in sync with the anti-British nationalist movement.
Beginning of freedom movement
- Tristao de Braganza Cunha, celebrated as the father of Goan nationalism, founded the Goa National Congress at the Calcutta session of the Indian National Congress in 1928.
- In 1946, the socialist leader Ram Manohar Lohia led a historic rally in Goa that gave a call for civil liberties and freedom, and eventual integration with India.
- This event became a watershed moment in Goa’s freedom struggle.
- At the same time, there was a thinking that civil liberties could not be won by peaceful methods, and a more aggressive armed struggle was needed.
- This was the view of the Azad Gomantak Dal (AGD), whose co-founder Prabhakar Sinari is one of the few freedom fighters still living today.
- Finally, Goa was liberated on December 19, 1961 by swift Indian military action that lasted less than two days.
Recognition of Goa
- The Supreme Court of India recognized the validity of the annexation and rejected the continued applicability of the law of occupation.
- In a treaty with retroactive effect, Portugal recognized Indian sovereignty in 1974.
- Under the jus cogens rule, forceful annexations including the annexation of Goa are held as illegal since they have taken place after the UN Charter came into force.
Why was Goa left un-colonized?

As India moved towards independence, however, it became clear that Goa would not be free any time soon, because of a variety of complex factors.
- No immediate war: Then PM Nehru felt that if he launched a military operation (like in Hyderabad) to oust the colonial rulers, his image as a global leader of peace would be impacted.
- Trauma of Partition: The trauma of Partition and the massive rupture that followed, coupled with the war with Pakistan, kept the Government of India from opening another front.
- Internationalization of the issue: This might have led the international community to get involved.
- No demand from within: It was Gandhi’s opinion that a lot of groundwork was still needed to raise the consciousness of the people, and the diverse political voices emerging within be brought under a common umbrella.
Nehruvian dilemma
- India’s global image: Nehru was headed in shaping India’s position in the comity of nations.
- Trying peaceful options: He was trying to exhaust all options available to him given the circumstances that India was emerging from.
- Portuguese obsession: Portugal had changed its constitution in 1951 to claim Goa not as a colonial possession, but as an overseas province.
- Portugal in NATO: The move was apparently aimed at making Goa a part of the newly formed North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO) military alliance. Hence the collective security clause of the treaty would be triggered.
- Weak indigenous push: Nehru saw it prudent to pursue bilateral diplomatic measures with Portugal to negotiate a peaceful transfer while, at the same time, a more ‘overt’ indigenous push for liberation.
Why did Nehru wait until December 1961 to launch a full-scale military offensive?

India could no longer be seen to delay the liberation of Goa because:
- Portuguese offensive against Satyagrahis: The firing incident also provoked a sharp response from the Government of India, which snapped diplomatic and consular ties with Portugal in 1955.
- India as torchbearer of de-colonization: India got itself firmly established as a leader of the Non Aligned World and Afro-Asian Unity, with decolonization and anti-imperialism as the pillars of its policy.
- Criticisms from African nations: An Indian Council of Africa seminar on Portuguese colonies organized in 1961 heard strong views from African as this was hampering their own struggles against the ruthless regime.
- Weakening Colonialism: The delegates were certain that the Portuguese empire would collapse the day Goa was liberated.
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UK’s Rwanda asylum seeker deportation plan is lawful, court rules

Prelims Only | International Relations | Mains Paper 2: Effect Of Policies & Politics Of World On India’S Interests
Britain’s plan to send migrants to Rwanda is lawful, London’s High Court ruled, in a victory for PM Rishi Sunak who has made a high-stakes political promise to tackle the record number of migrant arrivals.

Immigrant’s crisis in UK
- Since 2018, there has been a marked rise in the number of refugees and asylum seekers that undertake dangerous crossings between Calais in France and Dover in England.
- Most such migrants and asylum seekers hail from war-torn countries like Sudan, Afghanistan, and Yemen, or developing countries like Iran and Iraq.
- The Britain that has adopted a hardline stance on illegal immigration, these crossings constitute an immigration crisis.
- The Nationality and Borders Bill, 2021, which is still under consideration in the UK, allows the British government to strip anyone’s citizenship without notice under “exceptional circumstances”.
- The Rwanda deal is the operationalization of one objective in the Bill which is to deter illegal entry into the United Kingdom.
What is the Rwanda Deal?
- The UK and Rwanda Migration and Economic Development Partnership or the Rwanda Deal is a Memorandum of Understanding (MoU) signed between the two governments.
- Under this deal, Rwanda will commit to taking in asylum seekers who arrive in the UK on or after January 1, 2022, using illegally facilitated and unlawful cross border migration.
- Rwanda will function as the holding centre where asylum applicants will wait while the Rwandan government makes decisions about their asylum and resettlement petitions in Rwanda.
- Rwanda will, on its part, accommodate anyone who is not a minor and does not have a criminal record.
Rationale of the deal
- The deal aims to combat “people smugglers”, who often charge exorbitant prices from vulnerable migrants to put them on unseaworthy boats from France to England that often lead to mass drownings.
- The UK contends that this solution to the migrant issue is humane and meant to target the gangs that run these illegal crossings.
What will the scheme cost the UK?
- The UK will pay Rwanda £120 million as part of an “economic transformation and integration fund” and will also bear the operational costs along with an, as yet undetermined, amount for each migrant.
- Currently, the UK pays £4.7 million per day to accommodate approximately 25,000 asylum seekers.
- At the end of 2021, this amounted to £430 million annually with a projected increase of £100 million in 2022.
- The Rwanda Deal is predicted to reduce these costs by outsourcing the hosting of such migrants to a third country.
Will the Rwanda Deal solve the problem of illegal immigration?
- This deal will be implemented in a matter of weeks unless it is challenged and stayed by British courts.
- While Boris Johnson’s government is undoubtedly bracing for such legal challenges, it remains unclear if the Rwanda Deal will solve the problem of unlawful crossings.
- Evidence from similar experiences indicates that such policies do not fully combat “people smuggling”.
Criticisms of the deal
- There are dangers of transferring refugees and asylum seekers to third countries without sufficient safeguards.
- The refugees are traded like commodities and transferred abroad for processing.
- Such arrangements simply shift asylum responsibilities, evade international obligations, and are contrary to the letter and spirit of the Refugee Convention.
- Rwanda also has a known track record of extrajudicial killings, suspicious deaths in custody, unlawful or arbitrary detention, torture, and abusive prosecutions, particularly targeting critics and dissidents.
Do any other countries send asylum seekers overseas?
- Yes, several other countries — including Australia, Israel and Denmark — have been sending asylum seekers overseas.
- Australia has been making full use of offshore detention centres since 2001.
- Israel, too, chose to deal with a growing influx of asylum seekers and illegal immigrants from places like Sudan and Eritrea by striking deals with third countries.
- Those rejected for asylum were given the choice of returning to their home country or accepting $3,500 and a plane ticket to one of the third countries.
- They faced the threat of arrest if they chose to remain in Israel.
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Indian Ocean Power Competition

The Small Island Developing States (SIDS) in IOR

op-ed snap | International Relations | Mains Paper 2: Bilateral, Regional and Global Groupings and agreements involving India
Context
- The Indian Ocean Region (IOR) serves as a connecting hub for global energy and commodity trade and comprises important Sea Lanes of Communication (SLOC) and major choke points. The IOR has become central to the geostrategic aspirations of large powers with vested interests in the region. Small Island Developing States (SIDS) located in the Western Indian Ocean such as Maldives, Madagascar, Comoros, Mauritius, and Seychelles, are being dragged into the great power rivalry as a result.
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Small Island Developing States (SIDS)
- Small Island Developing States (SIDS) are a distinct group of 38 UN Member States and 20 Non-UN Members/Associate Members of United Nations regional commissions that face unique social, economic and environmental vulnerabilities.
- The three geographical regions in which SIDS are located are: the Caribbean, the Pacific, and the Atlantic, Indian Ocean and South China Sea (AIS)
- SIDS were recognized as a special case both for their environment and development at the 1992 United Nations Conference on Environment and Development held in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil.
Significance of Small Island Developing States (SIDS) of IOR
- SIDS are strategically important: The geographical location of SIDS islands is of strategic importance, ever since the Indo-Pacific architecture materialised.
- Provides easy access and a base for replenishment: The islands provide easy access to the choke points, are located close to important SLOCs, and can serve as a base for the replenishment of resources for maritime powers conducting surveillance in the region.
- Engagements boosts maritime expanse: The bigger powers have been engaging with the islands on a larger scale to boost their presence in this maritime expanse.
Challenges faced by SIDS
- Multiple challenges: The SIDS, by nature, face multiple challenges due to their remote locations, size, fragile ecosystems, small population, and limited resources and capabilities. Most of the SIDS are classified as middle-income states, but SIDS like Comoros are among the Least Developed Countries (LDCs).
- Economies are not diversified: The economies of these states are not diversified and are highly dependent on a few sectors like tourism and fisheries.
- Climate change and losses due to natural disasters: Climate change exacerbates their challenges, adding an extra burden on their frail economies. The SIDS account for two-thirds of states that suffer the highest relative losses (1 percent to 9 percent of GDP per year) due to natural disasters.
- Rising sea levels and impact on various economic sectors: Apart from the threat of the low-lying islands going underwater in the future, rising sea levels directly impact the economic sectors of the SIDS. For instance, saltwater intrusion affects freshwater resources and diminishes the quality of agricultural land.
- Largely dependent on food imports: The SIDS are already largely dependent on food imports as 50 percent of the SIDS import more than 80 percent of their food. A further reduction in food production will increase their dependence on food imports. Self-sufficiency is a distant dream for SIDS in this aspect.
- Fishery industry a major contributor of economy facing challenges of loss of EEZ: Fish exports account for a large share of the revenue for these states. The fishery industry faces challenges of loss of Exclusive Economic Zones due to shifting baselines, and Illegal, Unreported and Unregulated (IUU) fishing.
- Rising sea temperature: Additionally, rising sea temperatures also negatively affect marine biomass in the resource-rich zones of SIDS.
- Tourism industry hampered by Pandemic: Almost 50 percent of the GDP of SIDS like the Maldives and Seychelles, depends on the tourism industry which was hampered by the pandemic. T
Powerplay and China’s maritime development strategy in SIDS of IOR
- Concerns about increasing influence China: Powers such as the US, Japan, Australia, and India are largely concerned with the increasing influence of China in the region.
- China’s island development strategy: Islands play a major role in China’s maritime security policy, as is evident by its island development strategies in the contested South China Sea and cooperation initiatives with island states in various geographies.
- Vulnerable SIDS welcomed Support initiatives from China: The SIDS have welcomed the development and support initiatives from China owing to their vulnerabilities. From a port development project in Madagascar and major infrastructure development projects in the Comoros islands to a Free Trade Agreement with Mauritius and development assistance to Maldives; China has firmly embedded its roots in the region.
- Maldives in debt trap seeks India’s assistance: When Maldives owed a debt of nearly US$1.5 billion to China in 2018, it had to turn to its traditional partner, India, for assistance to prevent an economic crisis.
- Madagascar worries about Chinese debt trap: Madagascar is also heavily surrounded by Chinese presence and involvement in its economy and is worried about being trapped in debt. Chinese-funded enterprises comprise 90 percent of the island’s economy. Chinese migrants left very few job opportunities for the locals, disrupted trade and commerce, and established a monopoly of Chinese products in the market. Such a heavy involvement of China in Madagascar puts it at a high risk of instability and political upheaval. This is a clear example of how the strategic interests of large powers can bring the SIDS to the brink of collapse.
Opportunity to discuss and maintain stability through various forums
- SAMOA pathway: SIDS Accelerated Modalities of Action (SAMOA) Pathway which is an international framework under the UN umbrella that has initiated a stronger action from the international community to support the vulnerable islands. It guides national, regional, and international development efforts to help these states achieve their Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs).
- Alliance of small Island states: Similarly, the Alliance of Small Island States is a representative body of 39 small island states that provides a platform to voice their grievances.
- Indian ocean commission: The Indian Ocean Commission is yet another intergovernmental body that consists of the islands; Comoros, Madagascar, Mauritius, Seychelles and Réunion (French overseas region).
What SIDS must do?
- The SIDS of IOR must strengthen their collaboration with each other.
- They must make a collective effort to make their challenges and issues known to the other actors.
- The SIDS should make use of the opportunity to ensure that the larger powers understand their security interests and include it in the larger security architecture
Way ahead
- In most cases, decisions regarding security in the region have been taken by the influential, and larger powers without the SIDS.
- The SIDS of the IOR can leverage their strategic position and use it to their advantage to make the larger powers acknowledge their security interests and issues.
- The need of the hour is for stronger alliances and regional groupings to emerge, with significant participation of the SIDS, so that other actors do not downplay or overlook their issues and interests.
Conclusion
- The SIDS have been advocating at various international forums for support and assistance to combat their challenges associated with resources, development, climate change, and most of all, survival. Rather than being viewed as pawns in the geopolitical competition, the SIDS must be viewed as important stakeholders in the region. This is the main change in the mindset, policies and approaches that are needed for secure and stable region.
Mains Question

Q. What is SIDS (Small Island Developing States). What is the significance of SIDS in IOR? Discuss the challenges faced by SIDS in the region and suggest a way ahead.

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Human Rights Issues

Personal freedom and the panel on Intercaste/Interfaith Marriages

op-ed snap | Governance | Mains Paper 2: Governance, Transparency & Accountability, Citizens Charters
Context
- Following a report in this newspaper, the Maharashtra government has decided to limit the mandate of the recently constituted Intercaste/Interfaith Marriage-Family Coordination Committee (state level) to gathering information on interfaith marriages.
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Intercaste/Interfaith Marriage-Family Coordination Committee
- Work under Women and child development: The renamed Interfaith Marriage-Family Coordination Committee will be under the state Women and Child Development Ministry.
- Will Track frauds: The committee besides providing support and rehabilitation, when necessary, ostensibly track fraud committed in the name of love jihad.
- Development come after walker case: The development came after the Shraddha Walkar case came to light in November. Walkar, 26, was murdered by her live-in partner Aaftab Poonawalla in May, 2022
- Other states with anti-conversion legislation: With states such as Uttar Pradesh and Uttarakhand already having brought in anti-conversion legislation.
What is love jihad?
- “Love jihad” is a term often used by activists to allege a ploy by Muslim men to lure Hindu women into religious conversion through marriage.
How the initiative will work?
- Will collect and keep details of interfaith marriages and ensure communication: This initiative will provide a platform for the women in intercaste/interfaith marriages and their families to access counselling, and communicate or resolve issues.
- Committee will hold regular meetings: The committee has been assigned to hold meetings with district officials, and review work on seven parameters, including, gathering information about interfaith or inter-caste marriages from stamp duty and registrar offices, and collect information on such registered or unregistered marriages, among others.
What are the concerns raised?
- Control over the lives of individual citizens: Such vigilance remains yet another indication of the State’s disproportionately burgeoning and utterly unacceptable interest in, and demand for, control over the lives of individual citizens.
- Denial of women’s own choice: It is not just violative of one’s rights of freedom and equality, it also reeks of misogyny in its steadfast denial of a woman’s choice of partner as her own free will and not an act of coercion.
- Committee can be armed: There is the IPC for all genuine complaints so the committee could be weaponised.
- It will limit the freedoms of men and women: In every aspect, monitoring of a citizen’s life for her own supposed benefit is a cautionary tale, a limitation of the freedoms of men and women, designed to deter them from leading fuller, freer lives.
Basics: Right to Marriage
- Comes under Right to life: The right to marry is a part of the right to life under Article 21 of the Indian Constitution.
- As an integral part of Right to Life: Various courts across the country have also interpreted the right to marry as an integral part of the right to life under Article 21.
- Stated under Human rights Charter: The right to marriage is also stated under Human Rights Charter within the meaning of the right to start a family.
- Universal right: The right to marry is a universal right and it is available to everyone irrespective of their gender.
- Forced marriage is illegal: A forced marriage is illegal in different personal laws on marriage in India, with the right to marry recognized under the Hindu laws as well as Muslim laws.
How is religious freedom protected under the Constitution?
- Article 25(1) of the Constitution guarantees the “freedom of conscience and the right freely to profess, practise and propagate religion”.
- It is a right that guarantees a negative liberty which means that the state shall ensure that there is no interference or obstacle to exercise this freedom.
- However, like all fundamental rights, the state can restrict the right for grounds of public order, decency, morality, health and other state interests.
Conclusion
- The marriage between politics and communalism is not a new phenomenon but to try to inhibit that idea of openness and possibility by casting communal aspersions on personal choice might be a travesty. There needs an innovative and inclusive approach to address the issues arise out of interfaith marriages.
Mains question

Q. Recently the Maharashtra government has set up a panel named “Intercaste/Interfaith marriage-family coordination committee (state level)” to gather information about couples in such marriages. Discuss the utility and concerns of such initiative?

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Women empowerment issues – Jobs,Reservation and education

Private Member’s Bill for women’s reservation

op-ed snap | Polity | Mains Paper 2: Parliament & State Legislatures
Context
- As strong advocates of more representation of women in politics, looking at the number of women elected in the Gujarat and Himachal Pradesh assemblies has been saddening. With just 14.9 per cent women elected to our Lok Sabha, India ranks 144 out of 193 countries in the representation of women in parliament according to Inter-Parliamentary Union’s latest report. Among our immediate neighbours, India falls behind Bangladesh, Pakistan, and Nepal.
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Background: Recent elections and women’s participation
- Gujrat: Gujarat elected just 8 per cent of women legislators in its 182-member assembly.
- Himachal Pradesh: Himachal Pradesh, where every second voter is a female, has elected 67 men and only one woman.
- National Average: The national average of women in all state assemblies remains around 8 per cent. The figure is grim
- Representation of women in local governments increased: After the 73rd and 74th Constitutional Amendments, the representation of women in local governments increased from a mere 3-4 per cent to nearly 50 per cent now.
History of Women’s Reservation Bill
- First introduced in 1996 but lapsed with the dissolution of Lok Sabha: The Women’s Reservation Bill was first introduced in 1996 by the Deve Gowda government. After the Bill failed to get approval in Lok Sabha, it was referred to a Joint Parliamentary Committee chaired by Geeta Mukherjee, which presented its report in December 1996. However, the Bill lapsed with the dissolution of the Lok Sabha and had to be reintroduced.
- Bill reintroduced in 1998 but failed and lapsed: PM Vajpayee’s NDA government reintroduced the Bill in the 12th Lok Sabha in 1998. Yet again, it failed to get support and lapsed. In 1999, the NDA government reintroduced it in the 13th Lok Sabha.
- One-third reservations for women: Subsequently, the Bill was introduced twice in Parliament in 2003. In 2004, the government included it in the Common Minimum Programme that said that the government will take the lead to introduce legislation for one-third reservations for women in Vidhan Sabhas and in the Lok Sabha.
- The bill introduced and passed in Rajya Sabha: In 2008, the government tabled the Bill in the Rajya Sabha so that it does not lapse again. The Parliamentary Standing Committee on Law and Justice recommended the passage of the Bill in December 2009. It was cleared by the Union Cabinet in February 2010. On March 9, 2010, the Bill was passed in the Rajya Sabha with 186-1 votes after immense debate. History was created.
- Lapsed again in 2014: The Bill, then, reached the Lok Sabha where it never saw the light of day. When the House was dissolved in 2014, it lapsed. Now we are back to square one.
- Renewed push: In the current Winter Session of Parliament, there is a renewed push from most Opposition parties to pass the Women’s Reservation Bill.
The case study: Political parties and Women representation
- Political parties that reserved seats for women for election candidature: So far only two regional political parties in India, Odisha’s Biju Janata Dal (BJD) and West Bengal’s Trinamool Congress (TMC) have reserved seats for women for election candidatures.
- Candidature and results of 2019 general elections: TMC and BJD fielded 40 per cent and 33 per cent women candidates respectively. Interestingly, 65 per cent of the TMC’s women candidates won in comparison to 44 per cent of their men, whereas 86 per cent of the BJD’s women candidates won in comparison to 43 per cent of their men.
Private Member’s Bill for women’s reservation in all legislative bodies
- Acknowledging the inequality and barriers: Women have historically suffered due to systemic inequality and barriers. Without a gender quota, women’s representation will continue to remain marginal causing a massive deficit in our democracy.
- Reserved seats for women: Understanding this reality, there is a need to introduce a Private Member’s Bill demanding women’s reservation in all legislative bodies Lower and Upper Houses, and also reserved seats within that for women who come from historically marginalised communities.
- Ensuring greater representation: It is a single step that will, if passed, immediately ensure at least 33 per cent representation of women.
What is Private Member’s Bill?
- Piloted by member other than minister: A private member’s Bill is different from a government Bill and is piloted by Member of Parliament (MP) who is not a minister. A Member of Parliament who is not a minister is a private member.
- To draw governments attention: Individual MPs may introduce private member’s Bill to draw the government’s attention to what they might see as issues requiring legislative intervention.
Way ahead
- The case for women’s reservation emanates from their lack of representation in legislative bodies. We cannot rely on incremental changes.
- We cannot let another generation fight for what is fundamental to participating in a democracy the right to be heard and make decisions.
- Women’s reservation will jump-start the democratic process. It will allow a significant majority to have a say in how their lives must be governed.
- Over the years, though, women’s vote share has increased significantly, but the number of women in positions of power has not.
Conclusion
- Victor Hugo famously said, “No force on earth can stop an idea whose time has come”. Women’s reservation in legislatures is one idea which has been discussed, debated, and agreed upon by most political parties. It is now time to take it to fruition. With its massive women population, India has a huge reservoir of potential which, if unleashed, will take the country much ahead.
Main Question

Q. Women reservation bill has introduced and lapsed no of times. In this context discuss why it is necessary to have reserved seats for women in all legislative bodies?

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Judicial Pendency

What is Vacation Bench of Supreme Court?

| Polity | Mains Paper 2: Executive & Judiciary
Chief Justice of India D. Y. Chandrachud said no Vacation Benches will be available in the apex court during the winter break.

Vacation Bench
- A Vacation Bench of the Supreme Court is a special bench constituted by the Chief Justice of India.
- The court takes two long vacations each year, the summer and winter breaks, but is technically not fully closed during these periods.
- Litigants can still approach the Supreme Court and, if the court decides that the plea is an “urgent matter”, the Vacation Bench hears the case on its merits.
- While there is no specific definition as to what an “urgent matter” is.
- During vacations the court generally admits writs related to habeas corpus, certiorari, prohibition and quo warranto matters for enforcement of any fundamental right.
Do you know?

The Supreme Court has 193 working days a year for its judicial functioning, while the High Courts function for approximately 210 days, and trial courts for 245 days. High Courts have the power to structure their calendars according to the service rules.

Legal Provisions for Vacation Bench
- Under Rule 6 of Order II of The Supreme Court rules, 2013 the CJI has nominates the Division Benches for the hearing of urgent miscellaneous matters and regular hearing matters during the summer vacation for period.
- The rule reads that CJI may appoint one or more Judges to hear during summer vacation or winter holidays all matters of an urgent nature which under these rules may be heard by a Judge sitting singly.
- And, whenever necessary, he may likewise appoint a Division Court for the hearing of urgent cases during the vacation which require to be heard by a Bench of Judges.
Which else can appoint vacation bench?
- The High Courts and trial courts too have Vacation Benches to hear urgent matters under their jurisdiction.
Has vacation benches made any historic judgments?
- Vacation Benches of the Supreme Court have also authored historical decisions.
- One of the best known is when a Vacation Bench Judge in June 1975, refused PM Indira Gandhi’s plea to stay an Allahabad High Court decision setting aside her election – a decision which triggered the Emergency.
- A Constitution Bench of the court had heard the triple talaq case during vacation days.
Issues with court vacations
- Huge pendency: Extended frequent vacations is not good optics, especially in the light of mounting pendency of cases and the snail’s pace of judicial proceedings.
- Creating further delays: For an ordinary litigant, the vacation means further unavoidable delays in listing cases.
Arguments in favour
- Rejuvenation of judges: Lawyers have often argued that in a profession that demands intellectual rigour and long working hours — both from lawyers and judges — vacations are much needed for rejuvenation.
- Long working hours: Judges typically work for over 10 hours on a daily basis. Apart from the day’s work in court from 10.30 am to 4 pm, they also spend a few hours preparing for the next day.
- Preparing for judgments: A frequently-made argument is that judges utilise the vacation to write judgments.
- Courts not in session: Another argument is that judges do not take leave of absence like other working professionals when the court is in session.
- Socialization: Family tragedies, health are rare exceptions, but judges rarely take the day off for social engagements.
- No impact on pendency: Data show that the Supreme Court roughly disposes of the same number of cases as are instituted before it in a calendar year.
Reforming the vacation clause
- In 2000, the Justice Malimath Committee, set up to recommend reforms in the criminal justice system, suggested that the period of vacation should be reduced by 21 days.
- It suggested that the Supreme Court work for 206 days, and High Courts for 231 days every year.
- In its 230th report, the Law Commission of India headed by Justice A R Lakshmanan in 2009 called for reform in this system.
- Considering the staggering arrears, vacations in the higher judiciary must be curtailed by at least 10 to 15 days and the court working hours should be extended by at least half an hour, it said.
- In 2014, when the Supreme Court notified its new Rules, it said that the period of summer vacation shall not exceed seven weeks from the earlier 10-week period.
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Indian Navy Updates

Missile destroyer INS Mormugao commissioned into Indian Navy

Prelims Only | Security Issues | Mains Paper 3: Various Security Forces, Agencies & Their Mandates
Indian Naval Ship (INS) Mormugao (Pennant 67), a P15B stealth-guided missile destroyer was commissioned into the Indian Navy.

INS Mormugao
- This was the second ship to be inducted as a part of the four ‘Visakhapatnam’ class destroyers.
- It is indigenously designed by the Navy’s in-house organisation Warship Design Bureau and constructed by Mazagaon Dock Shipbuilders Limited (MDL) in the country’s financial capital Mumbai.
- The ship was named after a key port in the Indian state of Goa, it was inducted on the eve of Goa Liberation Day.
- The ship was first launched in September 2016 and began sea trials last year on December 19 which coincided with the day that Goa was liberated from Portuguese rule six decades earlier with December 18 marking the launch of Operation Vijay by the Indian Armed Forces in 1961.
- Singh also paid tributed former defence minister, the late Manohar Parrikar who had launched INS Mormugao in 2016.
Features of INS Mormugao
- The ship measures 163 metres by 17 metres and has the ability to fight in nuclear, biological, as well as chemical (NBC) warfare due to its total atmospheric control system (TACS).
- Additionally, with a displacement of 7,400 tonnes, the INS Mormugao is loaded with state-of-the-art weapons.
- It will be operated by a crew of at least 350 which would include 50 officers and 250 sailors.
- Over 75 per cent of the ship’s content was manufactured and developed in India, either directly or designed and developed by Indian Original Equipment Manufacturers (OEMs) or through strategic tie-ups.
- It is capable of achieving speeds of 30 knots (55 km/hour) as it is propelled by four powerful gas turbines in a ‘combined gas and gas’ (COGAG) configuration.
Combat weaponry
- INS Mormugao includes weapons like BrahMos surface-to-surface missiles and Barak-8 surface-to-air missiles.
- It is also fitted with a modern surveillance radar which helps provide target data to the ship’s weapon system.
- Additionally, the ship’s weaponry also includes indigenously-developed rocket launchers, torpedo launchers and ASW helicopters like Sea King or HAL Dhruv.
Historic significance of Mormugao Port
- Even as a port, Mormugao has contributed significantly to the growth of India’s maritime trade.
- Even today, it is one of the oldest and largest ports in the country and will retain this special place due to the services it provides be it Mormugao fort or Mormugao port.
- It is landmark since the 17th century Maratha campaign against the Portuguese under Chhatrapati Sambhaji (Ch. Shivaji Maharaj’s son).
Back2Basics: Project PB15
- P15B destroyers is a class of four ships built by the country’s MDSL with INS Visakhapatnam (Pennant D66), commissioned last year in November as the year.
- These ships are set to be more advanced than the Kolkata class under the project named 15A which comprised INS Kolkata, INS Kochi, and INS Chennai.
- The contract for the ships was signed back in 2011 and under Project 15B they were to be named after four major Indian cities like Visakhapatnam, Mormugao, Imphal, and Surat.
- A group of ships with similar tonnage, usage, capabilities, and weaponry are referred to as a ship’s ‘class’.
- P15B destroyers incorporate new design concepts for improved survivability, seakeeping and manoeuvrability.
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Innovations in Biotechnology and Medical Sciences

Why banyan, peepal trees live longer?

Prelims Only | Science Tech | Mains Paper 3: Awareness in various sc and tech fields
Researchers at the Indian Institute of Science Education and Research (IISER) Bhopal have found out the carried out whole genome sequencing of banyan and peepal from leaf tissue samples.

Science behind long life: Multiple Signs of Adaptive-evolution (MSA)
- Scientists identified 25,016 coding gene sequences in banyan and 23,929 in peepal.
- Both trees faced a population bottleneck around 0.8 million years ago and evolved genes with multiple signs of adaptive evolution (MSA).
- In banyan, the MSA genes are mainly involved in root growth, pollen tube and seed development, leaf formation, cell wall synthesis, metabolism and other developmental processes.
How MSA prolongs the life?
- Disease resistance and other stress tolerance gene families showed expansion as well as high expression, contributing to the plants’ long lifespan.
- The MSA genes of peepal are associated with root cell elongation, cell proliferation, seed and pollen tube growth, lateral organ development, controlling flowering time, metabolism and intracellular transport.
- The team zeroed in on 17 MSA genes in banyan and 19 MSA genes in peepal that are mainly related to well-developed morphology, and tolerance against drought, oxidative stress and pathogens.
- Genes involved in growth-regulating auxin signalling and plant senescence-regulating pathways also showed evolutionary signatures.
- Also, 88% and 89% of the MSA genes in banyan and peepal trees, respectively, are associated with tolerance against biotic and abiotic stress responses.
- This, in turn, helps these plants to survive when faced with environmental challenges.
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