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Type: Explained

  • Foreign Policy Watch: India-Myanmar

    The different armed groups of Myanmar     

    Explained | International Relations | Mains Paper 2: India & Its Neighborhood – Relations

    Note4Students

    From UPSC perspective, the following things are important:

    Prelims level: Bordering state with Myanmar

    Mains level: Role of India in Myanmar

    Why in the news?

    On July 25, Myanmar’s junta and an ethnic group both claimed control of Lashio’s military command after clashes began on July 3.

    Background

    • The 2021 Military coup in Myanmar triggered sustained violent resistance which undermined military control.
    • Ethnic Armed Organisations (EAOs) and resistance groups, including the People’s Defence Forces (PDFs) and the Brotherhood Alliance, have made significant territorial gains. 
    • The military’s fragile ceasefires have collapsed, leading to a loss of control in strategic areas, including Lashio, with reinforcements now concentrated near Mandalay.

    The dominance of the Arakan Army

    • Large parts of Rakhine province have fallen under the control of the Arakan Army, an ethnic Rakhine Buddhist armed group.
    • The Arakan Army has seized territories on the borders with Bangladesh, including towns like Buthidaung, and is advancing towards important port cities on the Bay of Bengal coast like Kyauk Phyu, Sittwe, and Ngapali.
    • Control over these coastal areas gives the Arakan Army leverage to impact the implementation of infrastructure projects like China’s Belt and Road Initiative in Kyauk Phyu and India’s Kaladan project in Sittwe.

    Objectives of Ethnic Armed Organizations (EAOs)

    • Major EAOs have refrained from declaring independence or creating new sovereign states, likely to avoid rallying renewed support for the military.
    • EAOs aim to establish a genuine federal democratic structure with maximum autonomy for provinces, with some advocating for a confederation.
    • Carving out new nation-states is challenging due to complex ethnic geographies and overlapping claims over homelands.

    China’s Influence

    • China has engaged with multiple actors, including the military and various EAOs, to protect its massive investments and economic interests in the region.
    • Beijing has facilitated temporary ceasefires between the military and EAOs and maintains substantive relations with armed groups like the Brotherhood Alliance and United Wa State Army.
    • China has reportedly supplied defence equipment to both the military and EAOs, ensuring fragmented sovereignty in Myanmar

    India’s role

    • India can share its experiences and institutional frameworks on federalism with stakeholders in Myanmar to help establish a new constitutional framework based on the principles of federalism and democracy.
    • Example: Despite the ongoing civil war, India has successfully constructed massive infrastructure projects in neighbouring Afghanistan, demonstrating its potential to contribute to regional peace and prosperity in Myanmar.

    Way forward

    • Facilitate Dialogue and Mediation: To address the ongoing conflict in Myanmar, it is crucial for regional powers, including India and China, to facilitate dialogue between the military junta, Ethnic Armed Organizations (EAOs), and the National Unity Government (NUG).
    • Enhance Humanitarian Support and Development Initiatives: In parallel with diplomatic efforts, there should be an increase in humanitarian assistance to affected populations in conflict zones, particularly in Rakhine State and areas controlled by the Arakan Army.

    Mains PYQ: 

    Q Examine the scope of Fundamental Rights in the light of the latest judgement of the Supreme Court on the Right to Privacy. (2020)

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  • Parliament – Sessions, Procedures, Motions, Committees etc

    The case for a Legal Advisory Council  

    Explained | Polity | Mains Paper 2: Indian Constitution – historical underpinnings, evolution, features, amendments, significant provisions and basic structure

    Note4Students

    From UPSC perspective, the following things are important:

    Prelims level: Legal Issues and the Puttaswamy Case Judgment

    Mains level: Need of Think Tank

    Why in the news?

    Legal insights from well-structured think tanks can be crucial in clarifying the true intent of specific legislation for the government.

    Scope to Review the Process of Legal Consultancy

    • Need for Structured Legal Inputs: The handling of legal issues by the National Democratic Alliance has been inadequate. There is a need for continuous, informed, and empirically valid legal inputs from structured think tanks to clarify legislative intents.
    • Proposal for a Legal Advisory Council (LAC): Establishing a LAC akin to the Economic Advisory Council could provide the Prime Minister with timely legal analysis and insights, helping to preempt legal challenges and enhance the legislative process.

    Need of Think Tank: 

    • Expert Legal and Policy Analysis: Well-structured think tanks provide informed and empirical legal analysis that can enhance the legislative process.
    • Facilitation of Evidence-Based Decision Making: Think tanks can contribute to evidence-based decision-making by conducting research and providing data-driven insights on complex legal and social issues.

    Recent Legal Issues and the Puttaswamy Case Judgment

    • Electoral Bonds Scheme: The Supreme Court recently ruled the electoral bonds scheme unconstitutional for violating voters’ right to information. This decision highlights the importance of conducting proportionality tests before implementing laws to balance privacy rights with transparency.
    • Aadhaar Act Intervention: A similar legal examination prior to the implementation of the Aadhaar Act could have prevented the Supreme Court’s intervention in the K.S. Puttaswamy v. Union of India case, which addressed privacy concerns.
    • Transporter Strike: Concerns over the hit-and-run provisions in the Bharatiya Nyaya Sanhita, 2023, led to nationwide protests by transporters, indicating the need for thorough legal viability assessments before introducing potentially problematic legislation.

    Anticipating Challenges

    • Proactive Legal Analysis: The proposed LAC would conduct legal analyses of issues referred by the government and perform suo motu research on contemporary legal matters, allowing for proactive identification of potential legal challenges.
    • Engagement with National Law Universities: Leveraging the expertise of national law universities can enhance the legal consultancy process, ensuring that laws are constitutionally viable and socially acceptable. Regular research inputs from these institutions can aid in formulating better legislation and addressing legal challenges before they escalate.

    Way forward: 

    • The LAC should comprise legal experts, eminent jurists, academicians, and researchers with specializations in various fields frequently legislated upon by the government, such as criminal law, trade law, international law, business laws, and taxation laws.
    • Establish formal mechanisms for collaboration, such as the Committee for Reforms in Criminal Laws at the National Law University Delhi set up by the Ministry of Home Affairs, to facilitate the exchange of ideas and research between the government and academia.

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  • The Crisis In The Middle East

    Why Israel-Hezbollah conflict is heating up?   

    Explained | International Relations | Mains Paper 2: Bilateral, Regional and Global Groupings and agreements involving India

    Note4Students

    From UPSC perspective, the following things are important:

    Prelims level: Location of Golan Heights

    Mains level: Issues between Israel and Palestine

    Why in the news?

    Israel has announced that it would retaliate strongly against Hezbollah, accusing the group of being responsible for a rocket attack that killed 12 children and teenagers at a football field in the Israeli-occupied Golan Heights.

    Background of Golan Heights: 

    • The Golan Heights was captured by Israel during the Six-Day War in 1967 from Syria and has since been a point of contention between the two nations. In 1981, Israel effectively annexed the territory, a move not recognized by the international community.
    • Strategic Importance: The Golan Heights offers a commanding view of northern Israel and southern Syria, making it a critical military and strategic area. Its elevation allows for surveillance and control over surrounding regions, including the ability to monitor movements from Syria.

    Causes of the conflict:

    • Support for Palestinians: Hezbollah’s attacks on Israel are framed as support for Palestinians facing Israeli bombardment in Gaza, particularly following the Hamas attacks on October 7, 2023. Hezbollah, as a member of the Iran-backed Axis of Resistance, has aligned itself with Hamas and other militant groups in the region.
    • Historical Hostilities: The conflict is rooted in a long history of hostility between Israel and Hezbollah, which was founded in 1982 to combat Israeli forces in Lebanon. Hezbollah views Israel as an illegitimate state and seeks its removal, which fuels ongoing tensions and military engagements.
    • Escalating Military Capabilities: Hezbollah has significantly enhanced its military capabilities since the 2006 war, possessing a large arsenal of rockets and advanced weaponry. This includes the ability to strike deep into Israeli territory, increasing the stakes for both sides in any conflict.

    Implications of the Conflict

    • Humanitarian Impact: The ongoing hostilities have resulted in significant civilian casualties and displacement on both sides of the border. Israeli airstrikes in Lebanon have killed Hezbollah fighters and civilians, while Hezbollah’s attacks have resulted in Israeli casualties. The humanitarian toll is exacerbated by the broader context of the Gaza war.
    • Regional Stability: The conflict poses a risk of broader regional destabilization, potentially drawing in other actors and escalating into a full-scale war.
    • Political Ramifications: The conflict has significant political implications for both Israel and Lebanon. In Israel, the displacement of civilians has become a pressing political issue, while Hezbollah’s actions may influence its standing within Lebanon and the broader Shiite community.

    How escalation can be avoided on the Global Stage?

    • Diplomatic Engagement: The United States and other international actors must continue to engage in diplomatic efforts aimed at de-escalating tensions. This includes facilitating dialogue between Israel and Hezbollah, as well as addressing the underlying issues related to the Gaza conflict. A ceasefire in Gaza could help reduce hostilities in Lebanon.
    • Regional Agreements: Need to make efforts to establish regional agreements that address territorial disputes and security concerns that can mitigate the risk of conflict.
    • Monitoring and Mediation: International bodies, including the United Nations, should increase their monitoring of the situation and mediate discussions between the conflicting parties. This can help prevent misunderstandings and miscalculations that could lead to escalated military responses.

    Role of India in this situation: (Way forward)

    • Engaging with Arab Nations: India should also maintain and strengthen its relationships with Arab nations, including Lebanon, to ensure a balanced approach. This engagement can help India navigate the complexities of the situation and position itself as a neutral party that seeks to promote peace and stability in the region.
    • Facilitating Dialogue: By promoting dialogue between the conflicting parties, India can help de-escalate tensions and work towards a peaceful resolution.

    Mains PYQ: 

    Q India’s relations with Israel have, of late, acquired a depth and diversity, which cannot be rolled back.” Discuss. (2018)

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  • Oil and Gas Sector – HELP, Open Acreage Policy, etc.

    US overtaskes UAE as India’s second largest LNG supplier   

    Explained | International Relations | Mains Paper 2: Bilateral, Regional and Global Groupings and agreements involving India

    Note4Students

    From UPSC perspective, the following things are important:

    Prelims level: Data related to LNG import

    Mains level: Trade dynamics related to LNG

    Why in the news?

    In 2023, the US surpassed the UAE to become India’s second-largest supplier of liquefied natural gas (LNG), providing 3.09 million tonnes (MT).

    World LNG Report 2024 by International Gas Union (IGU)

    • US as a Major Supplier: The report highlights that the United States has displaced the UAE to become India’s second-largest supplier of liquefied natural gas (LNG) in 2023, with shipments reaching 3.09 million tonnes (MT).
    • Trade Growth: The US supplied India with 1.8 MT of LNG in 2019, which increased to 3.86 MT in 2021, indicating a significant rise in trade volume despite a decrease in 2022 due to rising prices.
    • Qatar’s Dominance: Qatar remained India’s largest LNG supplier from 2019 to 2023, with shipments peaking at 10.92 MT in 2023, reflecting its consistent role in India’s energy supply.
    • The decline of African Suppliers: The report notes a significant decline in LNG shipments from African nations, particularly Nigeria and Angola, which saw their exports to India drop from pre-pandemic levels of around 2.7 MT and 2.9 MT, respectively, to just 0.73 MT each in 2023.

    Present trade dynamics

    • Price Sensitivity: Indian companies remain price-sensitive, with LNG imports being contingent on competitive pricing. Analysts suggest that if LNG prices stay below $12 per mBtu, there could be significant growth in imports.
    • Geographical Advantage: The proximity of US LNG cargoes to India via the Cape of Good Hope makes it more cost-effective for sellers to export to India compared to North Asia.
    • Long-term Contracts: Ongoing long-term contracts signed by Indian entities with US suppliers continue to underpin LNG consumption, despite fluctuations in global prices.

    Use of LNG in India: 

    • Fertilizer Sector: The fertilizer sector remains the largest consumer of LNG in India, contributing to 32% of the total natural gas consumption.
    • Power Sector:  The power sector accounted for 12% of the total natural gas consumption in India.
    • City Gas Distribution (CGD) Sector: CGD entities accounted for 19% of the total natural gas consumption in India

    What can be done?

    • Strengthening Domestic Policies: India could benefit from reforms in domestic gas policies, including greater transparency over LNG inventory levels and improvements in gas pipeline capacity, to enhance the efficiency of LNG imports and distribution.
    • Creating Price Stability: The need to establish a stronger index link between LNG import prices and domestic gas prices could mitigate price risks for LNG importers, ensuring that long-term contracts remain aligned with market conditions.
    • Enhancing Infrastructure: Govt. should invest in LNG infrastructure, including regasification terminals and transportation networks, which can facilitate increased imports and improve supply chain efficiency.
    • Diversifying Supply Sources: To reduce dependency on specific regions, India should explore diversifying its LNG supply sources, including potential agreements with emerging suppliers in different regions.

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  • Innovations in Sciences, IT, Computers, Robotics and Nanotechnology

    Teaching computers to forget   

    Explained | Science Tech | Mains Paper 3: Awareness in various sc and tech fields

    Note4Students

    From UPSC perspective, the following things are important:

    Prelims level: About Machine Unlearning (MUL)

    Mains level: Significance of Machine Unlearning (MUL)

    Why in the news?

    The emergence of artificial intelligence has revolutionized various facets of our lives and has even prompted us to reevaluate our concepts of the mind, brain, and consciousness.

    Antithesis of Machine Learning (ML):

    • Machine Unlearning (MUL) is considered the antithesis of Machine Learning (ML). It was first proposed by Cao and Yang in their work “Towards Making Systems Forget with Machine Unlearning.”
    • Machine Unlearning focuses on the ability to make AI models forget specific data they have learned. This concept addresses the challenges of removing or correcting sensitive, false, incorrect, or outdated information from trained AI models.
      • While ML is about learning from data to make predictions or decisions, MUL aims to reverse this process, ensuring that certain data can be effectively and completely erased from the models.
    • This concept is crucial for maintaining data privacy, reducing AI bias, and complying with regulations that require the deletion of personal or sensitive information.

    Implementation approaches

    • Private Approach: Data fiduciaries voluntarily implement MUL algorithms, allowing flexibility but potentially limiting access for smaller companies due to cost and expertise barriers.
    • Public Approach: Governments can legislate requirements for MUL implementation, potentially creating a standard framework that data fiduciaries must follow. This can include guidelines under existing data protection laws, as seen in the EU’s AI Act, which addresses data poisoning and mandates security controls.
    • International Approach: This emphasizes the need for a global framework for MUL, recognizing that AI innovations have cross-border implications. International standard-setting organizations could play a crucial role in developing these standards

    Techniques for Machine Unlearning

    • Exact Unlearning: This method completely removes the influence of specific data points from the model.
    • Approximate Unlearning: Instead of fully erasing the data’s influence, this technique minimizes its impact on the model’s predictions to an acceptable level.
    • Data-Centric Approaches: Techniques like data reorganization and pruning are employed to manage the dataset, making it easier to identify and remove unwanted data points.
    • Model-Centric Approaches: These methods involve manipulating the model parameters directly. For example, algorithms can adjust the weights associated with the data points that need to be forgotten, thereby reducing their influence on the model’s outputs.
    • Prompting-Based Methods: In large language models (LLMs), developers can use carefully crafted prompts to induce behaviours that mimic unlearning.
    • Algorithmic Innovations: New algorithms, such as MU-Mis, focus on minimizing the contribution of specific data points to the model’s decision-making process.

    Way forward: 

    • Development of Standardized Frameworks: The need to establish a comprehensive regulatory framework for MUL can facilitate its adoption across various sectors. Governments and international organizations should collaborate to create guidelines that mandate the use of MUL techniques for data privacy compliance, similar to the EU’s AI Act. 
    • Investment in Research and Education: The need to increase funding and resources should be directed toward research in machine unlearning techniques and their applications.

    Mains PYQ: 

    Q  The emergence of the Fourth Industrial Revolution (Digital Revolution) has initiated e-Governance as an integral part of government”. Discuss. (2020)

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  • Target drug producers, not users        

    Explained | Security Issues | Mains Paper 3: Organized Crime & Terrorism

    Note4Students

    From UPSC perspective, the following things are important:

    Prelims level: Legal status of Marijuana

    Mains level: Drug issues in India

    Why in the news?

    Telangana faces a drug crisis, with Hyderabad as a transit hub. Marijuana is trafficked via Konark Express to Maharashtra and Karnataka, per police reports.

    The Gravity of the Drug Problem in Telangana

    • Hyderabad has emerged as a transit hub for drugs, with marijuana being ferried through the city to be supplied to neighbouring states like Maharashtra and Karnataka.
    • The number of people charge-sheeted for drug possession and peddling increased from 735 in 2020 to 3,052 in 2022. In the first six months of 2023, nearly 1,900 cases were lodged against peddlers and users.
    • An international drug ring was busted in February 2023, seizing ₹8 crore worth of synthetic psychedelics like OG Kush and Ecstasy pills.
    • Drug abuse has been found among students in top medical and management colleges in Hyderabad.

    Initiatives taken by the State Government

    • Drug Detection Kits: Officials use the latest technology, including 12-panel drug tests, to instantly identify drug abuse among party attendees and students.
    • Special Operations: Operations such as checking attendees at Electronic Dance Music parties and conducting tests on students in colleges have been carried out.
    • Use of Sniffer Dogs: Sniffer dogs are deployed in pubs and transit hubs to detect contraband.
    • Legal and Technological Actions: The Telangana Anti-Narcotics Bureau sent cease and desist notices to firms manufacturing ganja-laced chocolates shipped via e-commerce platforms.
    • Political Will: Chief Minister A. Revanth Reddy has shown political will by advocating for awareness among politicians and celebrities, although this has led to legal disputes.

    Legal Status of Marijuana

    • General Prohibition: Marijuana, including its various forms such as ganja (flower), charas (resin), and hashish, is illegal under the NDPS Act. It talks about the possession, sale, and production of these substances are criminal offences.
    • Bhang Exception: Bhang, made from the leaves and seeds of the cannabis plant, is legally consumed in many parts of India, especially during religious festivals. It is not classified as an illegal substance under the NDPS Act.
    • State Variations: Different states have their own regulations regarding cannabis. For example, Uttarakhand has legalized the commercial cultivation of hemp, while Odisha has a more lenient approach to recreational use. This leads to a patchwork of laws across the country.
    • Penalties: The NDPS Act prescribes severe penalties for drug offences.
      • Possession of small quantities can lead to imprisonment of six months to one year and fines of up to ₹10,000. For larger quantities, penalties can escalate to 10-20 years of imprisonment and fines of ₹1-2 lakh.

    Requires Smart thinking and Policing (Way forward)

    • Focus on Trade, Not Users: The emphasis should be on dismantling the drug network rather than just catching users. This approach was advocated by Home Minister Amit Shah.
    • Avoiding Witch Hunts: The fight against drugs should not lead to the targeting of specific localities or public shaming of institutions.
    • Need Economic Considerations: Measures such as shutting down nightlife venues before midnight could harm the economy and the business environment.
    • Implement Integrated Approach: A comprehensive strategy is needed that involves smarter policing, better use of technology, and effective legal actions against producers and suppliers rather than users.

    Mains PYQ: 

    Q  India’s proximity to two of the world’s biggest illicit opium-growing states has enhanced her internal security concerns. Explain the linkages between drug trafficking and other illicit activities such as gunrunning, money laundering and human trafficking. What countermeasures should be taken to prevent the same? (2018)

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  • J&K – The issues around the state

    In 2024, newer districts are affected by militancy in Jammu   

    Explained | Enviro & Biodiversity | Mains Paper 3: Disaster Management

    Note4Students

    From UPSC perspective, the following things are important:

    Prelims level: Abrogation of Jammu and Kashmir's special status in August 2019

    Mains level: Internal Security; Developments in Militancy (2014-2024)

    Why in the News?

    An ambush resulted in the deaths of five Indian Army personnel  which highlights a worrying trend of increasing violence in Jammu and Kashmir, particularly in the Jammu region.

    • This incident marks the fourth terror attack in the state within a span of 48 hours, indicating a surge in militant activities.

    Observations on Militancy Leading to Civilian Deaths

    • The new wave of terrorism: The region has seen a resurgence of violence after a period of relative peace, with notable incidents such as the June 9 attack on a bus carrying Hindu pilgrims, resulting in nine deaths. This shift in militancy is particularly concerning as it reflects a new wave of terrorism, especially in areas like Rajouri and Poonch, which had previously been stable.
    • Changing dynamics of Terrorism: There is a notable transition from foreign terrorists leading attacks to local militants becoming more prominent.

    Developments in Militancy (2014-2024)

    • Surge in Violence Post-2016: The killing of Hizbul Mujahideen militant Burhan Wani in July 2016 sparked widespread unrest and violence, leading to a resurgence in militant activities. This period saw increased recruitment of local youth into militant ranks, particularly within groups like Lashkar-e-Taiba and Jaish-e-Mohammed.
    • Major Attacks: Notable incidents include the 2016 Uri attack, where militants killed 19 soldiers, and the 2019 Pulwama attack, which resulted in the deaths of 40 CRPF personnel. These attacks highlighted the persistent threat posed by organized militant groups.
    • Revocation of Article 370: The abrogation of Jammu and Kashmir’s special status in August 2019 led to a significant shift in the political landscape. While the Indian government claimed a reduction in violence, there were still notable attacks, such as the
    • Emergence of Hybrid Militancy: A new trend termed “hybrid militancy” has emerged, where individuals engage in militant activities sporadically while maintaining their civilian lives.
    • Decline in Active Militants: By the end of 2022, the number of active militants had fallen to just over 100, down from around 250 in 2019. However, the presence of foreign militants has reportedly increased, indicating a shift in the composition of militant forces.
    • Increased Counter-Insurgency Operations: The Indian security forces have intensified operations against militants, resulting in the deaths of approximately 750 militants over the last four years, with a significant proportion being local youths.
    • Changing Tactics and Technology: Militants have increasingly utilized modern technology, including drones and social media, to coordinate attacks and recruit members, presenting new challenges for security forces.

    Way forward: 

    • Addressing Recruitment Cycles: Government need to make initiatives aimed at preventing youth recruitment into militant groups. This can include educational programs, vocational training, and employment opportunities that provide alternatives to joining militant organizations.
    • Enhanced Intelligence and Local Engagement: The need to Strengthen local intelligence networks is crucial to preemptively identify and disrupt militant activities.

    Mains PYQ: 

    Q  Analyse the complexity and intensity of terrorism, its causes, linkages and obnoxious nexus. Also suggest measures required to be taken to eradicate the menace of terrorism. (2021)

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  • Disasters and Disaster Management – Sendai Framework, Floods, Cyclones, etc.

    Landslides in Wayanad

    Explained | Enviro & Biodiversity | Mains Paper 3: Disaster Management

    Note4Students

    From UPSC perspective, the following things are important:

    Prelims level: Landslides, Landslide Atlas of India

    Why in the News?

    Many people have died, and hundreds are feared trapped after three landslides hit Kerala’s Wayanad district.

    About Wayanad

    • Wayanad is the only plateau in Kerala, forming a continuation of the Mysore Plateau, part of the Deccan Plateau.
    • The Kabini River, a tributary of the Kaveri River, originates in Wayanad.
    • The Chaliyar River, the fourth longest river in Kerala, also originates on the Wayanad plateau.
    • Wayanad is home to the Wayanad Wildlife Sanctuary.

    Susceptibility to Landslides:

    • The region predominantly has laterite soil, which is highly prone to erosion.
    • The steep and undulating terrain of Wayanad makes it naturally susceptible to landslides.
    • Wayanad receives intense and prolonged monsoon rains that cause water infiltration, leading to soil saturation and increased pore water pressure, which destabilizes slopes.
    • Large-scale deforestation for agriculture and settlement reduces the binding capacity of the soil and its ability to absorb water, exacerbating the risk of landslides.

    What are Landslides?

    • A landslide is the downward and outward movement of materials including rock, earth, or debris down a slope due to gravitational force. Landslides are disasters of hydrogeological origin, resulting from the failure of materials falling down a slope due to gravity.
    • India is among the top five landslide-prone countries globally, with at least one death per 100 sq km reported annually due to landslides.

    Regional Distribution

    • North-western Himalayas: 66.5% of landslides.
    • North-eastern Himalayas: 18.8% of landslides.
    • Western Ghats: 14.7% of landslides.

    Key Policy Initiative: National Landslide Susceptibility Map

    • The National Remote Sensing Centre (NRSC) under ISRO released the Landslide Atlas of India in 2023.
    • This detailed guide identifies landslide hotspots across the country with a 100 sq. m resolution overview of landslide susceptibility.
    • The map highlights traditional high-risk areas and uncovers new regions of concern, broadening the scope of landslide monitoring.
    • Scientists conducted a risk assessment based on 80,000 landslides recorded between 1998 and 2022 across 147 districts in 17 states and two Union Territories, creating a “Landslide Atlas” of the country.

    Key Highlights of the Landslide Atlas:

    Top States by Landslide Events:

    • Mizoram: 12,385 events in the past 25 years.
    • Uttarakhand: 11,219 events.
    • Other states: Kerala, Jammu and Kashmir, Nagaland, Arunachal Pradesh, and Tripura.

    Districts with Maximum Landslide Exposure:

    • Arunachal Pradesh: 16 districts.
    • Kerala: 14 districts.
    • Uttarakhand and Jammu and Kashmir: 13 districts each.
    • Himachal Pradesh, Assam, and Maharashtra: 11 districts each.
    • Mizoram: 8 districts.
    • Nagaland: 7 districts.

    Highest Landslide Density and Risk Exposure:

    • Rudraprayag and Tehri Garhwal districts in Uttarakhand.

    PYQ:

    [2021] Describe the various causes and the effects of landslides. Mention the important components of the National Landslide Risk Management Strategy.

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  • Innovations in Biotechnology and Medical Sciences

    Surprising ‘Dark Oxygen’ discovery could ensnarl deep-sea mining    

    Explained | Science Tech | Mains Paper 3: Awareness in various sc and tech fields

    Note4Students

    From UPSC perspective, the following things are important:

    Prelims level: About Dark Oxygen

    Mains level: Impact of Deep-Sea Mining

    Why in the News?

    Scientists reported on July 22 in Nature Geoscience that an unknown process is generating oxygen in the deep oceans, where photosynthesis is not possible due to the lack of light.

    About the recent study:

    • Discovery of Oxygen: Scientists reported an unknown process producing oxygen in the deep ocean, specifically in the abyssal zone, where photosynthesis is not feasible due to insufficient sunlight.
    • Location of Study: The study was conducted in the Clarion-Clipperton Zone, located off Mexico’s west coast, which is known for having the highest concentration of polymetallic nodules.
    • Oxygen Measurement: At a depth of 4 km, researchers observed unexpected increases in oxygen levels, sometimes tripling within two days, contrary to expectations of decreasing levels due to consumption by marine life.
    • Source of Oxygen: The researchers hypothesized that the oxygen could be generated by polymetallic nodules, which may create electric charges that split water molecules, releasing oxygen. The nodules exhibited voltages up to 0.95 V, suggesting they could function like battery cells.

    What is Deep-Sea Mining?

    • Deep-Sea Mining: It involves extracting minerals from the ocean floor at great depths, targeting resources such as polymetallic nodules, polymetallic sulphides, and cobalt-rich ferromanganese crusts.

    Economic and Strategic Importance of Deep-sea Mining:

    • Resource Potential: The Clarion-Clipperton Zone holds substantial reserves, including 6 billion tonnes of manganese, and over 200 million tonnes each of copper and nickel, making it a significant target for future mining operations.
    • International Contracts: The International Seabed Authority has granted exploration contracts to various contractors, including the Government of India, for deep-sea mining activities.

    What is Dark Oxygen?

    • “Dark oxygen” refers to the oxygen found in the deep ocean, specifically in regions where photosynthesis cannot occur due to the absence of sunlight. In such areas, known as the abyssal zone, oxygen levels are typically low and depend on global ocean circulation for replenishment.

    Impact of Deep-Sea Mining

    • Ecological Concerns:
      • Potential Damage: The recent findings highlight the potential risks of deep-sea mining to unique marine ecosystems that depend on ‘dark oxygen’. There is concern that mining could disrupt these ecosystems, leading to significant and possibly irreversible environmental impacts.
      • Historical Evidence: Previous experiments, such as the DISCOL Experiment, have shown long-term ecological damage from simulated mining activities, including reduced biodiversity and altered sedimentological profiles.
    • Industry Response and Challenges:
      • Insurance Withdrawal: In response to growing concerns, major European insurance companies announced they would exclude deep-sea mining from their underwriting portfolios.
      • Sustainability Issues: The new discovery of ‘dark oxygen’ adds complexity to the debate on deep-sea mining. If sustainable practices are not implemented, such mining could become unfeasible due to its potential negative impacts on marine ecosystems.

    Way forward: 

    • Develop Comprehensive Environmental Regulations: The Government should establish and enforce robust environmental regulations and impact assessment protocols for deep-sea mining.
    • Promote Sustainable Mining Practices: Need to invest in research and innovation to develop and implement technologies and methods that minimize environmental impact.

    Mains PYQ: 

    Q Coastal sand mining, whether legal or illegal, poses one of the biggest threats to our environment. Analyse the impact of sand mining along the Indian coasts, citing specific examples. (2019)

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  • Climate Change Negotiations – UNFCCC, COP, Other Conventions and Protocols

    What is South Africa’s new law on climate change?   

    Explained | Enviro & Biodiversity | Mains Paper 3: Conservation, Environmental Pollution & Degradation, Eia

    Note4Students

    From UPSC perspective, the following things are important:

    Prelims level: About Paris Climate Agreement

    Mains level: Initiatives against climate change by the Indian government

    Why in the news?

    President Cyril Ramaphosa signed a law imposing mandatory emission curbs on large industries and requiring climate adaptation plans to meet South Africa’s Paris Agreement commitments.

    Features of the Law:

    • Mandatory Emission Curbs: The legislation imposes mandatory limits on emissions from large, fossil-fuel-heavy industries.
    • Climate-Adaptation Plans: It requires towns and villages to develop and implement climate-adaptation plans.
    • Emissions Reduction Commitments: The law aims to help South Africa meet its emissions reduction commitments under the Paris Agreement.

    Significance of this law: 

    • Data-Driven Approach: The law is based on emissions data and trends, such as the decrease from 512 Mt CO2e in 2017 to 405 Mt CO2e in 2022 will help in sustained efforts in emission reduction.
    • Reduction in Emissions: The law aims to significantly reduce South Africa’s greenhouse gas emissions, aligning with the Paris Agreement. This is a crucial step for South Africa’s status as one of the top 15 GHG emitters globally.
    • Transition from Coal: South Africa relies heavily on coal for electricity generation. The bill’s mandatory curbs on emissions from large, fossil-fuel-heavy industries are a critical step towards reducing dependence on coal and shifting towards cleaner energy sources.

    Does India have an omnibus legislation on climate change?

    • No Comprehensive Legislation: India does not have a comprehensive, omnibus legislation specifically addressing climate change.
    • Climate Change in Existing Acts: Climate change is addressed within multiple existing Acts and subordinate legislation, such as the Environmental Protection Act, Forest Conservation Act, Energy Conservation Act, and Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act.
    • Private Member’s Bill: A Private Member’s Bill called the Council on Climate Change Bill was proposed by Rajya Sabha parliamentarian Priyanka Chaturvedi in 2022, which aimed to establish a Council to advise the Union government on climate change matters, but there has been no significant progress on this bill.
    • Supreme Court Ruling: The Supreme Court recognized the “right against the adverse effects of climate change” and highlighted the need for comprehensive climate change legislation, linking the impact of climate change to citizens’ rights of liberty, life, and equality.

    Way forward: 

    • Comprehensive Legislation and Institutional Framework: India should work towards enacting comprehensive climate change legislation that integrates and harmonizes existing laws related to environmental protection, energy conservation, and pollution control.
    • Enhanced Research and Implementation Support: Need to invest in extensive scientific research to evaluate the efficacy and potential impacts of transitioning to low-carbon and renewable energy sources.

    Mains PYQ: 

    Q Climate change is a global problem. How India will be affected by climate change? How Himalayan and coastal states of India will be affected by climate change? (2017)

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