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Type: Explained

  • Innovations in Sciences, IT, Computers, Robotics and Nanotechnology

    What is 3D Printing and How does it Work?

    Explained | Science Tech | Mains Paper 3: Achievements Of Indians In S&T

    Note4Students

    From UPSC perspective, the following things are important:

    Prelims level: 3D Printing; PS4 Engine

    Why in the news?

    • The Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) successfully tested a liquid rocket engine made with the help of additive manufacturing technology — commonly known as 3D printing.

    3D Printed PS4 Engine

    • The technology helped ISRO bring down the number of parts in the engine from 14 to a single piece.
    • ISRO was able to eliminate 19 weld joints and saved 97% of raw material.
    • It also reduced the overall production time by 60%.

    What is 3D printing?

    • 3D printing is a process that uses computer-created design to make three-dimensional objects layer by layer.
    • It is an additive process, in which layers of a material like plastic, composites or bio-materials are built up to construct objects that range in shape, size, rigidity, and colour.
    • Common 3D Printing materials include Acrylonitrile Butadiene Styrene (ABS), Carbon Fiber Filaments, Conductive Filaments, Metal Filaments etc.

    How is 3D printing done?

    • To carry out 3D printing, one needs a personal computer connected to a 3D printer.
    • All they need to do is design a 3D model of the required object on computer-aid design (CAD) software and press ‘print’.
    • The 3D printer does the rest of the job.
    • 3D printers construct the desired object by using a layering method, which is the complete opposite of the subtractive manufacturing processes.

    Benefits offered:

    3D printing offers several key advantages over traditional manufacturing, including:

    • Complexity without Extra Cost: Allows for intricate designs without increasing production costs.
    • Rapid Prototyping: Speeds up the development process by quickly producing prototypes from digital designs.
    • Customization: Ideal for producing customized or bespoke items in small quantities.
    • Reduced Waste: Generates minimal waste compared to traditional subtractive methods, making it more sustainable.
    • Cost-Effective for Low Volumes: Avoids the need for expensive tooling and molds, beneficial for small production runs.

    PYQ:

    [2018] “3D printing” has applications in which of the following?

    1. Preparation of confectionery items
    2. Manufacture of bionic ears
    3. Automotive industry
    4. Reconstructive surgeries
    5. Data processing technologies

    Select the correct answer using the code given below:

    (a) 1, 3 and 4 only

    (b) 2, 3 and 5 only

    (c) 1 and 4 only

    (d) 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5

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  • Nepal’s Constitution & Emerging Developments

    Explained: History of India and Nepal’s border issue

    Explained | International Relations | Mains Paper 2: Bilateral, Regional and Global Groupings and agreements involving India

    Note4Students

    From UPSC perspective, the following things are important:

    Prelims level: Bilateral Relations; Neighbouring countries; India and Nepal;

    Mains level: Neighbouring countries; India and Nepal; Border issues with Nepal;

    Why in the News? 

    Nepal’s Cabinet last week decided to put a map on its Rs 100 currency note showing certain areas administered by India in Uttarakhand as part of its territory.

    • India’s External Affairs Ministry said that such “unilateral measures” by Kathmandu would not change the reality on the ground.

    Genesis of the issue: 

    Territorial dispute: The territorial dispute is about a 372-sq-km area that includes Limpiadhura, Lipulekh, and Kalapani at the India-Nepal-China trijunction in Uttarakhand’s Pithoragarh district. Nepal has claimed for long that these areas belong to it both historically and evidently.
    • Treaty of Sugauli (1815-16): This treaty marked the end of the Anglo-Nepalese War and resulted in Nepal ceding significant territories to the British East India Company, including lands east of the Kali River. Article 5 of the treaty delineated the boundary along the river, thereby affecting Nepal’s jurisdiction over the area.
    • Historical division: Maps issued by the British Surveyor General of India in the 19th and early 20th centuries depicted the Kali River as originating from Limpiadhura. These maps served as crucial references for defining territorial boundaries between Nepal and British India.
    • Depiction of Kali River: Maps from different periods showed variations in the depiction of the Kali River, with some using the name “Kuti Yangti” and others referring to it as the Kali River. Additionally, discrepancies emerged regarding the river’s exact origin point, with some maps showing different sources.
    • Map issued by Britisher (1947): The last map issued by the British before they left India in 1947 reverted to showing the initial position of the Kali River originating in Limpiadhura, indicating a reaffirmation of the historical boundary according to British cartographic records.

    Argument given by Nepal to claim land:

    • According to Shrestha, villages in this area — Gunji, Nabhi, Kuti, and Kalapani, also known as Tulsi Nyurang and Nabhidang — were covered by the Nepal government census until 1962, and the people paid land revenue to the government in Kathmandu.
      • However, the situation changed after the war between India and China in 1962.
    • Nepal also says that then Indian PM Jawaharlal Nehru approached King Mahendra of Nepal asking for permission to use Kalapani, which was strategically located close to the trijunction, as a base for the Indian Army.
    • Prominent personalities representing Nepal in bilateral talks have claimed that India has made assurances regarding the resolution of border disputes if Nepal could provide evidence for its claims.
    • Despite assurances and agreements to expedite the resolution process, progress has been slow or stalled.

    Frictions in Bilateral Ties:

    • From 2005-2014: The period from 2005 to 2014 saw India mediating Nepal’s transition from a Hindu Kingdom to a secular federal republic.
      • However, tensions arose in 2015 when Nepal’s Maoist Party rejected India’s suggestion to delay the adoption of a new constitution until the concerns of the Terai parties were addressed.
      • The subsequent 134-day blockade by India in September 2015 exacerbated distrust and led Nepal to seek alternative trade routes, including agreements with China.
    • During 2020: Nepal’s inclusion of disputed territories, such as the 372 square kilometres in Uttarakhand, in its new map in 2020 escalated tensions with India. While Nepal aimed to assert sovereignty over these areas, India condemned the move as “cartographic aggression.”
      • Despite India’s stance that the issue should be resolved diplomatically based on evidence, no concrete steps have been taken to address the dispute.
    • During 2024: The decision by Nepal’s cabinet to include the new map on its currency notes in 2024 has reignited tensions between the two countries.
    India-Nepal Border Dispute

    Way Forward:

    • Need for Dialogue: While both India and Nepal agree on the need to resolve territorial disputes through dialogue and evidence-based discussions, there has been no concrete progress in scheduling meetings or setting a timeframe for resolution.
    • Need for Dispute settlement: Nepal has successfully resolved boundary issues with China in the past through bilateral meetings of the boundary commission. However, the unresolved disputes with India highlight the importance of timely and effective diplomatic engagement to prevent future complications and ensure peaceful coexistence between the two neighbours.
    • Joint Border Commission: Establishing a joint border commission comprising representatives from both countries can facilitate a systematic review of historical documents, maps, and evidence related to territorial claims.

    Mains PYQ: 

    Q Border management is a complex task due to difficult terrain and hostile relations with some countries. Elucidate the challenges and strategies for effective border management.

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  • Forest Conservation Efforts – NFP, Western Ghats, etc.

    19th Session of the United Nations Forum on Forests (UNFF19) in New York

    Explained | Enviro & Biodiversity | Mains Paper 3: Conservation, Environmental Pollution & Degradation, Eia

    Note4Students

    From UPSC perspective, the following things are important:

    Prelims level: Climatization of Forests;

    Mains level: Climate change; International Institution on Biodiversity and Conservation;

    Why in the news? 

    Recently, during the 19th Session (10th May 2024) of the United Nations Forum on Forests (UNFF19) in New York, a significant report titled “International Forest Governance” was published.

    About International Forest Governance: 

    • The report “Critical Review of Trends, Drawbacks, and New Approaches” authored by the Science-Policy Programme (SciPol) of the International Union of Forest Research Organizations (IUFRO) was released.
    • It marked the first global synthesis on international forest governance in 14 years.

    The report exposes the rising trend of ‘Climatization’ of forests:

    About Climatization of forests: 

    • Shift in Emphasis: The trend involves a notable shift in focus towards valuing forests primarily as carbon sinks, rather than recognizing their essential ecological and social functions.
    • Carbon Sequestration Priority: Political and financial orientations have increasingly prioritized carbon sequestration in forests as a means to address climate change issues. This emphasis often leads to the overshadowing of other aspects of forest management.
    • Neglect of Long-Term Sustainability: The emphasis on carbon sequestration may result in neglecting the long-term sustainability of forests. Forest management strategies that prioritize carbon storage may not necessarily align with broader ecological and social sustainability goals.

    Risks and their impacts:

    • Ongoing Crises: Despite efforts to reduce deforestation, significant challenges persist, including climate change, biodiversity loss, and socio-economic inequalities. These crises pose substantial threats to global sustainability and well-being.
    • Commodification Risks: The commodification of forests for carbon capture introduces risks that may exacerbate existing inequalities and hinder effective forest management practices.

    Market-based Versus Non-market Approaches:

    • Market-Based Solutions: There has been significant traction in market-based solutions such as forest carbon trading and zero-deforestation supply chains. These approaches aim to incentivize sustainable forest management practices through economic mechanisms.
    • Exacerbation of Inequities: Despite their popularity, market-based solutions may exacerbate existing inequities within forest governance systems. Certain stakeholders or regions may benefit disproportionately, while others may be marginalized or disadvantaged.
    • Non-market mechanisms: As an alternative, non-market mechanisms, including state regulation and community-led initiatives, are suggested to offer more just and effective pathways for forest governance.

    Policy recommendations as per the Report:

    • Holistic Valuation of Forests: Policymakers should reevaluate forests beyond their role as carbon sinks, recognizing their multifaceted ecological, social, and economic values.
    • Equitable Governance: Policymakers should prioritize inclusive decision-making processes that ensure the voices of marginalized groups, such as indigenous and local communities, are heard and respected.
    • Protection of Rights and Livelihoods: Policies should prioritize the protection of the rights and livelihoods of resource-dependent communities.

    Way Forward: 

    • Integrated Forest Management: Governments and international organizations should adopt integrated approaches to forest management that recognize and balance the ecological, social, and economic values of forests.
    • Strengthening Governance Structures: Policymakers should work to strengthen governance structures at local, national, and international levels to ensure more equitable decision-making processes.

    Mains PYQ:

    Q Examine the status of forest resources of India and its resultant impact on climate change. (UPSC 2020)

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  • Minority Issues – SC, ST, Dalits, OBC, Reservations, etc.

    Reservation within Constitutional bounds

    Explained | Indian Society | Mains Paper 1: Salient features of Indian Society

    Note4Students

    From UPSC perspective, the following things are important:

    Prelims level: Articles 15 and 16;

    Mains level: Reservation and Sub-categorization;

    Why in the news?

    There’s a big argument between political parties about reservation. The BJP said some exaggerated things about the Congress wanting a caste census, suggesting it’s connected to religion.

    Current debates on Reservation and Sub-categorization:

    • Constitutional Provisions: The Constituent Assembly opposed reservation solely based on religion, and the Constitution guarantees prohibition of discrimination based on religion under Articles 15 and 16.
    • History of Sub-categorization in Karnataka: In Karnataka, all Muslim communities are included within the OBC quota, forming the basis for the BJP’s current campaign.
      • Sub-categorization for Muslims within the OBC quota has existed in Karnataka since 1995.
      • The H. D. Deve Gowda-led government introduced it but was later removed by the Basavaraj Bommai-led government. However, the status quo continues after court observation.
    • Reservation for Muslim and Christian Communities: Socially and educationally backward Muslim and Christian communities are provided reservations under the OBC/MBC category in various states, including Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, and Andhra Pradesh.
    • Constitutional Language and SC/ST Communities: The Constitution specifies that for SCs, the person should profess Hinduism, Sikhism, or Buddhism, but no such requirement exists for STs.
    • Congress Manifesto Promise: The Congress has promised in its manifesto to work towards removing the 50% cap placed on reservations, suggesting a potential shift in reservation policy if they come into power.

    Affirmative action as per Constitution:

    • Constitutional Provisions: Articles 15 and 16 of the Constitution ensure equality to all citizens in actions by the state, including admissions to educational institutions and public employment.
      • They also enable the state to make special provisions for advancing socially and educationally backward classes, including OBC, SC, and ST.
    • Classification of Backward Classes: OBC is a collective term for socially and educationally backward castes, with some states also classifying certain castes as Most Backward Classes (MBC). Reservation percentages vary from state to state.
    • Indra Sawhney Case (1992): Supreme Court upheld 27% reservation for OBC. Caste is considered a determinant of class in the Indian context, and backwardness cannot be determined solely on economic criteria.
      • A cap of 50% was fixed for reservations unless there were exceptional circumstances.
    • Total reservation stood at 49.5% for OBC (27%), SC (15%), and ST (7.5%)—creamy layer exclusion from OBC reservation, with an income limit currently at ₹8 lakhs per annum.
      • Exclusion of children of certain government officials from the reservation.
    • Janhit Abhiyan Case (2022): The court upheld the constitutional validity of the reservation for Economically Weaker Sections (EWS). Economic criteria could be a reservation basis, according to the court’s majority opinion.

    Affirmative Actions Globally:

    • In the U.S., there is ‘affirmative action’ that consists of government-approved and voluntary private programs granting special consideration to racial minorities like African Americans and Latin Americans.
      • In Fair Admissions vs Harvard case (2023), the U.S. Supreme Court, however, ruled that race-based affirmative action programs in college admissions violate the equal protection clause of the U.S. Constitution.
    • In the U.K., the law enables voluntary ‘positive action’ which allows employers to combat the under-representation of disadvantaged groups.
    • France does not have any affirmative action based on race or ethnicity. It provides educational measures designed to increase opportunities for low-income students.

    Way Forward: 

    • Need for Sub-categorization: The Rohini Commission was set up to provide recommendations on sub-categorization among OBC castes, as a significant portion of reserved jobs and seats have been garnered by a small percentage of OBC castes/sub-castes. Similar issues of concentration of benefits persist in the SC and ST categories.
    • Inclusion of Dalit Christians and Muslims: Dalit Christians and Muslims also suffer from discrimination and lack of opportunities. There is a need to extend reservation benefits to these communities and address their marginalization.

    Mains PYQ:

    Q Whether National Commission for Scheduled Castes (NCSC) can enforce the implementation of constitutional reservation for the Scheduled Castes in the religious minority institutions? Examine.(UPSC IAS/2018)

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  • Health Sector – UHC, National Health Policy, Family Planning, Health Insurance, etc.

    Niti Aayog report finds ‘huge gap’ in cancer screening at Ayushman centres

    Explained | Indian Society | Mains Paper 2: Governance, Transparency & Accountability, Citizens Charters

    Note4Students

    From UPSC perspective, the following things are important:

    Prelims level: Ayushman Bharat Scheme

    Mains level: Reason behind the 'huge gap' in cancer screening at Ayushman Bharat Health and Wellness Centres (HWCs)

    Why in the news? 

    Ayushman Bharat insurance scheme reached 5.47 crore users, but cancer screening at Health and Wellness Centers (HWCs) faces significant gaps, reports NITI Aayog.

    Objective of Ayushman Bharat Scheme:

    • Besides providing a Rs 5-lakh insurance cover, the scheme aimed to upgrade primary health centers to HWCs, offering annual screening for Non-Communicable Diseases (NCDs) including oral, breast, and cervical cancers for individuals aged 30 years or older.

    Coverage of Ayushman Bharat Scheme: 

    • Over 5.47 crore users have utilized the Ayushman Bharat insurance scheme, making it the world’s largest medical insurance scheme.

    The ‘huge gap’ in cancer screening at Ayushman Bharat Health and Wellness Centres (HWCs):

    • NITI Aayog Report Findings: A report from NITI Aayog, based on visits to HWCs in 13 states, highlights a significant gap in cancer screening services.
    • Limited NCD Screening: Although NCD screening is underway in most HWCs, yearly screening is largely absent, with less than 10% of facilities completing a single round of NCD screening.

    Reason behind the ‘huge gap’ in cancer screening at Ayushman Bharat Health and Wellness Centres (HWCs):

    • Methods of Screening: Official protocol mandates distinct screening methods for oral, cervical, and breast cancers. However, implementation of these methods faces challenges.
    • Lack of Awareness and Capacities: The gap in cancer screening is attributed to low awareness levels and lack of capacities among healthcare providers.
    •  Implementation fell short: Auxiliary Nurse and Midwife (ANMs), medical officers, and staff nurses were supposed to be trained in cancer screening methods, but implementation fell short.
    • Suboptimal Screening Activities: Screening for breast cancer relies on beneficiary education for self-examination, while cervical cancer screening remains to be operationalized. Oral cancer screening is performed on a case-by-case basis.
    • Infrastructure and Basic Devices: HWCs generally adhere to infrastructure standards, with basic devices and medicines available free-of-cost. However, the focus remains on improving cancer screening services to align with the government’s prevention and early detection efforts.

    Way forward: 

    • Awareness Campaigns: Launch comprehensive awareness campaigns to educate the public about the importance of cancer screening and early detection. This can involve community outreach programs, workshops, and informational sessions.
    • Utilize Technology: Integrate technology solutions such as telemedicine and mobile applications to facilitate easier access to screening services, especially in remote areas. Digital platforms can also aid in data management and monitoring of screening activities.
    • Performance Monitoring: Implement robust monitoring and evaluation mechanisms to track the implementation of cancer screening programs at HWCs.

    Mains PYQ: 

    Q Appropriate local community level healthcare intervention is a prerequisite to achieve ‘Health for All’ in India. Explain.

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  • Health Sector – UHC, National Health Policy, Family Planning, Health Insurance, etc.

    Meeting Nutrition challenge: What new guidelines prescribe?

    Explained | Indian Society | Mains Paper 2: Health & Education

    Note4Students

    From UPSC perspective, the following things are important:

    Prelims level: Data related to disease due to poor dietary habit

    Mains level: Concerns and guidelines as per the National Institute of Nutrition (NIN)

    Why in the news? 

    According to the National Institute of Nutrition (NIN), approximately 56.4% of India’s overall disease burden is linked to poor dietary habits.

    Guidelines by the National Institute of Nutrition (NIN): 

    The NIN, operating under the Indian Council of Medical Research (ICMR), has issued comprehensive guidelines on nutrition for vulnerable groups, including pregnant and lactating women, children, and the elderly.

    • Preventive Measures: A healthy diet coupled with regular physical activity can prevent 80% of Type 2 diabetes cases and significantly reduce the burden of heart disease and high blood pressure.
    • Nutrition for Mother and Child: Proper nutrition from conception to the age of 2 years is crucial for optimal growth and development, preventing undernutrition, micronutrient deficiencies, and obesity in both mothers and children.
    • Suggested general dietary principles: The guidelines recommend getting required nutrients from at least eight food groups, including vegetables, leafy vegetables, roots and tubers, dairy, nuts, and oils.
    • Group-Specific Guidelines:
    1. Pregnant women: Small frequent meals for those experiencing nausea and vomiting. It recommends the consumption of lots of fruit and vegetables, especially those high in iron and folate content.
    2. Infants and children: For the first six months, infants should only be breastfed, and must not be given honey, glucose, or diluted milk. After the age of 6 months, complementary foods must be included.
    3. Elderly: The elderly should consume foods rich in proteins, calcium, micronutrients, and fiber. Apart from pulses and cereals — with at least one-third as whole grains — at least 200-400 ml of low-fat milk or milk products, a fist full of nuts and oilseeds, and 400-500g of vegetables and fruit should be consumed.

    Key concerns as per the National Institute of Nutrition (NIN):

    • Rising Noncommunicable Diseases (NCDs) Among Adolescents and Children: Due to poor dietary habits led to diseases like cardiovascular disease, cancers, and diabetes are increasingly affecting adolescents and even children in India.
    • Focus on Healthy Dietary Habits: The guidelines emphasize the importance of reducing salt intake and avoiding highly processed foods like packaged snacks, cookies, and sugary treats, which are linked to unhealthy diets and disease burden.
    • High Prevalence of Lifestyle Conditions: The Comprehensive National Nutrition Survey 2019 highlights a concerning prevalence of lifestyle-related conditions even among children, including overweight or obesity, diabetes, pre-diabetes, and abnormal cholesterol levels.
    • Cholesterol Levels: The survey indicates high levels of bad cholesterol (LDL and triglycerides) in children aged 5-9 and pre-teens and teens aged 10-19, along with low levels of good cholesterol in a significant portion of children and adolescents.

    Other concerns related to the “Dual nutrition challenge”

    • Incidence of micronutrient (zinc, iron, vitamins) deficiencies ranged from 13% to 30% of children between ages 1 and 19. But still, the prevalence of anemia is at 40.6%, 23.5%, and 28.4% in children under age 5, ages 5-9, and 10-19 respectively.
    • However severe forms of undernutrition such as marasmus (a deficiency of macronutrients such as carbohydrates and proteins) and kwashiorkor (deficiency of proteins) have disappeared from the country.

    Conclusion: Implementing these guidelines effectively can significantly contribute to achieving Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) targets, particularly SDG 2 (Zero Hunger), SDG 3 (Good Health and Well-being), and SDG 12 (Responsible Consumption and Production).

    Mains PYQ: 

    Q How far do you agree with the view that the focus on the lack of availability of food as the main cause of hunger takes the attention away from ineffective human development policies in India? (15M) UPSC 2018

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  • Agricultural Sector and Marketing Reforms – eNAM, Model APMC Act, Eco Survey Reco, etc.

    Export-Import in the Agricultural sector

    Explained | Agriculture | Mains Paper 3: Effects Of Liberalization On The Economy, Changes In Industrial Policy and their effects on Industrial Growth

    Note4Students

    From UPSC perspective, the following things are important:

    Prelims level: Indian Agricultural trades

    Mains level: Reason behind the need for a new export-import policy for agriculture

    Why in the news? 

    India’s agricultural exports have declined in the fiscal year ended March 31, 2024, on the back of shipment curbs on a host of commodities, from cereals and sugar to onions.

    The Need for a New Export-Import Policy for Agriculture:

    • Decline in Agricultural Exports: India’s agricultural exports fell by 8.2% in the fiscal year ended March 31, 2024, due to shipment curbs on various commodities, including cereals, sugar, and onions. This decline highlights the volatility and vulnerability of agricultural trade.
    • Impact on Export Restrictions: Export restrictions imposed by the government, such as bans on sugar and non-basmati rice exports, have led to a significant decrease in export values.
    • Market Stability: Farmers and agri-traders require policy stability and predictability to make informed decisions. Abrupt changes in export-import policies, such as sudden bans or restrictions, can disrupt trade and adversely affect agricultural businesses.
    • Need for comprehensive framework: Export-import policies should strike a balance between the interests of producers and consumers. While export restrictions may benefit consumers by stabilizing prices, they can result in revenue losses for producers. A more predictable and rules-based policy framework is needed to ensure fairness and transparency.
    • Low tariffs on certain commodities: The current import policy, characterized by low on certain commodities like pulses and edible oils, contradicts the government’s objective of promoting crop diversification.

    Measures that needs to be taken in the present scenario:

    • Long-Term Goals for the Farm Sector: A new export-import policy should align with the long-term goals of the agricultural sector, including sustainable production practices, crop diversification, and increasing farmer incomes.
      • Balancing short-term consumer needs with long-term agricultural sustainability is essential for the sector’s growth and resilience.
    • Rationalizing Export-Import Policy: The government post-election may need to rationalize the export-import policy by introducing measures such as temporary tariffs instead of outright bans or quantitative restrictions.
      • A rational and coherent policy framework will support the growth and competitiveness of India’s agricultural sector in the global market.
    • Higher Import tariffs: It could incentivize domestic production of pulses and oilseeds, reducing dependence on imports and supporting farmers.

    Conclusion: Export-import policies should strike a balance between the interests of producers and consumers. While export restrictions may benefit consumers by stabilizing prices, they can result in revenue losses for producers. A more predictable and rules-based policy framework is needed to ensure fairness and transparency.

    Mains PYQ: 

    Q In the view of the declining average size of land holdings in India which has made agriculture non – viable for a majority of farmers should contract farming and land leasing be promoted in agriculture? critically evaluate the pros and cons.(UPSC IAS/2015)

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  • Global Geological And Climatic Events

    Positive Indian Ocean Dipole (IOD) to aid Monsoon this year

    Explained | Enviro & Biodiversity | Mains Paper 1: Geographical Features & Their Location

    Note4Students

    From UPSC perspective, the following things are important:

    Prelims level: IOD and its phases, ENSO;

    Why in the News?

    Australian weather agencies predict the possible return of a positive Indian Ocean Dipole (IOD) in the latter half of 2024.

    What is the Indian Ocean Dipole (IOD)?

    • The IOD is also known as the Indian Nino. It is characterized by the differential heating of ocean waters in the eastern and western parts of the basin.
    • Similar to the El Nino Southern Oscillation (ENSO) in the Pacific, the IOD involves phases of ocean temperatures and atmospheric conditions that affect weather patterns across the region and beyond.
    • There are two main phases of the IOD:
      • Positive Phase: In this phase, the western Indian Ocean becomes warmer than average, and the eastern part cooler than average. This results in greater convection and rainfall over the western Indian Ocean and adjacent land areas like East Africa, while reducing rainfall over the eastern Indian Ocean and places like Indonesia and Australia.
      • Negative Phase: The opposite conditions prevail during this phase, with cooler waters in the western Indian Ocean and warmer waters in the east. This leads to increased rainfall in the eastern Indian Ocean regions and drier conditions in the western part and East Africa.

    Back2Basics: El Nino-Southern Oscillation (ENSO)

    • El Nino and La Nina are two opposite phases of the El Nino-Southern Oscillation (ENSO) cycle.
    • ENSO is a naturally occurring phenomenon that involves the interaction between the ocean and atmosphere in the equatorial Pacific.

    Here is a detailed comparison of El Nino and La Nina

    El Nino La Nina
    Definition Warmer-than-normal sea surface temperatures Cooler-than-normal sea surface temperatures
    Frequency Every two to seven years Every two to seven years
    Duration Several months to a year or more Several months to a year or more
    Impact on winds Weakens trade winds, leading to changes in patterns Strengthens trade winds, leading to changes in patterns
    Impact on rains Reduces rainfall and can cause droughts Increases rainfall and can cause flooding
    Impact on temp. Warmer-than-average temperatures Colder-than-average temperatures
    Global effects Droughts in Asia and Africa, floods in Americas Floods in Asia and Africa, droughts in South America

     

    Impact on the Indian Monsoon:

    The Indian Ocean Dipole has significant impacts on the Indian monsoon system:

    1. Positive IOD often coincides with a stronger Southwest Monsoon, bringing more rainfall to India. This is due to the shift in warm water and accompanying convection towards India, which enhances the monsoon rainfall.
    2. Negative IOD can weaken the Southwest Monsoon, resulting in less rainfall and potential drought conditions in India. The shift of warm water away from India reduces the necessary heat and moisture that drive the monsoon rains.

    PYQ:

    [2017] With reference to ‘Indian Ocean Dipole (IOD)’ sometimes mentioned in the news while forecasting Indian monsoon, which of the following statements is/are correct?

    1. IOD phenomenon is characterised by a difference in sea surface temperature between tropical Western Indian Ocean and tropical Eastern Pacific Ocean.

    2. An IOD phenomenon can influence an El Nino’s impact on the monsoon.

    Select the correct answer using the code given below:

    (a) 1 only

    (b) 2 only

    (c) Both 1 and 2

    (d) Neither 1 nor 2

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  • Oil and Gas Sector – HELP, Open Acreage Policy, etc.

    The Socio-ecological effects of LPG price hikes

    Explained | Economics | Mains Paper 3: Infrastructure: Energy, Ports, Roads, Airports, Railways Etc.

    Note4Students

    From UPSC perspective, the following things are important:

    Prelims level: Government Initiatives and Programmes;

    Mains level: Issues related to affordability of LPG gas;

    Why in the News? 

    The ACCESS survey (2014-2015), conducted by the Council on Energy, Environment and Water, found LPG’s cost to be the foremost barrier to its adoption and continued use in rural poor households.

    Government Initiatives for LPG Fuel:

    • Government Initiatives: The Indian government has promoted using LPG (liquefied petroleum gas) as a clean cooking fuel, particularly in rural households.
      • These initiatives include the Rajiv Gandhi Gramin LPG Vitrak scheme, the ‘PAHAL’ scheme for direct benefit transfers, and the Pradhan Mantri Ujjwala Yojana (PMUY) aimed at providing LPG connections to below-poverty-line households.
    • Subsidies and Incentives: The government has provided subsidies and incentives to encourage the adoption of LPG without subsidies for the people who can afford it.
      • For example, the ‘Give it Up’ program encouraged consumers to voluntarily surrender their LPG subsidies, which were transferred to below-poverty-line households.

    Challenges:

    • Affordability: Despite government efforts, the affordability of LPG remains a challenge for many households, especially those in rural and below-poverty-line communities. Reports indicate that LPG prices in India were among the highest globally around ₹300/litre.
    • Dependency on Traditional Fuels: Studies, such as the one conducted in the Jalpaiguri district of West Bengal, highlight the continued dependency of local communities on traditional fuelwood for cooking.
    • Forest Dependency: The persistent use of fuelwood has implications for forest conservation and livelihoods, particularly in regions with degraded forests like Jalpaiguri.

    Way Forward: 

    • Need for Comprehensive Solutions: While government initiatives have aimed to promote LPG use, addressing affordability issues and ensuring access to clean cooking fuels for marginalized communities require comprehensive solutions.
    • Targeted Subsidies: Implement targeted subsidies for LPG cylinders to make them more affordable for rural and below-poverty-line communities. These subsidies can be based on income levels or geographic locations to ensure that those most in need receive assistance.

    Mains PYQ: 

    Q In what way could replacement of price subsidy with direct benefit Transfer (DBT) change the scenario of subsidies in India? Discuss.(UPSC IAS/2015)

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  • Solar Energy – JNNSM, Solar Cities, Solar Pumps, etc.

    India is now Third-Largest Producer of Solar Power

    Explained | Economics | Mains Paper 3: Infrastructure: Energy, Ports, Roads, Airports, Railways Etc.

    Note4Students

    From UPSC perspective, the following things are important:

    Prelims level: Global Rankings; Trends of solar energy production;

    Mains level: Factors contributed to India becoming the third-largest producer of solar power in 2023.

    Why in the News? 

    In 2023, India overtook Japan to become the world’s third-highest producer of solar power, according to a report by the International Energy Analytics Agency Ember.

    Global Solar Energy Production:

    • The leading producer of solar power in the world is China which produced 584 BU of solar power in 2024 – more than the next four countries combined (the United States, Japan, Germany and India).
    • India generated 113 billion units (BU) of solar power in 2023 compared to Japan’s 110 BU.
      • The installed solar energy capacity has increased by 30 times in the last 9 years and stands at 81.81 GW as of Mar 2024.
      • India’s solar energy potential is estimated to be 748 GWp as estimated by National Institute of Solar Energy (NISE).
    • Power demand in Japan decreased by 2% (2 BU) in 2023 after rising in 2021 and 2022, thus allowing India to overtake Japan.

    Other factors to make India the third-largest Solar power producer in 2023:

    • Government Initiatives: India has implemented various policies and initiatives to promote renewable energy, particularly solar power.
      • The government launched the Jawaharlal Nehru National Solar Mission (JNNSM) in 2010, aiming to promote the development and use of solar energy in the country.
      • Subsequently, various state-level policies and incentives were introduced to encourage solar power generation.
      • For example Gujarat Solar Energy Policy (Target is 36 GW of solar energy by 2036).
    • Investment and Financing: There has been significant investment in the solar power sector in India, both from domestic and international sources.
      • For example PM Surya Ghar, Muft Bijli Yojana, the scheme is projected to entail an investment of ₹75,000 crore.
    • Favorable Geography: India has abundant sunlight throughout the year, making it well-suited for solar power generation. About 5,000 trillion kWh per year of energy is incident over India’s land area with most parts receiving 4-7 kWh per sqm/day.
    • Increasing Energy Demand: India’s growing population and economy have led to a rising demand for energy. Electricity demand in India rose 7% in 2023 and is likely to average growth of 6% a year through 2026 on higher economic activity, according to the International Energy Agency.
    • International Collaboration: India has collaborated with various countries and international organizations to leverage expertise, technology transfer, and funding for solar projects. For example  International Solar Alliance (ISA).

    Way Forward:

    • Invest in High-Efficiency Panels: Choose solar panels with high-efficiency cells, such as monocrystalline photovoltaic cells, which can convert a greater percentage of sunlight into usable electricity
    • Use Energy Storage Solutions: Consider integrating energy storage systems, such as batteries, to store excess energy generated during the day and use it at night or during periods of low sunlight, thereby increasing the overall efficiency of the solar energy system.

    Mains PYQ: 

    Q Describe the benefits of deriving electric energy from sunlight in contrast to the conventional energy generation. What are the initiatives offered by our government for this purpose? (UPSC IAS/2020)

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