International Space Agencies – Missions and Discoveries

NASA captures image of Mars’ Arsia Mons Volcano

Prelims Only | Science Tech | Mains Paper 3: Awareness in various sc and tech fields

Why in the News?

NASA’s Mars Odyssey orbiter has captured a spectacular image of Arsia Mons, one of Mars’ largest volcanoes.

mons

About Arsia Mons Volcano:

Location: Arsia Mons is a massive shield volcano on Mars, located in the Tharsis region near the planet’s equator.
Volcanic Chain: It is part of the Tharsis Montes trio, which includes Pavonis Mons and Ascraeus Mons.
Size and Structure: The volcano rises about 20 km (12 miles) in height and spans 450 kilometres in diameter, making it one of the largest in the Solar System.
Summit Caldera: Arsia Mons has an enormous caldera, or summit crater, measuring 120 kilometres across, which is much wider than most Earth volcanoes.
Volcano Type: It is a shield volcano, characterised by gentle slopes formed through successive lava flows.
Surface Features: Signs of lava channels, landslides, and possible ancient glaciers have been observed on its flanks.
Cloud Activity: Known as the cloudiest volcano on Mars, Arsia Mons regularly develops water-ice clouds near its summit, especially at sunrise and during aphelion, when Mars is farthest from the Sun.

Its Significance:

Recent Imaging: A new image released by NASA shows Arsia Mons piercing through morning haze, offering scientists a horizon-level view of Martian terrain.
Scientific Importance: Observations help researchers analyse Martian weather, seasonal climate patterns, and atmospheric behaviour.
Mission Relevance: Arsia Mons plays a key role in understanding Mars’ volcanic history, dust storm formation, and identifying future landing zones.
Exploration Support: Data from this region improve planetary weather models and assist in safe mission planning for upcoming robotic and human missions.

Back2Basics: NASA’s Mars Odyssey Orbiter

Launch: Mars Odyssey was launched in 2001, making it NASA’s longest-operating spacecraft at Mars.
Technology: The orbiter captured the Arsia Mons image using the THEMIS (Thermal Emission Imaging System) camera.
Capabilities: This instrument detects both visible and infrared light, allowing scientists to study surface temperatures, mineral compositions, and atmospheric properties.
Unique Technique: To photograph Arsia Mons against the Martian horizon, the orbiter rotated its camera 90 degrees, deviating from its usual ground-facing orientation.
Contributions: It continues to monitor climate changes, study volcanoes and dust storms, and assist with landing site selection.
Support Role: It also serves as a communication relay for other active Mars missions, enabling data transfer and navigation for landers and rovers.

[UPSC 2016] Consider the following statements:

The Mangalyaan launched by ISRO 1. is also called the Mars Orbiter Mission 2. made India the second country to have a spacecraft orbit the Mars after USA 3. made India the only country to be successful in making its spacecraft orbit the Mars in its very first attempt

Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

Options: (a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 1 and 3 only * (d) 1, 2 and 3

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Historical and Archaeological Findings in News

Evidence of Pre-Harappan Human Presence discovered in Rann of Kutch

Prelims Only | History | Mains Paper 1: Arts & Culture

Why in the News?

IIT Gandhinagar researchers have found evidence that humans lived in the Great Rann of Kutch 5,000 years before the Harappans, likely as coastal hunter-gatherers.

About the Khadir Island Sites:

Location: Khadir Island (Khadir Beyt) is in the Great Rann of Kutch, Gujarat, near the well-known Harappan site of Dholavira.
Geographic Context: The island is one of 6 that were surrounded by water 5,000–6,000 years ago, due to higher sea levels.
Discovery Site: In 2016, researchers discovered archaeological remains near Bambhanka, about 1 km from Dholavira.
Site Features: Findings include house complexes, broken potsherds, marine shells, carnelian and agate flakes, and wall remnants made from random rubble masonry.
Shell Deposits: A 30–40 cm thick shell deposit was found on a hillock’s western edge, exposed by a pipeline trench. Similar shells were first reported in 1872 by geologist Arthur Beavor Wynne.
Shell Species: The Terebralia palustris shell species indicates a mangrove ecosystem once existed here.
Other Sites: Additional shell midden sites were discovered at Laungwali, Kunduwari, Ganeshpar, and Janan, mostly located 2–2.5 km from the coast.

Key Findings:

Archaeological Significance:
- Evidence suggests prehistoric hunter-gatherers lived here 7,000–7,500 years ago, before the Harappans.
- Carbon dating of 15 shell samples shows they are 5,000–5,500 years older than Harappan remains.
- A 400–500 year time lag may exist due to shellfish diets, meaning actual dates could be older.
Diet and Food Practices:
- Broken shell middens and discoloured shells suggest people cooked and ate shellfish.
- The diet likely included plants, fruits, tubers, and nuts, though no plant remains have yet been found.
Lifestyle and Settlement:
- These were mobile hunter-gatherers, not permanent agriculturalists.
- They likely moved seasonally, occupying each site for part of the year.
Tool Use:
- Stone tools (flakes and cores) made of chert, jasper, chalcedony, basalt, limestone, and quartzite were found.
- Smaller fragments may have served as arrow tips.
- Agate, found locally, and other materials suggest trade or resource mobility.
Trade and Cultural Links:
- Non-local tool stones indicate exchange networks.
- Similarities with tools from Las Bela (Pakistan) and coastal Oman point to long-distance prehistoric connections across the northern Arabian Sea.

[UPSC 2021] Consider the following pairs:

Historical place : Well known for

1. Burzahom : Rock cut shrines

2. Chandraketugarh :Terracotta art

3. Ganeshwar : Copper artefacts

Which of the pairs given above is/are correctly matched?

Options: (a) 1 only (b) 1 and 2 (c) 3 only (d) 2 and 3*

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Air Pollution

Dynamic Route Planning for Urban Green Mobility (DRUM)

Prelims Only | Enviro & Biodiversity | Mains Paper 3: Conservation, Environmental Pollution & Degradation, Eia

Why in the News?

IIT Kharagpur has made a web app called Dynamic Route Planning for Urban Green Mobility (DRUM) to help people choose travel routes that are not just fast but also have cleaner air and better energy use.

About DRUM:

Purpose: It is a navigation tool that prioritises air quality and energy efficiency, offering a greener alternative to traditional mapping apps.
Data Usage: DRUM uses real-time data on air pollution and traffic conditions to recommend optimal routes.
Sources: Pollution information is collected from the Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) and the World Air Quality Index.

Important Features:

Routing Logic: DRUM applies a rank-based elimination method that prioritizes time, followed by distance, pollution exposure, and energy use.
Technical Tools: The app uses GraphHopper for route generation and Mapbox for live traffic updates.
Route Options: Users can choose from 5 routes — shortest, fastest, least pollution (LEAP), least energy use (LECR), and a balanced suggested route.
Live Updates: It retrieves real-time route data when a query is entered, not through scheduled updates.
Performance: In Delhi trials, the LEAP route cut pollution exposure by over 50%, and the LECR route reduced energy use by up to 28%.
Non-Motorized Inclusion: DRUM will expand to serve cyclists, pedestrians, and other non-motorized users.
Predictive Upgrade: DRUM 2.0, currently in development, will use machine learning to forecast pollution and traffic and recommend best routes and departure times.

[UPSC 2025] Consider the following types of vehicles:

I. Full battery electric vehicles II. Hydrogen fuel cell vehicles III. Fuel cell electric hybrid vehicles How many of the above are considered as alternative (powertrain) vehicles?

Options: (a) Only one (b) Only two (c) All the three* (d) None

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Innovations in Sciences, IT, Computers, Robotics and Nanotechnology

Rare Proton Emission in Astatine Isotope

Prelims Only | Science Tech | Mains Paper 3: Achievements Of Indians In S&T

Why in the News?

In a groundbreaking discovery, an international team of nuclear physicists from Finland has measured the proton emission and half-life of 188Astatine (188At)—the heaviest proton-emitting isotope ever observed.

What is Proton Emission?

Atomic Structure: Atoms are made up of a nucleus containing protons and neutrons, surrounded by electrons.
Radioactive Decay: When atoms are unstable, they become stable by emitting particles through a process called radioactive decay.
Common Emissions: Most atoms emit alpha particles, beta particles, or gamma rays during decay.
Rare Emission: In very rare cases, an atom can emit a proton, a process known as proton emission.
Conditions for Emission: Proton emission occurs only in proton-rich nuclei that lie on the extreme edge of nuclear stability.
Detection Difficulty: These atoms are extremely hard to create in laboratories and usually exist for less than a second, making them hard to study.

Discovery of Proton Emission in 188-Astatine:

What is Astatine: Astatine (At) is a radioactive, halogenous element with atomic number 85, belonging to the halogen family (Group 17) on the periodic table. It’s a rarest natural element on Earth, not naturally occurring in significant quantities due to its short half-life.
Research Breakthrough: Scientists from Finland, India, and Portugal jointly studied a rare isotope called 188-Astatine.
Method: The atom was made by bombarding a silver target with strontium ions in a high-powered accelerator.
Observed Event: After its formation, 188-Astatine emitted a proton and transformed into polonium within 190 microseconds.
Role of Indian Scientists: Experts from IIT Roorkee used computer simulations to confirm the event and revealed that the atom’s shape resembled a watermelon, elongated and stretched.

Significance of the Discovery:

Scientific First: This was the first recorded instance of proton emission from astatine, a rare and heavy element.
Understanding Atomic Limits: The discovery helps scientists learn how unstable atoms behave and where the proton-holding limits of atomic nuclei lie.
Contribution to Nuclear Science: It enhances our understanding of element formation in extreme environments like stars and nuclear reactors.
Future Implications: Such discoveries can contribute to medical advances, especially in developing radioactive materials for cancer treatment.

[UPSC 2024] With reference to radioisotope thermoelectric generators (RTGs), consider the following statements:

1. RTGs are miniature fission reactors. 2. RTGs are used for powering the onboard systems of spacecrafts. 3. RTGs can use Plutonium-238, which is a by-product of weapons development.

Which of the statements given above are correct?

Options: (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2 and 3 only* (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3

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Telecom and Postal Sector – Spectrum Allocation, Call Drops, Predatory Pricing, etc

Digital Postal Index Number (DIGIPIN)

Prelims Only | Governance | Mains Paper 2: E-Governance

Why in the News?

The Centre has launched DIGIPIN, a geo-coded digital address system that aims to bring precision and efficiency to address identification across the country.

Tap to read more about PIN Codes in India.

What is DIGIPIN?

About: DIGIPIN is a digital address system introduced by the Government of India to improve location identification across the country.
Development Team: The system was developed by the Department of Posts, in collaboration with IIT Hyderabad and the National Remote Sensing Centre (NRSC) under ISRO.
Technology Base: It uses GNSS (Global Navigation Satellite System) data to geo-code each physical location with high accuracy.
Key Features:
- Accessibility: Users can access their DIGIPIN through the India Post’s online portal, and it works seamlessly on any GPS-enabled device.
- Nature of the System: It is open source, interoperable, and privacy-focused, meaning it is publicly accessible, works across platforms, and does not store personal data.
- Code Format: Each location is assigned a unique 10-character alphanumeric code (e.g., 39J-53M-TJF9) that corresponds to an area of approximately 4×4 square meters.
- Coverage Area: DIGIPIN works across urban, rural, forest, and oceanic regions throughout India, even where no formal addresses exist.

digipin

Significance of DIGIPIN:

Precision Mapping: DIGIPIN enables highly accurate geolocation, even in places without traditional street addresses or house numbers.
E-Commerce Enhancement: The system boosts last-mile delivery efficiency for platforms like Amazon, Flipkart, and other logistics providers.
Emergency Response: DIGIPIN supports police, ambulance, and fire services in reaching destinations quickly, especially in dense or unmapped areas.
Public Service Delivery: It improves government outreach by making it easier to deliver welfare schemes, notices, and essential services in remote areas.
Inclusion of Remote Regions: The system brings digital address visibility to forests, tribal regions, and maritime zones, aiding national mapping efforts.

[UPSC 2022] Consider the following:

1. Aarogya Setu

2. CoWIN

3. DigiLocker

4. DIKSHA

Which of the above are built on top of open-source digital platforms?

Options: (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2, 3 and 4 only (c) 1, 3 and 4 only (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4*

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Railway Reforms

PM inaugurates Chenab Railway Bridge

Prelims Only | Economics | Mains Paper 3: Infrastructure: Energy, Ports, Roads, Airports, Railways Etc.

Why in the News?

Prime Minister inaugurated the world’s highest railway bridge over the Chenab River in Jammu and Kashmir.

About the Chenab Rail Bridge:

Location: The Chenab Rail Bridge is the world’s highest railway bridge, situated over the Chenab River in Reasi district, Jammu and Kashmir. It is part of the Udhampur–Srinagar–Baramulla Rail Link (USBRL).
Height: The bridge rises to a height of 359 metres, which is 35 metres taller than the Eiffel Tower.
Structure and Length: It has a total length of 1,315 metres, comprising a 530-metre approach bridge and a 785-metre steel arch bridge.
Project Execution: Constructed by Konkan Railway Corporation, with contributions from Afcons Infrastructure, Ultra Construction & Engineering (South Korea), and VSL India.
Design and Engineering:
- IISc Bengaluru designed the foundation.
- IIT Delhi and IIT Roorkee conducted seismic analysis.
- DRDO ensured it is blast-proof.
Durability and Safety: The bridge can withstand magnitude 8 earthquakes, blasts up to 40 tonnes of TNT, temperatures as low as -20°C, and wind speeds of 266 km/h.
Speed and Lifespan: It supports train speeds up to 100 km/h and has a lifespan of 120 years.
Key Milestones: The arch closure was completed in April 2021, and the Golden Joint Ceremony was held on August 13, 2022.

PM also inaugurated Anji Bridge:

About: The Anji Bridge is India’s first cable-stayed railway bridge, built over the Anji River, a tributary of the Chenab.
Ranking: It is the second-highest railway bridge in India, after the Chenab Bridge.
Design: Originally planned as an arch bridge, the design was changed to cable-stayed due to geological challenges.
Structure Details: The total length is 725 metres, comprising an ancillary viaduct, approach bridge, and central embankment.
Features: It is supported by 96 cables ranging from 82 to 295 metres, with a deck width of 15 metres.
Resilience: The bridge is engineered to withstand seismic activity, unstable terrain, strong winds, heavy storms, and explosions.

[UPSC 2025] Consider the following statements:

I. Indian Railways have prepared a National Rail Plan (NRP) to create a future ready railway system by 2028. II. ‘Kavach’ is an Automatic Train Protection system developed in collaboration with Germany. III. ‘Kavach’ system consists of RFID tags fitted on track in station section.

Which of the statements given above are not correct?

Options: (a) I and II only (b) II and III only (c) I and III only (d) I, II and III*

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RBI Notifications

RBI’s Monetary Policy Committee (MPC) Decisions

Prelims Only | Economics | Mains Paper 3: Indian Economy

Why in the News?

The RBI, in its Monetary Policy Committee (MPC) meeting, cut the Cash Reserve Ratio (CRR) by 1% to release ₹2.5 lakh crore into the banking system by November 2025.

Key Changes Announced:

Cash Reserve Ratio (CRR) reduced by 1% in four tranches, bringing it down to 3% by November 29, 2025.
This CRR cut will release ₹2.5 lakh crore liquidity into the banking system by December 2025.
Statutory Liquidity Ratio (SLR) remains unchanged at 18% of Net Demand and Time Liabilities (NDTL).

Key terms related to the MPC instruments:

	Explanation
Cash Reserve Ratio (CRR)	CRR is the percentage of a bank’s total deposits that must be maintained as liquid cash with the RBI. Banks cannot use this amount for lending or investment. No interest is earned on CRR. It is used to control liquidity and inflation in the economy. Increasing CRR reduces bank lending capacity; decreasing it increases liquidity. Current CRR is 4.5% of Net Demand and Time Liabilities (NDTL).
Statutory Liquidity Ratio (SLR)	SLR is the minimum percentage of NDTL that banks must maintain in liquid form. It includes cash, gold, or approved government securities, kept with the bank itself. It helps ensure bank solvency and restricts excessive credit growth. Raising SLR reduces funds available for lending; lowering it boosts credit and growth. It also helps the government ensure demand for its securities.
Net Demand and Time Liabilities (NDTL)	It includes public deposits and balances held with other banks. It excludes deposits the bank itself has with other banks. Demand liabilities include current accounts and demand drafts. Time liabilities include fixed deposits and recurring deposits. CRR and SLR are calculated as a percentage of NDTL.
Repo Rate	The repo rate is the rate at which the RBI lends short-term funds to commercial banks against government securities. Banks sell securities to RBI with an agreement to repurchase them later. Lower repo rate makes borrowing cheaper and boosts liquidity. Higher repo rate makes borrowing costlier, reducing liquidity. It is a key monetary policy tool to regulate inflation and money supply.
Variable Rate Repo (VRR) Auction	VRR auction is a method where RBI conducts repo operations at variable interest rates. Interest rate is determined through competitive bidding by banks. It reflects real-time demand and supply of liquidity. Enables more flexible and efficient liquidity management by RBI.
Standing Deposit Facility (SDF)	SDF allows banks to deposit surplus funds with the RBI without providing any collateral. Banks earn interest at a rate set by the RBI. It is used to absorb excess liquidity from the system. Part of RBI’s liquidity management framework.
Weighted Average Call Rate (WACR)	WACR is the weighted average interest rate at which banks borrow and lend overnight funds in the interbank call money market. It is an important indicator of short-term liquidity conditions. RBI monitors WACR to guide monetary policy decisions.

[UPSC 2020] If the RBI decides to adopt an expansionist monetary policy, which of the following would it not do?

1. Cut and optimise the Statutory Liquidity Ratio.

2. Increase the Marginal Standing Facility Rate.

3. Cut the Bank Rate and Repo Rate.

Select the correct answer using the code given below:

Options: (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2 only* (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3

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Land Reforms

UMEED Portal for Waqf Properties

Prelims Only | Governance | Mains Paper 2: E-Governance
Why in the News?

Union Minister for Minority Affairs has launched the Unified Waqf Management, Empowerment, Efficiency and Development (UMEED) portal—a centralised digital platform to manage Waqf properties across India.

Tap to read more about the Waqf and the Waqf (Amendment) Act, 2025.

About the UMEED Portal
- Launch: It was launched by the Ministry of Minority Affairs on June 6, 2025.
- Core Purpose: It ensures real-time registration, verification, and monitoring of Waqf properties across India.
- Legal Alignment: The portal is aligned with the Waqf (Amendment) Act, 2025, which received presidential assent in April 2025.
- Governance Shift: UMEED aims to promote transparency, accountability, and public participation by making Waqf data digitally traceable.
Key Features:
- Centralized Registration: All Waqf properties must be registered on a single digital platform.
- Documentation: Each property receives a 17-digit ID and must include ownership papers, exact measurements, and geotagged location data.
- User-Friendly Design: Features include dropdown-based input, GIS mapping, and a grievance redressal system.
- 3-Tier Verification:
  - Maker: Mutawalli enters the property data.
  - Checker: District official verifies the entry.
  - Approver: CEO or authorised Waqf Board officer grants approval.
- Transparency and Privacy: Public access to basic property details is allowed, while data privacy is ensured.
- Eligibility Rule: Properties registered in women’s names are not eligible as Waqf properties, though women and vulnerable groups remain priority beneficiaries.
- Support System: A toll-free helpline is available for technical assistance.
Registration Process:
- Responsible Authority: State Waqf Boards are in charge of registering properties.
- Deadline: All registrations must be completed within 6 months of the portal’s launch.
- Required Data: Includes property size, ownership documents, geotagging, and whether the land is government-owned.
- Extension Policy: A 1–2 month extension may be granted upon valid request.
- Non-Compliance: Unregistered properties will be marked as “disputed” and referred to the Waqf Tribunal.
- Missing Documents: In such cases, the mutawalli must approach the Tribunal for validation.
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Renewable Energy – Wind, Tidal, Geothermal, etc.

Global Energy Investment Report, 2025

IOCR Prelims Only | Enviro & Biodiversity | Mains Paper 3: Infrastructure: Energy, Ports, Roads, Airports, Railways Etc.

Why in the News?

China will lead global energy investments in 2025, making up over a quarter of total spending, says the International Energy Agency’s (IEA) 10th edition Global Energy Investment Report, 2025.

Back2Basics: International Energy Agency (IEA)

Establishment: The IEA was formed in 1974 under the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) in response to the 1973 oil crisis, with headquarters in Paris, France.
Membership: It has 31 member countries (e.g., US, UK, France, Japan) and 11 association countries like India, China, and Brazil.
India’s Role: India joined as an Association Country in 2017, gaining access to data-sharing, policy support, and technical cooperation.
Expanded Mission: The IEA now supports energy security, clean energy transitions, emissions tracking, and policy development.
Global Influence: Its major reports—World Energy Outlook, Net Zero by 2050, and Energy Technology Perspectives—guide governments and investors worldwide.

About the Global Energy Investment Report:

Origin and Purpose: Officially titled World Energy Investment Report, is the IEA’s flagship annual publication.
Published since 2016: To assess investment flows across the global energy system.
Scope of Coverage: It tracks investments in fossil fuels, renewables, electricity supply, critical minerals, energy efficiency, R&D, and innovation financing.
Strategic Value: The report helps determine if current investments support climate goals and universal energy access.

Global Energy Investment Report, 2025

Key Highlights from the 2025 Report:

China’s Role: China will account for over 25% of global energy investment, with over $625 billion in clean energy, though it also approved 100 GW of new coal plants in 2024.
Global Trends: Clean energy investment will hit $2.2 trillion, over twice the amount spent on fossil fuels, yet still falls short of COP28 targets.
Africa’s Investment Gap: Africa’s fossil fuel investment dropped from $125 billion to $54 billion, and it still receives only 2% of global clean energy funds, mainly due to debt burdens.
India’s Position: India’s renewables investment rose from $13 billion (2015) to $37 billion (2025), while fossil fuel investment also increased. However, grid and storage spending declined to $25 billion.
Financing Barriers: India’s high cost of capital—80% above advanced economies—limits clean energy growth. The “Baku to Belem Roadmap” seeks to mobilize $1.3 trillion by 2035 for such regions.
Global Mismatch: While $1 trillion is spent annually on power generation, only $400 billion goes to grid infrastructure, affecting distribution capacity.

[UPSC 2022] Consider the following statements:

1. The Climate Group” is an international non-profit organisation that drives climate action by building large networks and runs them.

2. The International Energy Agency in partnership with The Climate Group launched a global initiative “EP100”.

3. EP100 brings together leading companies committed to driving innovation in energy efficiency and increasing competitiveness while delivering on emission reduction goals.

4.Some Indian companies are members of EP100.

5. The International Energy Agency is the Secretariat to the “Under2 Coalition”.

Which of the statements given above are correct?

Options: (a) 1,2,4 and 5 (b) 1,3 and 4 only* (c) 2,3 and 5 only (d) 1,2,3,4 and 5

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Wildlife Conservation Efforts

[pib] EnviStats India Report, 2025

DOMR Prelims Only | Enviro & Biodiversity | Mains Paper 3: Conservation, Environmental Pollution & Degradation, Eia

Why in the News?

The Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation (MoSPI) has released the 8th edition of EnviStats India: Environment Statistics Report.

About EnviStats India Report:

Launch: It is an annual report released by the Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation (MoSPI), first launched in 2018.
Global Framework: It follows the UN’s Framework for the Development of Environment Statistics (FDES) 2013.
Data Compilation: The report consolidates environmental data from multiple ministries and departments of the Indian government.
Policymaking Support: It helps in evidence-based policymaking by identifying environmental challenges, resource needs, and trends.

Key Highlights of EnviStats India, 2025:

Energy and Fisheries:

- Thermal power generation rose from 7.92 lakh GWh (2013–14) to 13.26 lakh GWh (2023–24).
- Renewable energy generation increased from 65,520 GWh to 2.26 lakh GWh over the same period.
- Inland fish production jumped from 61.36 lakh tonnes to 139.07 lakh tonnes.
- Marine fish production grew from 34.43 lakh tonnes to 44.95 lakh tonnes.

Climate and Weather Trends:

- Annual mean temperature increased from 25.05°C (2001) to 25.74°C (2024).
- Minimum temperature rose from 19.32°C to 20.24°C; maximum temperature from 30.78°C to 31.25°C.
- Rainfall patterns showed year-to-year variability, but no clear long-term trend.

Biodiversity Statistics:

- India’s faunal diversity includes 1,04,561 species, contributing to the global count of 16,73,627 species.
- It includes 20,613 marine, 9,436 freshwater, and 22,404 soil species.
- Mangrove and estuarine ecosystems show high biodiversity richness.

Expenditure Trends:

- The Environment Sustainability sector had the highest allocation: ₹2,433.24 crore in 2021–22.
- Spending on Conservation of Natural Resources showed a rising trend.
- Agro-forestry received the lowest funding among the three major environmental sectors.

[UPSC 2020] Consider the following statements:

1. 36% of India’s districts are classified as “overexploited” or “critical” by the Central Ground Water Authority (CGWA).

2. CGWA was’ formed under the Environment (Protection) Act.

3. India has the largest area under groundwater irrigation in the world

Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

Options: (a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only * (c) 2 only (d) 1 and 3 only

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Type: Prelims Only

Why in the News?

About Arsia Mons Volcano:

Its Significance:

Back2Basics: NASA’s Mars Odyssey Orbiter

Why in the News?

About the Khadir Island Sites:

Key Findings:

Why in the News?

About DRUM:

Important Features:

Why in the News?

What is Proton Emission?

Discovery of Proton Emission in 188-Astatine:

Significance of the Discovery:

Why in the News?

What is DIGIPIN?

Significance of DIGIPIN:

Why in the News?

About the Chenab Rail Bridge:

PM also inaugurated Anji Bridge:

Why in the News?

Key Changes Announced:

Key terms related to the MPC instruments:

Why in the News?

About the UMEED Portal

Key Features:

Registration Process:

Why in the News?

Back2Basics: International Energy Agency (IEA)

About the Global Energy Investment Report:

Key Highlights from the 2025 Report:

Why in the News?

About EnviStats India Report:

Key Highlights of EnviStats India, 2025: