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  • India is the World’s Second Largest emitter of Nitrous Oxide

    Why in the News?

    • India ranks as the world’s second-largest contributor (after China) to nitrous oxide (N2O), a potent greenhouse gas (GHG), accounting for approximately 11% of global man-made emissions in 2020 as per data published in the journal Earth System Science Data.
      • The top five country emitters by volume of anthropogenic N2O emissions in 2020 were China (16.7%), India (10.9%), the United States (5.7%), Brazil (5.3%), and Russia (4.6%).

    About Nitrous Oxide

    • Nitrous oxide (N2O), a colourless and odourless gas, is a potent greenhouse gas, 300 times more powerful than CO2. Despite its small atmospheric fraction, it ranks third in concentration after CO2 and methane (CH4). It’s a crucial target for environmental research and efforts to mitigate climate change impacts.

    Sources of Emission:

    1. Natural Sources: N2O is naturally produced in processes such as microbial nitrogen cycling in soil and water bodies, volcanic activity, and biomass burning.
    2. Anthropogenic Activities: Human activities significantly contribute to N2O emissions, with the primary sources being:
    • Agricultural practices, including the use of nitrogen-based fertilizers and animal manure.
    • Industrial processes such as combustion of fossil fuels and wastewater treatment.
    • Combustion of biomass and waste.
    • Use of nitrous oxide in medical and dental procedures (as a sedative) and in food packaging.

    Impact on Climate Change:

    • Greenhouse Gas: N2O is a potent greenhouse gas with a global warming potential (GWP) much higher than that of carbon dioxide (CO2).
    • Ozone Depletion: In addition to its role in climate change, N2O also contributes to ozone depletion in the stratosphere, further exacerbating environmental concerns.

    Environmental and Health Effects:

    • Environmental Pollution: N2O emissions can lead to pollution of soil, water bodies, and air, affecting ecosystems and human health.
    • Health Risks: While N2O is relatively non-toxic at ambient levels, prolonged exposure or high concentrations can pose health risks, including respiratory issues and neurological effects.

    Global Nitrous Oxide Emissions

    • Atmospheric Concentration: The concentration of atmospheric N2O reached 336 parts per billion in 2022, about 25% above pre-industrial levels.
    • Next to Carbon Emissions: In comparison, the concentration of carbon dioxide was 417 parts per million in 2022.
    • Persistent Lifespan: Once emitted, N2O stays in the atmosphere for longer than the average human lifespan (117 years), making its climate and ozone impacts long-lived.
    • Contribution to Climate Change: These emissions are responsible for 6.4% of the effective radiative forcing of greenhouse gases and have added about 0.1°C to current global warming.
    • Impact of Nitrogen Fertilizers: N2O emissions from human activities have increased by 40% in the past four decades, with agricultural production using nitrogen fertilizers and animal manure contributing 74% of total anthropogenic N2O emissions in the last decade.

    Call for Action and Future Outlook

    • Scientists warn that anthropogenic N2O emissions must decline by at least 20% relative to 2019 levels by 2050 to align with net-zero emission pathways consistent with the Paris Agreement.
    • Nitrogen fertilizers, which are heavily subsidized in India, contribute significantly to N2O emissions. Urgent reforms are needed to promote alternative production systems and mitigate emissions.

    India’s Policy Initiatives to Curb Nitrogen Pollution

    • Nutrient-Based Subsidy (NBS) (2010): This policy encourages the adoption of controlled-release fertilizers to enhance nutrient management efficiency.
    • Soil Health Cards (2015): Provided to farmers, these cards offer insights into soil nutrient levels and tailored fertilizer recommendations, promoting balanced nutrient application.
    • Bharat Stage (BS VI) Emission Standards (2016): These stringent regulations for vehicles and industries aim to reduce the emission of nitrogen oxides and particulate matter, thereby mitigating air and water pollution.
    • Nano Urea (2021): Marketed by the Indian Farmers Fertiliser Cooperative Limited (IFFCO), Nano Urea is a patented fertilizer approved for commercial use, designed to curb excessive and indiscriminate conventional urea use while boosting crop yields.

    PYQ:

    [2016] Why does the Government of India promote the use of ‘Neem-coated Urea’ in agriculture?

    (a) Release of Neem oil in the soil increases nitrogen fixation by the soil microorganisms

    (b) Neem coating slows down the rate of dissolution of urea in the soil

    (c) Nitrous oxide, which is a greenhouse gas, is not at all released into the atmosphere by crop fields

    (d) It is a combination of a weedicide and a fertilizer for particular crops

  • N332-GT5 and eOD-GT8: Advancements in HIV Vaccine Development

    Why in the News?

    Researchers at the Duke Human Vaccine Institute have successfully induced broadly neutralising antibodies (bNAbs) against HIV (human immunodeficiency virus) through vaccination for the first time.

    About HIV/AIDS:

    • Emergence: The first cases of AIDS (Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome) were reported in the early 1980s, primarily among gay men in the United States.
    • Discovery of HIV: In 1983-1984, scientists identified HIV (Human Immunodeficiency Virus) as the cause of AIDS.
    • Global Spread: HIV/AIDS quickly became a global pandemic, affecting millions of people worldwide.

    Causes:

    • HIV is transmitted through contact with certain body fluids of an infected person, including blood, semen, vaginal fluids, and breast milk.
    • Common modes of HIV transmission include unprotected sexual intercourse, sharing needles or syringes, and from mother to child during pregnancy, childbirth, or breastfeeding.

    Symptoms:

    • Acute HIV Infection: Many people experience flu-like symptoms, such as fever, headache, fatigue, and swollen lymph nodes, within 2-4 weeks after infection.
    • Asymptomatic Stage: After the initial symptoms subside, HIV often enters a latent stage where individuals may not experience any symptoms for years.
    • Progression to AIDS: Without treatment, HIV gradually weakens the immune system, leading to the development of opportunistic infections and cancers. This advanced stage is known as AIDS and is characterized by severe immune deficiency.

    Vaccines Development:

    • Challenges: Developing an HIV vaccine has been challenging due to the virus’s ability to mutate rapidly and evade the immune system.
    • Vaccine Candidates: Numerous vaccine candidates have been tested over the years, but none have yet been successful in providing robust protection against HIV infection.
    • Hope for the Future: Despite setbacks, advances in vaccine development, such as the identification of promising candidates like N332-GT5 and eOD-GT8, offer hope for eventually achieving an effective HIV vaccine.

    How B cells and mRNA play distinct roles in the context of HIV infection?

    1.    B cells (B lymphocytes):

    • B cells are a type of white blood cell crucial for the immune response.
    • In HIV infection, B cells participate in the adaptive immune response by producing antibodies specific to HIV antigens.
    • These antibodies can neutralize HIV particles, tag infected cells for destruction by other immune cells, and contribute to the immune memory against HIV.

    2.    mRNA (messenger RNA):

    • mRNA is a molecule that carries genetic information from DNA to the ribosomes, where proteins are synthesized.
    • In the context of HIV, mRNA is involved in the replication process of the virus.
    • HIV uses its RNA genome to produce viral mRNA, which directs the synthesis of viral proteins necessary for the assembly of new virus particles.
    • Understanding HIV mRNA is crucial for developing antiviral therapies that target viral replication, such as mRNA-based vaccines or mRNA inhibitors.

    N332-GT5 and eOD-GT8: The New Vaccines in Making

    • N332-GT5: This vaccine candidate targets a specific region on the surface of the HIV virus known as the N332 glycan site. By engaging B-cells that have the potential to produce bNAbs against this site, N332-GT5 aims to stimulate the immune system to generate a protective response against a wide range of HIV strains.
    • eOD-GT8: Similarly, eOD-GT8 is designed to target another region on the HIV virus, known as the eOD protein. By leveraging nanoparticles as carriers, eOD-GT8 aims to enhance the immune system’s ability to recognize and neutralize HIV, ultimately leading to the production of bNAbs.

    What are Broadly Neutralizing Antibodies (bNAbs)?

    • In the 1990s, scientists discovered that some HIV-infected individuals produced bNAbs, which neutralize many viral strains.
    • bNAbs target viral protein areas crucial for infectivity, making them less likely to change.
    • Despite their effectiveness, bNAbs take years to develop, by which time HIV has often evolved to escape them.

    Developing bNAb-Based Vaccines

    • The goal is to make the immune system produce bNAbs quickly in response to a vaccine.
    • Germline targeting involves three steps:
      1. Identify and engage B-cells capable of producing bNAbs.
      2. Use a booster to guide these cells to produce stronger bNAbs.
      3. Refine bNAbs to neutralize a wide range of HIV strains.

    PYQ:

    [2013] Which of the following diseases can be transmitted from one person to another through tattooing?

    1. Chikungunya

    2. Hepatitis B

    3. HIV-AIDS

    Select the correct answer using the codes given below.

    (a) 1 only

    (b) 2 and 3 only

    (c) 1 and 3 only

    (d) 1, 2 and 3

  • Bihar’s call for Special Category Status | Explained

    Why in the News?

    Bihar Chief Minister Nitish Kumar has renewed the State’s persistent call for special category status from the Centre, which would boost the State’s share of tax revenues from the Central government.

    How does the ‘Special Category’ Status benefit the states like Bihar?

    • Increased Central Funds: States with special category status receive a higher share of central funds for government schemes, typically 90% from the Centre, compared to 60%-80% for other states.
    • Tax-Related Concessions: These states enjoy various tax concessions that can attract investments and boost economic development.
    • Financial Aid for Development: The additional funds can be used to address developmental gaps, improve infrastructure, and support welfare programs.

    Criteria for Special Category status:

    • Geographic Disadvantages: States with challenging terrains such as hilly or difficult terrain.
    • Low Population Density or High Tribal Population: States with a considerable proportion of tribal population or low population density.
    • Economic and Social Backwardness: States that are economically and socially disadvantaged.
    • Strategic Location: States that share international borders or have strategic significance.

    Why has Bihar’s demand been a long-standing issue?

    • Economic Backwardness: Bihar has one of the lowest per capita incomes in India and lags behind in several human development indicators.
    • Fiscal Challenges: The bifurcation of the state leading to the formation of Jharkhand, frequent natural disasters, and insufficient water resources for irrigation have adversely affected Bihar’s fiscal situation.
    • Political Reiteration: Successive Bihar governments have continuously demanded special status to help the state’s development.

    What are the political implications of granting ‘Special Status’ to Bihar?

    • Increased Bargaining Power: Granting special status could enhance Bihar’s political leverage with the central government, especially in coalition politics.
    • Precedent for Other States: Granting special status to Bihar could lead to similar demands from other states, potentially creating financial burdens for the Centre.
    • Electoral Promises and Alliances: Political parties may use the promise of special status as an electoral tool to gain or maintain power, as seen with the Congress party’s manifesto promise in 2024.
    • Centre-State Relations: The decision could impact the dynamics of center-state financial relations and influence the federal structure of revenue distribution in India.

    Conclusion: The Central government should establish a transparent and well-defined framework for granting special category status, taking into account various economic, geographic, and social parameters. This framework should be periodically reviewed to ensure it remains relevant and fair to all states.

    Mains PYQ: 

    Q To what extent is Article 370 of the Indian Constitution, bearing marginal note “Temporary provision with respect to the State of Jammu and Kashmir”, temporary? Discuss the future prospects of this provision in the context of Indian polity. (UPSC IAS/2016)

  • What are the functions of Cabinet Ministers and Ministers of State?

    Why in the News?

    • President Droupadi Murmu administered oaths to the Central Council of Ministers (CoM) of the new NDA government, comprising a larger team compared to the previous term.
      • The Council includes 30 cabinet ministers, five Ministers of State (Independent Charge), and 36 Ministers of State, with the Prime Minister leading the team.

    About Central Council of Ministers

    • The Central CoM is a crucial part of India’s governance system.
    • Members: It consists of the Prime Minister (Head), Cabinet Ministers, Ministers of State, and Deputy Ministers.
    • History:
      • Portfolio System: The system of the CoM finds its roots in the Indian Councils Act of 1861, introduced by Lord Canning going parallel with the British Parliamentary System.

    Constitutional Provisions

    Articles 74 to 78 in Part V of the Indian Constitution broadly deal with the Central Council of Ministers.

    Union Executive: The Union Executive encompasses the President, Vice-President, Prime Minister, Union Council of Ministers, and Attorney General of India, collectively responsible for the country’s administration.

    Role of the Prime Minister

    • The Prime Minister is the head of the Central Council of Ministers, exercising executive authority and decision-making powers on key policy issues and unallocated portfolios.
    • Responsibilities: Prime Minister Modi oversees critical ministries such as Personnel, Public Grievances, Pensions, Department of Atomic Energy, and Department of Space, while also leading government bodies like the Cabinet Secretariat and NITI Aayog.

    Functions and Duties of CoM

    1. Policy Formulation and Implementation:

    • Formulating Policies: The Council of Ministers, particularly the Cabinet, is tasked with formulating policies crucial for the nation’s development and welfare.
    • Policy Coordination: It ensures coordination among various government departments and agencies for effective policy implementation.

    2. Executive Functions:

    • Real Executive Authority: The Council of Ministers acts as the real executive authority, exercising executive powers on behalf of the President.
    • Administration: It oversees the day-to-day administration of the country, ensuring the smooth functioning of government affairs.
    • Emergency Powers: During emergencies, the Council of Ministers advises the President on the exercise of emergency powers and crisis management.

    3. Legislative Functions:

    • Bills and Legislation: Ministers actively participate in the legislative process by introducing bills, piloting them through Parliament, and ensuring their passage.
    • Policy Advocacy: They advocate for government policies and bills in Parliament, engaging in debates and discussions to garner support.
    • Budgetary Process: The Council of Ministers prepares and presents the annual budget, guiding fiscal policies and financial allocations.

    4. Financial Management:

    • Budget Preparation: It plays a significant role in preparing the national budget, and outlining revenue and expenditure plans for the fiscal year.
    • Financial Administration: The Council oversees financial administration, ensuring compliance with budgetary provisions and efficient resource utilization.
    • Taxation and Fiscal Policy: Ministers propose taxation measures and formulate fiscal policies to promote economic growth and stability.

    Who are the Cabinet Ministers?

    • The Cabinet Ministers are senior members of the Central Council of Ministers who head key government departments or ministries.
    • Typically, Cabinet Ministers are appointed by the Prime Minister and are part of the Cabinet, which is the core decision-making body in the government.
    • Each Cabinet Minister typically manages a specific portfolio aligned with the government’s priorities and responsibilities.
      • Examples: Minister of Finance, Minister of Home Affairs, Minister of Defence, Minister of External Affairs, Minister of Health, Minister of Education, and others.
    • The term ‘Cabinet’ was inserted in Art. 352 of the Constitution by the 44th Amendment Act 1978.
    • It did not find a place in the original text of the Constitution.

    Difference between Ministers of State (Independent Charge) and Ministers of State:

    Ministers of State (Independent Charge) Ministers of State
    Authority Have independent portfolios Assist Cabinet Ministers
    Reporting Structure Directly report to PM/President Report to and assist Cabinet Ministers
    Accountability Fully responsible for their departments Assist Cabinet Ministers in tasks
    Protocol Status Equivalent to Cabinet Ministers in status Lower protocol status
    Attendance in Cabinet Meetings May attend if their portfolios are discussed Not regular attendees

     

    PYQ:

    [2013] Consider the following statements:

    1. The Council of Ministers in the Centre shall be collectively responsible to the Parliament.
    2. The Union Ministers shall hold the office at the pleasure of the President of India.
    3. The Prime Minister shall communicate to the President about the proposals for legislation.

    Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

    (a) 1 only

    (b) 2 and 3 only

    (c) 1 and 3 only

    (d) 1, 2 and 3

    [2007] Assertion (A): The Council of Ministers in the Union of India is collectively responsible both to the Lok Sabha and Rajya Sabha.

    Reason (R): The Members of both the Lok Sabha and the Rajya Sabha are eligible to be the Ministers of the Union Government.

    Choose the correct Code:

    (a) Both A are R are true and R is the correct explanation of A

    (b) Both A and R are true but R is not a correct explanation of A

    (c) A is true but R is false

    (d) A is false but R is true

  • 2025 to be International Year of Quantum Science and Technology

    Why in the News?

    • The United Nations has designated 2025 as the ‘International Year of Quantum Science and Technology’ to increase public awareness about the significance of quantum science and its applications.
      • This initiative, led by Mexico and supported by nearly 60 countries, aims to promote activities at all levels to highlight the importance of quantum science and technology worldwide.

    International Year of Quantum S&T

    • Growing Relevance: Quantum science and technologies, especially quantum computing, have gained prominence in public discourse due to their potential transformative impact on various fields.
    • Anniversary of Heisenberg’s Work: The proclamation coincides with the upcoming centenary of Werner Heisenberg’s groundbreaking paper on quantum mechanics, published in 1925.
    • Support from International Bodies: The proclamation has received endorsements from various international organisations, including the International Union of Pure and Applied Physics and the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry.

    What does one mean by Quantum?

    • “Quantum” refers to the smallest discrete unit of any physical quantity involved in an interaction according to quantum theory.
    • In classical physics, many properties, such as energy and momentum, are thought to be continuous and infinitely divisible.
    • However, in quantum mechanics, certain properties, like energy levels and the behaviour of particles, are quantised, meaning they can only exist in specific discrete amounts or levels.

    What is Quantum Theory?

    • Quantum theory is a fundamental theory in physics that provides a description of the physical properties of nature at the scale of atoms and subatomic particles.
    • Quantum mechanics differs from classical physics in that energy, momentum, and angular momentum.

    Development in Quantum Theory So Far

    • Planck’s assumption: In 1900, Planck made the assumption that energy was made of individual units or quanta.
    • Albert Einstein’s theory: In 1905, Albert Einstein theorized that not just the energy, but the radiation itself was quantized in the same manner.
    • Louis de Broglie theory: In 1924, Louis de Broglie proposed that there is no fundamental difference in the makeup and behaviour of energy and matter; on the atomic and subatomic level either may behave as if made of either particles or waves. This theory became known as the principle of wave-particle duality: elementary particles of both energy and matter behave, depending on the conditions, like either particles or waves (wave-particle duality).
    • Heisenberg proposed: In 1927, Werner Heisenberg proposed that precise, simultaneous measurement of two complementary values – such as the position and momentum of a subatomic particle – is impossible. Contrary to the principles of classical physics, their simultaneous measurement is inescapably flawed; the more precisely one value is measured, the more flawed will be the measurement of the other value. This theory became known as the uncertainty principle, which prompted Albert Einstein’s famous comment, “God does not play dice.”

    What is Entanglement?

    • Entanglement was another of several weird properties exhibited by these tiny particles.
    • Two particles, having ‘interacted’ with each other at some stage, were found to have got ‘entangled’ in a way that the behaviour of one produced an instantaneous reaction in the other even if the two were no longer connected in any way and were separated by very large distances.
    • The entanglement property opened up new technological possibilities first time that it was possible to ‘teleport’ the quantum states of a particle to another location without the particle moving anywhere and without a medium.

    What is Superposition?

    • It’s a phenomenon where, a particle exists simultaneously at multiple locations, known as superposition.
    • The chance of finding the particle at any given place was dictated by probabilistic calculations, and once it was found, or observed, at one location, it ceased to exist at all other places.

    What is Quantum Computing?

    • Quantum computing is a new and super powerful way of doing computer stuff.
    • Instead of using regular computer bits that are either 0 or 1, quantum computers use special bits called qubits that can be both 0 and 1 at the same time, thanks to a thing called “quantum superposition.”
    • This allows them to do lots of calculations all at once, making them really fast at solving certain types of problems.

    Back2Basics: National Quantum Mission (NQM)

    Details
    Mission Duration 2023-2031
    Implementing Authority Department of Science and Technology (DST) under the Ministry of Science & Technology
    India’s Position Seventh country to have a dedicated quantum mission after the US, Austria, Finland, France, Canada, and China
    Focus Areas
    • Intermediate-scale quantum computers with 50-100 physical qubits in 5 years and 50-1000 physical qubits in 8 years
    • Quantum computation, Quantum communication, Quantum Sensing & Metrology, Quantum Materials & Devices
    Development
    • High-sensitivity magnetometers for precision timing, communications, and navigation
    • Satellite-based secure quantum communications within India and with other countries
    • Design and synthesis of quantum materials like superconductors, novel semiconductor structures, and topological materials
    Thematic Hubs Establishment Four Thematic Hubs (T-Hubs) would be set up in top academic and National R&D institutes on the domains of Quantum Technology:

    1. Quantum computation
    2. Quantum communication
    3. Quantum Sensing & Metrology
    4. Quantum Materials & Devices

    PYQ:

    [2022] Which one of the following is the context in which the term “Qubit” is mentioned?

    (a) Cloud Services

    (b) Quantum Computing

    (c) Visible Light Communication Technologies

    (d) Wireless Communication Technologies

  • How SpaceX’s Starship can revolutionise space travel and exploration?

    Why in the News?

    • SpaceX’s Starship rocket completed its first fully successful test flight. This test flight brings SpaceX closer to its goal of creating a fully reusable rocket system, a development that could revolutionize space exploration and travel.

    What is Starship?

    • Starship is a two-stage heavy lift-off vehicle designed for crew and cargo transport to Earth orbit, the Moon, Mars, and beyond.
    • It stands nearly 120 meters tall, surpassing the Saturn V rocket.
    • The Super Heavy booster is powered by 33 Raptor engines, generating significant thrust, surpassing existing rocket systems like NASA’s Space Launch System (SLS).
    • Raptor engine fuel uses a mix of liquid oxygen and liquid methane, enabling efficient propulsion for the rocket.

    Cost Reduction and Efficiency with Starship

    • Starship can carry up to 150 tonnes of payload to low-Earth orbit.
    • It can be refuelled in space, thereby promising a significant reduction in the cost of space travel.
    • In-orbit refuelling allows Starship to operate like an aeroplane, reducing downtime between missions and maximizing efficiency.
    • Starship’s fully reusable design minimizes the need for costly hardware replacement, unlike traditional rocket systems.

    Scientific Benefits of Starship

    • Enhanced Payload Capability: Starship’s capacity for heavy payloads enables the launch of larger space telescopes and equipment for lunar and Martian missions.
    • Exploration Potential: Scientists can deploy larger and more sophisticated instruments, such as drilling rigs, to explore the Moon and Mars in unprecedented detail.
    • Sample Return Missions: Starship’s capability to return to Earth facilitates the retrieval of valuable samples from other planets, aiding in scientific research and understanding.

    PYQ:

    [2018] With reference to India’s satellite launch vehicles, consider the following statements:

    1. PSLVs launch satellites useful for Earth resources monitoring whereas GSLVs are designed mainly to launch communication satellites.
    2. Satellites launched by PSLV appear to remain permanently fixed in the same position in the sky, as viewed from a particular location on Earth.
    3. GSLV Mk III is a four-stage launch vehicle with the first and third stages using solid rocket motors, and the second and fourth stages using liquid rocket engines.

    Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

    (a) 1 only
    (b) 2 and 3
    (c) 1 and 2
    (d) 3 only

  • Portable Optical Atomic Clock for accurate timekeeping at Sea

    Why in the News?

    • Atomic clocks power GPS systems, guiding us in navigation, emergencies, and military operations.
      • Scientists are developing optical atomic clocks to enhance timekeeping accuracy for Navies.

    What are Atomic Clocks?

    • Atomic clocks are accurate timekeeping devices that use the vibrations of atoms as a precise measure of time.
    • They rely on the natural oscillations of atoms, usually Caesium or Rubidium atoms, which are extremely stable and predictable.
    • This stability allows atomic clocks to keep time with extraordinary accuracy, often losing or gaining less than a second over millions of years.
      • However they are big, need a lot of power, and are expensive, so they’re mostly used in big research places.

    Working Principle:

    • Use of Stable Atoms: Atomic clocks use stable atoms like Cs-133 to keep time really accurate.
    • Atom Energy Levels: Atoms have energy levels like steps on a ladder, and they move between these levels when they’re excited.
    • Creating Resonance: Cesium atomic clocks make caesium atoms vibrate by using microwave radiation at a certain frequency.
    • Defining Time: One second is how long it takes for caesium atoms to vibrate a certain number of times, which sets the standard for time.
    • Accuracy Control: Atomic clocks keep themselves accurate by constantly adjusting to make sure they’re vibrating at the right rate.

    Portable Optical Atomic Clocks for Maritime Use

    • New portable optical atomic clocks for ships are more accurate and durable, making them suitable for use at sea.
    • These clocks are the best at sea, which is a big deal for keeping time on ships.

    How Optical Atomic Clocks Are Different?

    • Use of Laser: Optical atomic clocks are even more accurate because they use lasers instead of microwaves.
    • Operating Frequency: They work at higher frequencies, which means they can measure smaller time intervals more precisely.
    • Narrow Linewidths: Optical atomic clocks are really stable because they have a narrow range of frequencies, which helps them stay accurate.

    Testing and Applications of Portable Optical Atomic Clocks

    • Initial Testing: Scientists tested the new clocks and found they were really stable and accurate, which is a big deal for keeping time.
    • Comparative Performance: These new clocks worked better than old ones, showing they could change how we keep time.
    • Sea Trials: Tests at sea showed the clocks worked well even on a moving ship, proving they could be used for navigation and other important tasks.

    Do you know?

    • Three rubidium atomic clocks and six hydrogen maser clocks onboard the Indian Regional Navigation Satellite System (IRNSS) had failed.
    • The failed satellite, IRNSS-1A, is still being used for messaging activities, and the data from other operational satellites will be used to maintain the system’s functionality.

     

    PYQ:

    [2018] Why is Indian Regional Navigational Satellite System (IRNSS) needed? How does it help in navigation?

    [2018] With reference to the Indian Regional Navigation Satellite System (IRNSS), consider the following statements:

    1. IRNSS has three satellites in geostationary and four satellites in geosynchronous orbits.
    2. IRNSS covers entire India and about 5500 sq. km beyond its borders.
    3. India will have its own satellite navigation system with full global coverage by the middle of 2019.

    Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

    (a) 1 only
    (b) 1 and 2 only
    (c) 2 and 3 only
    (d) None

  • What are the powers of the Speaker, why is the post crucial?

    Why in the News?

    The pivotal role of the Speaker in parliamentary democracy is underscored as both the TDP and JD(U), crucial allies within the NDA, compete for the position, highlighting its significance.

    Constitutional Mandate:

    • Speaker and Deputy Speaker are elected as per Article 93 of the Constitution, with the Speaker chosen by a simple majority.
    • The speaker’s term ends with the House dissolution and no-confidence motion can be moved against the Speaker.
    • No specific qualifications for the Speaker, who is distinct from other members.

    Powers of the Speaker

    • Conducting the House: The Speaker decides House conduct and government business, ensuring adherence to rules, crucial for opposition participation. There are Rules and Procedure for the functioning of the House, but the Speaker has vast powers in ensuring these Rules are followed, and in choosing procedures.
    • Questions & Records: The Speaker holds authority over determining the validity of queries raised by members and overseeing the publication of House proceedings. The Speaker possesses the power to remove, wholly or partially, statements deemed unparliamentary.
    • Voice Votes, Division: The speaker can push bills through by voice vote or division, crucial for the legislative process.
      • As per the Rules of Procedure and Conduct of Business in Lok Sabha, if the Speaker thinks that is “unnecessarily claimed”, simply ask the members who are for ‘Aye’ and those for ‘No’ respectively to rise in their places and decide.
    • No-Confidence Motion: A pivotal moment where the Speaker’s neutrality significantly affects the Opposition is during the presentation of a motion of no-confidence against the government.
      • In 2018, when notices for a no-confidence motion were submitted by the YSRCP and TDP, Speaker Sumitra Mahajan postponed the House multiple times before acknowledging the motion and conducting the vote.
    • Casting Vote: As per Article 100 of the Constitution, pertaining to voting in the Houses, the Chairperson of the Rajya Sabha or the Speaker of the Lok Sabha, or any individual acting in such a capacity, “shall refrain from voting initially but must cast a deciding vote in the event of a tie.”
    • His Removal:
      • Motion: A member of the Lok Sabha gives a written notice for the removal of the Speaker, citing specific grounds such as misconduct or inability to perform duties.
      • Support: The motion needs support from at least 50 members to be admitted for discussion in the House.
      • Resolution: Once admitted, the House discusses the motion. If the majority of members present and voting support the motion, a resolution for the Speaker’s removal is passed.
    Note: During the process of removal of the Lok Sabha Speaker in India, the Speaker typically remains present and presides over the proceedings until the resolution for their removal is passed. The Speaker maintains their role in overseeing the House’s functioning unless and until the majority of members vote in favor of the motion to remove them. Once the resolution is passed and approved by the President, the Speaker ceases to hold office and their duties are formally relinquished.

    Disqualification of Members

    • Power of the Speaker: The Speaker of the House holds the authority to disqualify legislators who defect from their party, as per the provisions of the Tenth Schedule.
    • Introduction of the Anti-Defection Law: The Tenth Schedule, also known as the anti-defection law, was incorporated into the Constitution in 1985 through the Fifty-Second (Amendment) Act.
    • Judicial Review: The Supreme Court, in the landmark case of Kihoto Hollohan versus Zachillhu in 1992, upheld the power vested in the Speaker to decide on defection cases. It ruled that only the final order of the Speaker is subject to judicial review.
    • Impact on Government Stability: Defections can change the numerical strength of political parties in the House, potentially destabilizing governments if members defect in significant numbers. Timely action by the Speaker in disqualifying defective members is crucial to maintaining the integrity of the Tenth Schedule and ensuring that governments retain their majority.
    • Supreme Court Directives: The Supreme Court has issued directives emphasizing the need for Speakers to expedite disqualification proceedings. For instance, in 2020, it ruled that Speakers must decide on disqualification pleas within three months, except in exceptional circumstances.
    • Impact on Government Formation: Delays in deciding disqualification petitions can have significant political ramifications, as seen in cases where governments have collapsed due to prolonged delays in addressing defection issues.
    • Case Example: In 2023, the Supreme Court directed the Maharashtra Assembly Speaker to expedite disqualification proceedings against members of factions within the Shiv Sena party. Prolonged delays in these proceedings contributed to the collapse of the government led by Uddhav Thackeray.

    Conclusion: The Speaker holds significant powers in conducting the House, ensuring adherence to rules, deciding on crucial matters like no-confidence motions, and maintaining political stability through the judicious application of these powers.

    Mains PYQ: 

    Q ‘Once a Speaker, Always a Speaker’! Do you think this practice should be adopted to impart objectivity to the office of the Speaker of Lok Sabha? What could be its implications for the robust functioning of parliamentary business in India? (UPSC IAS/2020)

  • What are Coronal Mass Ejections (CMEs)?

    Why in the News?

    • India’s solar mission Aditya-L1 recently captured images of the Sun and it’s Coronal Mass Ejections (CMEs) during a solar storm in May.
      • The Active region AR13664 on the Sun erupted several X-class and M-class flares, which were associated with Coronal Mass Ejections (CMEs).

    Coronal Mass Ejections (CMEs)

    • CMEs were discovered in 1971 and established their importance in solar-terrestrial relations later in the 1980s.
    • It consists of massive clouds of solar plasma and magnetic field lines.
    • It typically accompanies solar flares and filament eruptions.
    • The frequency of CMEs varies with the 11-year solar cycle, with about one a week observed during solar minimum and an average of two to three CMEs per day observed near solar maximum
    • They travel at thousands of km per hour.
    • They can lead to geomagnetic storms, aurorae, and in extreme cases, damage to electrical power grids.
    • Not all CMEs interact with Earth, but those that do can cause disruptions to satellite communications and power grids.
    • Halo CMEs are Earth-directed CMEs visible as rings in white-light coronagraph observations.

    About Aditya-L1:

    • Aditya-L1 mission is India’s first space mission to observe the Sun.
    • It is ISRO’s 2nd space-based astronomy mission after AstroSat, which was launched in 2015.
    • It was launched on September 2nd 2023 to observe the Sun and the solar corona.
    • The L1 point is a location in space where the gravitational forces of two massive objects, such as the Earth and the Sun, balance each other out, allowing a spacecraft to “hover” in a stable orbit.

    Launch Details: 

    • Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle (PSLV) with 7 payloads (instruments) on board.

    The 7 payloads include: 

      1. Visible Emission Line Coronagraph (VELC): Images of the solar corona in visible light to study its structure and dynamics.
      2. Solar Ultraviolet Imaging Telescope (SUIT): Images the solar chromosphere and transition region in ultraviolet light to understand heating and dynamics.
      3. Solar Low Energy X-ray Spectrometer (SoLEXS): Measures solar X-ray spectrum to study solar flares and coronal mass ejections.
      4. High Energy L1 Orbiting X-ray Spectrometer (HEL1OS): Measures high-energy solar X-rays to understand particle acceleration.
      5. Plasma Analyser Package for Aditya (PAPA): Measures solar wind plasma properties to study its interaction with Earth’s magnetosphere.
      6. Aditya Solar Wind Particle Experiment (ASPEX): Measures energetic particle properties in the solar wind to study their effects on Earth’s atmosphere.
    • Solar Irradiance Monitor (SIM): Measures solar irradiance variations and their impact on Earth’s climate.

    Objectives:

    • Aditya L1 will study the coronal heating, solar wind acceleration, coronal magnetometry, origin and monitoring of near-UV solar radiation and continuously observe the photosphere, chromosphere and corona, solar energetic particles and the magnetic field of the Sun.

    Location:

    • Aditya is placed in L1 Halo orbit which is about 1.5 million km from the Earth. The orbit allows the mission to look at the Sun continuously.
    • L1 refers to Lagrangian/Lagrange Point 1, one of 5 points in the orbital plane of the Earth-Sun system.
    • Lagrange Points are positions in space where the gravitational forces of a two-body system like the Sun and Earth produce enhanced regions of attraction and repulsion.

    PYQ:

    [2017] The terms ‘Event Horizon’, ‘Singularity’, ‘String Theory’ and ‘Standard Model’ are sometimes seen in the news in the context of-

    (a) Observation and understanding of the Universe

    (b) Study of the solar and lunar eclipses

    (c) Placing satellites in the orbit of the Earth

    (d) Origin and evolution of living organisms on the Earth

     

    https://www.thehindu.com/sci-tech/science/isro-releases-images-of-sun-captured-by-aditya-l1-during-may-solar-storm/article68273124.ece

  • BRICS Foreign Ministers’ Meeting

    Why in the News?

    • India joined a meeting of foreign ministers from the BRICS group, which was held in Russia. This meeting was the first one after BRICS expanded in 2023 to include Egypt, Ethiopia, Iran, Saudi Arabia, and the UAE became as full-time members.

    What is BRICS?

    Details
    Members BRICS (Brazil, Russia, India, China, South Africa)
    Origin Coined by economist Jim O’Neill in 2001 as BRIC, formalized as BRICS in 2010
    Formation First meeting of BRIC Foreign Ministers in 2006
    South Africa’s Inclusion Invited to join BRIC in December 2010
    Global share of BRICS
    • Population: 41%
    • GDP: 24%
    • Global trade: 16%
    Chairmanship Rotated annually among members, following sequence B-R-I-C-S
    India’s Hosting Hosted the 2021 BRICS Summit
    Key Initiatives
    • New Development Bank (NDB) established in 2014: Approved 70 infrastructure and sustainable development projects
    • Contingent Reserve Arrangement signed in 2014: Aims to forestall short-term balance of payments pressures and strengthen financial stability
    • Customs agreements signed for trade facilitation
    • BRICS Remote Sensing Satellite Constellation initiated in 2021: Involves six existing satellites developed by members

    Objective of BRICS

    • The primary objectives of BRICS (Brazil, Russia, India, China, and South Africa) are to promote economic cooperation, development, and influence in world affairs.
    • Key goals include fostering economic growth and cooperation among member nations, creating institutions for development financing, and strengthening political coordination and dialogue on international issues.

    BRICS-11 Expansion

    • BRICS celebrated its 15th summit by adding six new members, growing from five to eleven countries. This move aims to boost its global influence.
    • New members include Egypt, Iran, Saudi Arabia, UAE, Ethiopia, and Argentina, expanding BRICS’ reach across different regions.
    • These countries full membership commenced on January 1, 2024.

    Challenges within BRICS

    • No Unified Vision: BRICS lacks a clear and unified vision for addressing global issues, hindering coordinated action.
    • Bilateral Conflicts: Tensions between member countries, such as China-India border disputes and Russia’s conflicts, undermine cohesion and collaboration within BRICS.
    • Economic Disparities: Economic inequality among member nations, with China dominating the group economically, poses challenges to equitable decision-making and cooperation.
    • Trade Imbalances: Trade imbalances among member states hinder intra-BRICS trade and economic integration efforts.
    • Heterogeneity: Cultural, linguistic, and political diversity among member nations limit the development of common strategies and objectives.
    • Limited Institutional Framework: BRICS lacks robust institutional mechanisms for effective coordination and implementation of collective initiatives.

    PYQ:

    [2014] With reference to a grouping of countries known as BRICS, consider the following statements:

    1. The First Summit of BRICS was held in Rio de Janeiro in 2009.
    2. South Africa was the last to join the BRICS grouping.

    Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

    (a) 1 only

    (b) 2 only

    (c) Both 1 and 2

    (d) Neither 1 nor 2