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Type: Prelims Only

  • Interstate River Water Dispute

    In news: Cauvery River Dispute

    Prelims Only | Geography | Mains Paper 1: Geographical Features & Their Location

    Why in the News?

    On the Cauvery dispute, Karnataka CM has said that water will be released to Tamil Nadu since the rainfall is adequate, while stressing the Mekedatu Dam’s role in water balance and clean energy.

     

    Back2Basics: Cauvery River

    • Origin & Course: Rises at Talakaveri, Brahmagiri range (Kodagu, Karnataka); flows ~800 km through Karnataka & Tamil Nadu into the Bay of Bengal.
    • Catchment: Spreads across Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Puducherry.
    • Tributaries: Harangi, Hemavati, Kabini, Suvarnavathi, Bhavani.
    • Nature: Perennial river, sustained by both advancing & retreating monsoons.
    • Protected Areas: Cauvery WLS, Biligirirangan Hills, Pushpagiri, Muthathi, Ranganathittu, Bhimeshwari, Nagarhole, Bandipur.

    About Cauvery Water Sharing Dispute:

    • Colonial Origins: Began in 1892 (Madras Presidency vs Mysore); 1924 Agreement (50 years, expired 1974).
    • Post-Independence: Disputes arose with dam projects by Karnataka (1960s–80s); Supreme Court referred to Cauvery Water Disputes Tribunal (CWDT).
    • Interim Phase: Cauvery River Authority (CRA, 1998) issued temporary orders.
    • CWDT Final Award (2013): Tamil Nadu 419 TMC, Karnataka 270, Kerala 30, Puducherry 7.
    • Karnataka’s Obligation: In normal years, release 177.25 TMC to TN, including 123.14 TMC in SW monsoon.
    • Challenges: Disputes sharpen in weak monsoons, triggering use of a “distress formula”.
    • Legal Basis: Governed by Article 262, Inter-State River Water Disputes Act, 1956; Seventh Schedule entries 17 (State List) & 56 (Union List).

    cauvery

    About Mekedatu Dam Project:

    • Location: Deep gorge at Cauvery–Arkavathi confluence near Kanakapura, Karnataka.
    • Design: Balancing reservoir of ~66 TMC capacity.
    • Objectives: Provide Bengaluru drinking water, generate 400 MW hydropower, regulate flows to TN in drought years.
    • Importance: Karnataka argues it benefits both states by ensuring regulated water release.
    • Opposition: Tamil Nadu objects, fearing reduced downstream availability.
    • Current Status: Karnataka insists on moving ahead, requiring Centre & TN’s clearance.
    [UPSC 2022] Gandikota canyon of South India was created by which one of the following rivers?

    Options: (a) Cauvery (b) Manjira (c) Pennar* (d) Tungabhadra

     

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  • Places in news: Erra Matti Dibbalu

    National Parks/WSPrelims Only | Geography | Mains Paper 1: Geographical Features & Their Location

    Why in the News?

    This newscard is an excerpt from a photo published in ‘The Hindu’.

    About Erra Matti Dibbalu:

    • Location: Found between Visakhapatnam and Bheemunipatnam in Andhra Pradesh, stretching 5 km along the coast, with widths ranging from 200 m to 2 km.
    • Meaning: In Telugu, “Erra Matti” means red soil and “Dibbalu” means mounds, describing the reddish sand dunes.
    • Geological Heritage: Listed among the 34 National Geological Heritage Monument Sites of India by the Geological Survey of India (GSI).
    • Formation: Created around 12,000–18,500 years ago through the combined effect of tectonic activity (2.5 million–11,000 years ago), sea-level changes, monsoonal variability, and global climatic shifts.
    • Composition: Derived mainly from Khondalite rocks of the Eastern Ghats hinterland, with the red colour due to oxidation of iron-rich sediments.

    Significance:

    • Geological Value: Acts as a paleo-environment indicator, providing evidence of climate change, sea-level fluctuations, and coastal evolution during the late Quaternary period.
    • Archaeological Importance: Artefacts from Mesolithic and Neolithic periods and sediment layers dating back to the Late Pleistocene epoch have been found here.
    • Conservation Status: Declared a National Geo-heritage Monument (2016) and included in UNESCO’s Tentative List of World Heritage Sites (2025) for global recognition and protection.
    • Unique Landscape: Features badland topography with sand dunes, buried channels, gullies, and dendritic drainage patterns.
    • Rare Formation: Only two other similar red sand dune systems exist globally—the Teri dunes in Tamil Nadu and one site in Sri Lanka.
    [UPSC 2014] When you travel in Himalayas, you will see the following:

    1. Deep gorges 2. U-turn river courses 3. Parallel mountain ranges 4. Steep gradients causing land sliding

    Which of the above can be said to be the evidence for Himalayas being young fold mountains?

    Options: (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 1, 2 and 4 only (c) 3 and 4 only (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4*

     

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  • Biofuel Policy

    PM inaugurated India’s first Bamboo-based Ethanol Plant

    Prelims Only | Economics | Mains Paper 3: Infrastructure: Energy, Ports, Roads, Airports, Railways Etc.

    Why in the News?

    PM has inaugurated the world’s first bamboo-based ethanol plant in Golaghat district, Assam, marking a significant step in India’s green energy journey.

    Note: Ethanol is prepared from bamboo using a multi-step biochemical conversion process that transforms its rich cellulose content into fermentable sugars, which are then fermented and distilled into ethanol.

    About Assam Bioethanol Plant:

    • Overview: World’s first 2G bamboo-based bioethanol facility, developed jointly by Numaligarh Refinery Limited (NRL), Fortum (Finland), and Chempolis OY.
    • Feedstock: Uses 5 lakh tonnes of green bamboo annually, sourced from Assam, Arunachal Pradesh, and other NE states.
    • Production Capacity: Generates 48,900 MT ethanol, 11,000 MT acetic acid, 19,000 MT furfural, and 31,000 MT food-grade CO₂ per year.
    • Benefits: Adds ~₹200 crore annually to Assam’s rural economy; supports farmers and tribal communities with assured markets.
    • Policy Enabler: Reclassification of bamboo (no longer a tree) allowed free cultivation and harvesting, unlocking industrial potential.

    Back2Basics: Regulation of Bamboo in India

    • Earlier Status: The Indian Forest Act, 1927 classified bamboo as a “tree”, though botanically it is a grass.
    • Regulatory Impact: Even in non-forest areas, felling, cutting, and transport of bamboo required permits like timber, discouraging farmers and traders.
    • 2017 Amendment: The Act was amended to remove “bamboos” from the definition of “tree” under Section 2(7), but only for non-forest areas.
    • Policy Goal: Intended to ease regulatory burdens, promote bamboo cultivation and trade, and strengthen agroforestry.
    • Current Rule: Bamboo on private/agricultural land can now be freely grown, cut, and transported without permits; bamboo in forest areas remains regulated.
    • Scientific Alignment: Recognises bamboo correctly as a grass (Poaceae family).
    • Significance: Supports rural farmers, artisans, and tribal communities by making bamboo a viable cash crop.

     

    [UPSC 2023] According to India’s National Policy on Biofuels, which of the following can be used as raw materials for the production of biofuels?

    1. Cassava 2. Damaged wheat grains 3. Groundnut seeds 4. Horse gram 5. Rotten potatoes 6. Sugar beet

    Select the correct answer using the code given below:

    Options: (a) 1, 2, 5 and 6 only * (b) 1, 3, 4 and 6 only (c) 2, 3, 4 and 5 only (d) 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6

     

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  • Tribes in News

    Ho Tribes’ Manki-Munda System

    Prelims Only | Art and Culture | Mains Paper 1: Arts & Culture

    Why in the News?

    Members of the Ho tribe in Jharkhand’s West Singhbhum district staged a protest for alleged interference in their traditional Manki-Munda governance system by removing village heads (Mundas).

    About Ho Tribes:

    • Location: Major community of Jharkhand (Kolhan, West Singhbhum), with presence in Odisha and Chhattisgarh.
    • Language: Speak Ho language (Munda branch, Austroasiatic family), traditionally written in Warang Citi script.
    • Livelihoods: Primarily agriculturalists, with farming, hunting, and forest produce as traditional occupations.
    • Festivals: Mage Parab, Ba Parab, Sohrai, tied to agriculture, celebrated with dance, music, rituals.
    • Resistance: Historically fought outsiders; staged Ho Revolt (1821–22) and Kol Revolt (1831) against British.
    • Social Fabric: Clan-based, community-oriented, guided by customary law and collective decision-making.

    What is the Manki-Munda System?

    • Structure:
      • Munda: Village head (hereditary), resolves disputes, represents village.
      • Manki: Head of pidh (cluster of 8–15 villages), adjudicates inter-village disputes.
    • Pre-British: Purely internal self-rule, no taxation or external sovereign authority.
    • British Codification:
      • Wilkinson’s Rules (1833–37) codified system into 31 rules, formally recognising Mankis/Mundas as British agents.
      • Introduced private property; Ho became raiyats (tenants) instead of communal landholders.
      • Led to demographic influx of dikkus (outsiders), rising from ~1,500 (1867) to ~15,700 (1897).
    • Post-Independence: Kolhan Government Estate dissolved (1947) but Wilkinson’s Rules still operative; Kolhan largely exempt from civil laws.
    • Judicial View: In Mora Ho vs State of Bihar (2000), Patna HC treated Wilkinson’s Rules as customs, not law, but upheld their continuance.
    • Current Practice: System governs village disputes; ~200 vacant posts filled by Gram Sabhas.
    • Criticism: Hereditary leadership limits efficiency; many leaders lack education for modern administration.
    • Reform Debate: Youth demand limiting hereditary succession and inclusion of non-tribal raiyats.
    • Contemporary Role: Remains a symbol of tribal autonomy yet requires modernisation for democratic governance.
    [UPSC 2010] Which one of the following pairs of primitive tribes and places of their inhabitation is not correctly matched?

    (a) Buksa : Pauri-Garhwal

    (b) Kol : Jabalpur

    (c) Munda : Chhotanagpur

    (d) Korba : Kodagu*

     

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  • Wildlife Conservation Efforts

    Bengaluru gets its 2nd Biodiversity Heritage Site (BHS)

    Prelims Only | Enviro & Biodiversity | Mains Paper 3: Conservation, Environmental Pollution & Degradation, Eia

    Why in the News?

    The Karnataka government declared 8.6 acres of green cover at Cantonment Railway Colony in Bengaluru as a Biodiversity Heritage Site (BHS), the second such site in the city after Gandhi Krishi Vigyan Kendra (GKVK).

    About Biodiversity Heritage Sites (BHS):

    • Legal Basis: Recognized under Section 37(1) of the Biological Diversity Act, 2002 as ecologically sensitive areas of high biodiversity.
    • Notifying Authority: The State Government, in consultation with local bodies, can declare an area as a BHS.
    • Objective: Conserves wild and domesticated species, including rare, threatened, and keystone species, vital for ecological balance.
    • Significance: Marked as ecologically fragile zones, essential for sustaining local ecosystems and long-term sustainability.
    • Community Role: Local communities and institutions are actively involved in management and protection.
    • Restrictions Put: Declaration does NOT restrict customary uses; aims to enhance quality of life through conservation.
    • Institutional Support: State Biodiversity Boards (SBBs) and Biodiversity Management Committees (BMCs) assist in proposing, managing, and monitoring BHS.
    • First BHS in India: Nallur Tamarind Grove, Bengaluru, Karnataka, notified in 2007.
    [UPSC 2023] Consider the following statements:

    1. In India, the Biodiversity Management Committees are key to the realization of the objectives of the Nagoya Protocol.

    2. The Biodiversity Management Committees have important functions in determining access and benefit sharing, including the power to levy collection fees on the access of biological resources within its jurisdiction.

    Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

    Options: (a) 1 only (b) 2 only (c) Both 1 and 2* (d) Neither 1 nor 2

     

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  • Judicial Reforms

    National Lok Adalat  

    Prelims Only | Polity | Mains Paper 2: Executive & Judiciary

    Why in the News?

    On September 13, a countrywide National Lok Adalat was held with a special focus on clearing pending traffic e-challans for minor offences.

    What is National Lok Adalat?

    • Overview: Lok Adalats held 4 times a year, on a single day, across all courts from the Supreme Court to Taluk Courts.
    • Scope: Settles both pending cases and pre-litigation disputes suitable for compromise.
    • Organisation: Dates fixed in the National Legal Services Authority (NALSA) calendar; sessions conducted nationwide.
    • Method: Focuses on amicable settlement rather than judicial imposition.
    • Common Cases: Matrimonial/family disputes, compoundable criminal cases, land acquisition, labour disputes, compensation claims, bank recoveries, and accident claims.
    • Exclusions: Non-compoundable or sensitive offences are outside its scope.

    About Lok Adalats:

    • Legal Status: Statutory body under the Legal Services Authorities Act, 1987; amended in 2002 for Permanent Lok Adalats (public utility services).
    • Composition: Includes a judicial officer (Chairman), a lawyer, and a social worker.
    • History: First Lok Adalat held in Gujarat, 1982, as a voluntary conciliatory forum.
    • Award/Decision: Final, binding, and equivalent to a civil court decree; no appeal permitted.
    • Jurisdiction: Can settle pending cases, matters within court jurisdiction (even pre-litigation), on mutual consent, referral, or court satisfaction.
    • Organisation: Conducted by NALSA and State/District/High Court/Taluk Legal Services Authorities. NALSA operational since 9 November 1995.
    • Powers: Enjoy powers of a civil court; proceedings treated as judicial proceedings.
    • Benefits: No court fee, speedy disposal, procedural flexibility, direct party–judge interaction, and finality of settlement.
    [UPSC 2009] With reference to Lok Adalats, consider the following statements:

    1. An award made by a Lok Adalat is deemed to be a degree of a civil court and no appeal lies against thereto before any court.

    2. Matrimonial/Family disputes are not covered under Lok Adalat.

    Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

    Options: (a) 1 only * (b) 2 only (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2

     

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  • Blockchain Technology: Prospects and Challenges

    What is Decentralised Finance (DeFi)?

    Prelims Only | Economics | Mains Paper 3: Indian Economy

    Why in the News?

    Decentralised Finance (DeFi) is rapidly expanding as a global financial innovation, enabling direct peer-to-peer transactions without intermediaries such as banks.

    What is DeFi?

    • It is a financial system that runs on blockchains like Ethereum.
    • It allows people to send, borrow, lend, invest, and trade money directly without banks.
    • All transactions happen using smart contracts (computer programs) and apps called dApps.
    • Anyone with a phone + internet can use it; no bank account or KYC needed.

    Features of DeFi:

    • No middlemen: Works without banks or brokers.
    • Smart contracts: Deals happen automatically once rules are met.
    • Open access: Anyone in the world can join with just a digital wallet.
    • Transparency: Every transaction is recorded on a blockchain for all to see.
    • Cross-border: Can be used internationally, without currency or banking restrictions.
    • Low cost & fast: Cheaper and quicker than traditional banking.
    • Anonymous: Many platforms don’t ask for ID, making it open but risky.

    DeFi in India:

    • Adoption: India ranks third globally in DeFi value (Chainalysis Global Crypto Adoption Index 2024).
    • Growth Drivers:
      • Large youth population and widespread smartphone use.
      • Strong digital payments ecosystem (UPI, JAM trinity).
      • Increasing retail investor interest in crypto-assets.
    • Uses: Indian users engage in lending, trading, yield farming, and staking via DeFi platforms like Aave, Compound, and SushiSwap.
    • Market Size: Projected to reach USD 1.7 billion by 2025.
    • Challenges: Regulatory uncertainty, risks of money laundering and terror financing, cyber vulnerabilities, and lack of investor protection.

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  • Bharat Emission Standards

    BS-VII Emission Norms

    Prelims Only | Enviro & Biodiversity | Mains Paper 3: Conservation, Environmental Pollution & Degradation, Eia

    Why in the News?

    To align India’s automobile sector with global standards, the government is planning to introduce BS VII emission norms by 2026-27.

    About BS7 Norms:

    • Overview: India’s equivalent of Euro 7 emission standards, aimed at reducing vehicular pollution and aligning with global benchmarks.
    • Coverage: Applies uniformly to cars, vans, buses, trucks, petrol, diesel, hybrid, and electric vehicles.
    • On-Board Monitoring (OBM): New system to monitor tailpipe emissions in real time, covering NOx, ammonia, PM, engine gases.
    • Non-Exhaust Regulation: First-time regulation of brake dust (PM) and tyre microplastics.
    • EV Standards: Introduces battery safety, durability, and longevity index to lower raw material use and build consumer confidence.
    • Digital Safeguards: Ensures vehicles are not tampered with and remain within emission limits.
    • Testing Scope: Expands checks to real driving conditions beyond lab-based cycles.

    Key Differences: BS6 vs BS7

    • OBD vs OBM: BS6 used On-Board Diagnostics (OBD); BS7 brings OBM for direct emission monitoring.
    • NOx Standards: BS6 allowed 60 mg/km petrol, 80 mg/km diesel; BS7 sets uniform 60 mg/km.
    • Coverage: BS6 regulated exhaust only; BS7 adds non-exhaust (brakes, tyres).
    • EV Inclusion: BS6 ignored EVs; BS7 regulates battery life, safety, and replacement cycles.
    • Testing: BS6 relied on defined test cycles; BS7 uses broader real-world conditions.
    • Technology Push: BS7 compels automakers towards advanced emission-control systems and turbo, direct-injection engines.
    • Cost Factor: BS7 compliance raises vehicle costs; some older models may be discontinued.

    History of Emission Norms in India:

    Year / Period Key Development
    1991 Mass emission norms introduced for petrol vehicles.
    1992 Mass emission norms introduced for diesel vehicles.
    April 1995 Mandatory catalytic converters in new petrol cars in Delhi, Mumbai, Kolkata, Chennai; unleaded petrol (ULP) introduced.
    2000 Introduction of Euro I equivalent “India 2000” norms for passenger and commercial vehicles; stricter norms for two-wheelers.
    2001 Euro II equivalent Bharat Stage II (BS II) norms introduced in Delhi, Mumbai, Chennai, Kolkata.
    August 2002 First Auto Fuel Policy announced, outlining emission and fuel roadmap up to 2010.
    April 2005 Bharat Stage III (BS III) norms implemented in 13 metro cities; rest of India continued with BS II.
    April 2010 Bharat Stage IV (BS IV) implemented in 13 metro cities; rest of India adopted BS III.
    October 2014 BS IV extended to 20 more cities.
    2013 Auto Fuel Policy 2025 submitted to MoPNG (Ministry of Petroleum & Natural Gas), outlining roadmap up to 2025.
    April 2017 Nationwide implementation of BS IV.
    April 2020 Direct leap to BS VI (skipping BS V) due to severe pollution in Delhi NCR.
    Upcoming (BS VII) To be aligned with Euro 7 standards: stricter norms, On-Board Monitoring (OBM), coverage of brake & tyre emissions, and EV battery standards.

     

    [UPSC 2004] Consider the following statements:

    1. The Oil Pool Account of Government of India was dismantled with effect from 1-4-2002.

    2. Subsidies on PDS kerosene and domestic LPG are borne by Consolidated Fund of India.

    3. An expert committee headed by Dr. R.A. Mashelkar to formulate a national auto fuel policy recommended that Bharat Stage-II Emission Norms should be applied throughout the country by 1 April, 2004.

    Which of these statements given above are correct?

    Options: (a) 1 and 2 (b) 2 and 3 (c) 1 and 3 (d) 1, 2 and 3*

     

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  • Indian Navy Updates

    Expedition ‘Samudra Pradakshina’

    Prelims Only | Trivia | Mains Paper 3: Various Security Forces, Agencies & Their Mandates

    Why in the News?

    Defence Minister flagged off Samudra Pradakshina, the world’s first tri-service all-women circumnavigation sailing mission, from the Gateway of India, Mumbai.

    About Expedition ‘Samudra Pradakshina’:

    • Overview: First-ever all-women tri-service circumnavigation sailing expedition in the world.
    • Crew: Ten women officers from the Army, Navy, and Air Force, led by Lt. Col. Anuja Varudkar.
    • Vessel: IASV Triveni, a 50-foot yacht built indigenously in Puducherry.
    • Duration & Route: Nine months, covering 26,000 nautical miles, crossing the Equator twice, and rounding Capes Leeuwin, Horn, and Good Hope.
    • Port Calls: Fremantle (Australia), Lyttelton (New Zealand), Buenos Aires (Argentina), Cape Town (South Africa).
    • Mission Objectives: Showcase Nari Shakti, promote joint military cooperation, advance Atmanirbhar Bharat, strengthen maritime diplomacy, and conduct ocean research with the National Institute of Oceanography.

    Historic Precursors:

    • Sir Robin Knox-Johnston (UK):  First solo non-stop circumnavigation (1969).
    • Captain Dilip Donde (2009–10): First Indian solo circumnavigation. Commander Abhilash Tomy (2012–13) — first Indian solo non-stop circumnavigation.
    • Women-led Expeditions: Navika Sagar Parikrama (2017–18)– first all-women Indian Navy circumnavigation on INSV Tarini. Navika Sagar Parikrama-II (2024–25) – second successful all-women naval circumnavigation on INSV Tarini.
    [UPSC 2025] Operations undertaken by the Army towards upliftment of the local population in remote areas to include addressing of their basic needs is called:

    Options:

    (a) Operation Sankalp (b) Operation Maitri (c) Operation Sadbhavana* (d) Operation Madad

     

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  • Festivals, Dances, Theatre, Literature, Art in News

    Swami Vivekananda and Vedanta Philosophy

    Prelims Only | Art and Culture | Mains Paper 1: Arts & Culture

    Why in the News?

    On the 132nd anniversary of his 1893 Chicago address, Swami Vivekananda was remembered for introducing Indian spirituality and Vedanta to the world with a message of tolerance and unity.

    About Swami Vivekananda:

    • Early life: Born Narendranath Datta in 1863, Kolkata; Chief disciple of Sri Ramakrishna.
    • Role: Monk, reformer, and founder of the Ramakrishna Mission (1897).
    • Chicago Speech: Rose to global fame with his 1893 Parliament of Religions address in Chicago, calling for religious tolerance and universal brotherhood.
    • Teachings: Advocated social service, education, and spiritual sovereignty as means of national regeneration.
    • Legacy: Inspired the rise of Vedanta Societies worldwide, spread yoga and meditation in the West, and became a key figure in the Indian renaissance and freedom movement.

    What is Vedanta Philosophy?

    • Roots: Derived from the Upanishads, especially Advaita Vedanta (non-dualism).
    • Oneness of Existence: The universe is one absolute Brahman; all souls are divine.
    • Religious Pluralism: All religions are valid paths to the same truth; promotes harmony, not division.
    • Self-Realization: The aim of life is to realize and manifest one’s innate divinity.
    • Karma Yoga: Selfless service is a spiritual practice — “Jiva is Shiva” (service to man is service to God).
    • Practical Vedanta: Application of spiritual wisdom to daily life and social reform, bridging tradition and modernity.

    Back2Basics: Indian Classical Philosophy

    There are 6 classical schools of Indian philosophy in the orthodox (Astika) tradition, which accept the authority of the Vedas:

    1. Nyaya: School of logic and reasoning
    2. Vaisesika:  Atomism and categories of reality
    3. Sankhya: Dualism of consciousness (purusha) and matter (prakriti)
    4. Yoga: Practical discipline based on Patanjali’s Yoga Sutras
    5. Mimamsa (Purva Mimamsa): Ritual action and dharma
    6. Vedanta (Uttara Mimamsa): Philosophy of the Upanishads

    Apart from these, there are also heterodox (Nastika) schools, which do not accept Vedic authority, such as Buddhism, Jainism, and Charvaka (materialism).

     

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