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  • Governor vs. State

    What will mean for Chandigarh if it is brought under Article 240

    Explained | Polity | Mains Paper 2: Federalism

    Introduction
    Chandigarh is a Union Territory that also serves as the shared capital of Punjab and Haryana. The Governor of Punjab currently holds additional charge as the Administrator of Chandigarh. The proposal to place Chandigarh under Article 240 of the Constitution may allow the Centre to appoint an independent Administrator and frame regulations for Chandigarh without relying on state mechanisms. The move carries political, administrative, and federal ramifications, especially for Punjab and Haryana.
    Why in the news? 
    Bringing Chandigarh under Article 240 could give the Centre sweeping legislative and administrative powers over the Union Territory, including the ability to repeal or amend laws applicable to Chandigarh through Parliament or Presidential regulations. This marks a sharp departure from the existing model, where Punjab’s Governor also administers Chandigarh. The move could influence bureaucratic control, fiscal provisions, and power distribution among Punjab, Haryana, and the Centre, making the stakes exceptionally high.
    What is Article 240?
    • Empowers the President to make regulations for the peace, progress and good government of certain Union Territories.
    • Regulations issued under Article 240 have the force of Parliamentary law, making them equivalent to an Act of Parliament.
    • Allows amendment or repeal of existing laws in a UT, giving the Union direct legislative authority.
    • Applies to UTs without a legislative assembly: Andaman & Nicobar Islands, Lakshadweep, Dadra & Nagar Haveli and Daman & Diu.
    • Applies to Puducherry only when its Assembly is dissolved or suspended, enabling temporary Central control.
    • Enables the Centre to bypass State governments in UT governance, creating a more unitary administrative model.
    Chandigarh’s current administrative arrangement
    1. Shared capital system: Chandigarh serves as the capital of both Punjab and Haryana.
    2. Additional charge: The Governor of Punjab functions as the Administrator of Chandigarh.
    3. UT governance limitations: Chandigarh lacks its own Legislative Assembly.
    What Article 240 enables
    1. Sweeping Central authority: The President can make regulations for peace, progress, and good government for UTs.
    2. Regulatory override: Any law applicable to Chandigarh can be repealed or amended via Parliamentary legislation.
    3. Direct central rule template: Similar model followed in Andaman & Nicobar Islands, Lakshadweep, Dadra & Nagar Haveli, Daman & Diu, Puducherry (when its Assembly is dissolved/suspended).
    Implications if Chandigarh is brought under Article 240
    1. Independent Administrator: No additional charge by Punjab Governor; Centre appoints directly.
    2. Bureaucratic restructuring: Large administrative staff of Punjab and Haryana currently posted in Chandigarh may face institutional and coordination changes.
    3. Legislative possibilities: May enable eventual Legislative Assembly for Chandigarh in the future.
    4. Greater Central oversight: Budgetary and policy matters would fall more firmly under Union control.
    5. Concerns raised: Critics fear this would give excessive control to the Centre.
    Arguments that the move benefits Chandigarh
    1. Clear autonomy: Reduced administrative overlap from two states.
    2. Institutional accountability: A dedicated Administrator creates faster decision-making.
    3. Long-term governance clarity: Removes ambiguity caused by shared capital model.
    Previous administrative attempts
    1. 1984 attempt: Proposal to appoint an independent Administrator linked to counter-terror coordination; Punjab was under President’s Rule.
    2. 2016 attempt: Opposition arose due to the practice of Punjab Governor holding Administrator’s charge.
    Conclusion
    Placing Chandigarh under Article 240 reflects a significant recalibration of Centre-State dynamics. While the move promises administrative clarity and efficiency, it raises questions of federal balance and the political stakes of Punjab and Haryana. The issue remains a critical case-study in Indian federalism, constitutional design, and UT governance.
    PYQ Relevance
    [UPSC 2024] What changes has the Union Government recently introduced in the domain of Centre-State relations? Suggest measures to be adopted to build the trust between the Centre and the States and for strengthening federalism.
    Linkage: The question reflects the recent shift in Centre-State power balance through greater Union control in administrative, fiscal and institutional domains. It links directly with debates like Chandigarh under Article 240, Governor-State tensions, GST Council dynamics and UT re-organisation, core themes of Indian federalism in GS-II.

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  • Judicial Appointments Conundrum Post-NJAC Verdict

    What does the SC’s advisory opinion imply?

    | Polity | Mains Paper 2: Constitutional Bodies,Executive & Judiciary,Federalism

    INTRODUCTION

    The advisory opinion of the Supreme Court was sought to address concerns raised by delays in assent to Bills passed by State Assemblies and the earlier judicial attempt to impose fixed timelines on Governors. The reference involved 14 constitutional questions focused on the interpretation of Articles 200 and 201 and the Court’s jurisdiction to intervene. The new opinion aims to clarify the contours of discretionary powers while protecting legislative authority under the Constitution.

    WHY IN THE NEWS

    The Supreme Court has issued a landmark advisory opinion on a Presidential reference under Article 143, reversing the April 2025 ruling that introduced the concept of “deemed assent” and mandated a three-month timeline for Governors and the President to act on Bills. The Court has clarified that while Governors ordinarily act on the aid and advice of the Council of Ministers, their powers under Articles 200 and 201 are discretionary, without any judicially enforceable time limits. This ruling has reshaped the dynamics between constitutional heads and elected State governments, impacting legislative functioning and federal balance.

    What triggered the Supreme Court’s advisory opinion

    1. Presidential reference origin: Resulted from the two-judge bench judgment in State of Tamil Nadu vs Governor of Tamil Nadu (April 2025).
    2. Three-month timeline mandate: The earlier ruling specified that Governors and the President must act on Bills within three months.
    3. Deemed assent invocation: The bench used Article 142 to grant deemed assent for Tamil Nadu Bills pending with the Governor.
    4. Government concern: The Union Government sought clarity on whether Bills become justiciable before enactment and whether courts can prescribe time limits.
    5. Magnitude of reference: A total of 14 constitutional questions were raised relating to Articles 200 and 201 and the Supreme Court’s jurisdiction.

    What were the key takeaways from the Supreme Court’s opinion?

    1. Three constitutional choices under Article 200: The Governor may assent, return the Bill for reconsideration, or reserve it for the President’s consideration.
    2. Discretion of Governor: The Governor exercises discretion in choosing among the three options and is not necessarily bound by the advice of the Council of Ministers.
    3. Non-justiciability before enactment: Courts cannot compel Governors to act before a Bill becomes law due to absence of constitutionally prescribed timelines.
    4. Autonomy of President under Article 201: The President’s powers operate independently and cannot be substituted by judicial directives.
    5. Absence of deemed assent: The Constitution does not provide for deemed assent; judicial power under Article 142 cannot be used to invent such a mechanism.

    Does this opinion contradict earlier judicial interpretations?

    1. Earlier judicial logic: Decisions in Shamsher Singh (1974) and Nabam Rebia (2016) held that Governors act on the aid and advice of the Council of Ministers.
    2. Present reinterpretation: The Court has held that Article 200 functions fall within discretionary power despite the general rule of acting on ministerial advice.
    3. Shift in constitutional balance: The new interpretation expands discretionary authority when dealing with State legislation.
    What about time limits for Governors and the President?
    1. Punchhi Commission recommendation (2010): Suggested that the Governor should decide on assent within six months.
    2. Precedent in K.M. Singh case (2020): The Court had earlier prescribed a three-month limit for the Speaker to decide disqualification petitions; however, no such limit exists for Governors.
    3. Current ruling: The Supreme Court held that no enforceable time limit applies because the Constitution does not prescribe one.
    4. Implication: The possibility of prolonged delays in assent continues to exist, which may contribute to legislative gridlock.
    What concerns emerge from the current interpretation
    1. Democratic risk: Legislative functioning may be hindered when Bills remain pending without a time frame for disposal.
    2. Centre-State tension: Expanded discretion may tilt the institutional balance toward appointed constitutional heads over elected State governments.
    3. Potential politicisation: Use of gubernatorial office could intensify where State and Union Governments are politically opposed.
    Way Forward
    1. Introduce timelines: Fix a statutory/constitutional time limit for assent to Bills.
    2. Record reasons: Make reservation of Bills and delays explainable in writing.
    3. Structured coordination: Establish periodic Raj Bhavan-State Government consultation mechanism.
    4. Federal ethics: Encourage Governors to follow constitutional neutrality over political alignment.
    5. Legislative reporting: Present pendency reports of Bills before the State Legislature annually.
    6. Capacity building: Train Raj Bhavan staff on constitutional conventions and cooperative federalism.
    CONCLUSION
    The Supreme Court’s advisory opinion carefully aligns with constitutional text by overturning “deemed assent” and reaffirming discretion under Articles 200 and 201. However, it leaves unresolved the core challenge of prolonged delays in gubernatorial action on Bills passed by elected Assemblies. While the opinion respects constitutional separation of powers and prevents judicial overreach, it simultaneously highlights the need for clearer institutional safeguards to protect democratic accountability and cooperative federalism.
    PYQ Relevance
    [UPSC 2022] Discuss the essential conditions for exercise of the legislative powers by the Governor. Discuss the legality of re-promulgation of ordinances by the Governor without placing them before the Legislature.
    Linkage: This PYQ connects directly to current debates on Governors’ discretionary powers, assent to Bills, and constitutional limits on ordinance-making. It is highly relevant after the Supreme Court’s recent advisory opinion on Articles 200 and 201, which redefines executive-legislature balance and safeguards federalism.

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  • Judicial Appointments Conundrum Post-NJAC Verdict

    Justice Surya Kant Sworn in as the 53rd Chief Justice of India (CJI)

    Prelims Only | Polity | Mains Paper 2: Executive & Judiciary

    Why in the News?

    Justice Surya Kant took oath as the 53rd Chief Justice of India (CJI) on November 24, 2025, administered by President Droupadi Murmu at Rashtrapati Bhavan.

    About Justice Surya Kant

    • Born: 10 February 1962, Hisar, Haryana.
    • Youngest Advocate General of Haryana (appointed 2000).
    • Judge, Punjab & Haryana High Court (2004).
    • Chief Justice, Himachal Pradesh High Court (2018).
    • Appointed to Supreme Court: 24 May 2019 (along with Justice B.R. Gavai).

    Tenure

    • Will serve until 2 February 2027 — a little over one year.

    Major Priorities as the 53rd CJI

    • Reduce pendency of 90,000+ cases in the Supreme Court to a “manageable number.”
    • Address growing trend:
      • Litigants bypassing High Courts and approaching SC directly.
      • Repeated “miscellaneous applications” causing prolonged litigation

    Major Cases Involving Justice Surya Kant

    • Abrogation of Article 370 (J&K’s special status removed).
    • Electoral Bonds Case – Bench struck down the scheme as unconstitutional.
    • Pegasus spyware case.
    • Suspension of sedition law deliberations.
    • Granted conditional interim bail to Ashish Mishra (Lakhimpur Kheri incident).

    Procedure for Selection of the Chief Justice of India (CJI)

    Constitutional Basis

    • Article 124(2) of the Constitution deals with the appointment of Supreme Court judges (including the CJI). The CJI is appointed by the President of India.

    Seniority Convention

    • By long-standing constitutional convention, the most senior judge of the Supreme Court is appointed as the next CJI.
    • Seniority = date of appointment to the Supreme Court Bench.

    Role of the Collegium

    When the CJI’s post is falling vacant:

    • The outgoing CJI recommends the name of the senior-most SC judge to the Government of India.
    • This recommendation is part of the Collegium system, but only the CJI’s advice is required, not the full Collegium.

    Role of the Law Ministry

    • The Ministry of Law & Justice processes the recommendation.
    • Sends it to the Prime Minister, who advises the President.

    Appointment by the President

    • The President formally appoints the recommended judge as the Chief Justice of India.
    • Appointment is notified in the Gazette.

    Oath of Office

    • The President administers the oath of office to the new CJI at Rashtrapati Bhavan.
    • Oath is under Article 124(6).

    Tenure

    • The CJI holds office until the age of 65.

    Q. With reference to Indian Judiciary, consider the following statements:

    1. Any retired judge of the Supreme Court of India can be called back to sit and act as a Supreme Court judge by the Chief Justice of India with the prior permission of the President of India.

    2. A High Court in India has the power to review its own judgement as the Supreme Court does.

    Which of the statements given above is/are correct? 

    [A] 1 only 

    [B] 2 only 

    [C] Both 1 and 2 

    [D] Neither 1 nor 2

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  • Defence Sector – DPP, Missions, Schemes, Security Forces, etc.

    INS Sahyadri–HMAS Ballarat in AUSINDEX 2025

    Prelims Only | International Relations | Mains Paper 2: Bilateral, Regional and Global Groupings and agreements involving India

     Why in the News?

    INS Sahyadri of the Indian Navy and HMAS Ballarat of the Royal Australian Navy participated in the AUSINDEX 2025 bilateral maritime exercise in the Northern Pacific, strengthening India–Australia defence cooperation and enhancing interoperability.

    What is AUSINDEX?  

    • Bilateral naval exercise between India and Australia
    • First held in 2015
    • Aims at maritime cooperation, interoperability, and security
    • Conducted alternately in India and Australia / designated oceanic regions

    AUSINDEX 2025 

    • Location: Northern Pacific
    • Participants:
    • INS Sahyadri – Shivalik-class guided-missile stealth frigate
    • HMAS Ballarat – Anzac-class frigate
    • Focus areas:
        • Anti-submarine warfare (ASW)
        • Gunnery drills
        • Advanced flying operations
        • Joint maritime manoeuvres
    • Objective: Boost interoperability and reaffirm commitment to a free, open, inclusive Indo-Pacific
    With reference to India’s defence, consider the following pairs: (2025)

    I. Dornier-228 : Maritime patrol aircraft 

    II. IL-76 : Supersonic combat aircraft III. C-17 Globemaster 

    III : Military transport aircraft 

    How many of the pairs given above are correctly matched? 

    (a) Only one 

    (b) Only two 

    (c) All the three 

    (d) None

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  • Internal Security Trends and Incidents

    DRI Seizes 32 kg Methamphetamine in North East

    Prelims Only | Security Issues | Mains Paper 3: Border Area Security Challenges,Organized Crime & Terrorism

    Why in the News?

    The Directorate of Revenue Intelligence (DRI) has seized 32 kg methamphetamine tablets worth ₹32 crore in two separate operations in Assam and Tripura, exposing the continued use of the Indo–Myanmar route for drug trafficking. Three persons have been arrested under the NDPS Act, 1985.

    About Methamphetamine  

    • A synthetic psychostimulant
    • Known as Ya Ba / Speed pills in Southeast Asia
    • Highly addictive
    • Controlled under Schedule of NDPS Act, 1985

    What is Hydroponic Weed?

    • Marijuana grown in nutrient-rich water systems, not soil
    • Higher potency due to controlled conditions
    • New smuggling trend: carried by air passengers into NE India

    NDPS Act, 1985  

    • Regulates narcotic drugs and psychotropic substances
    • Provides for seizure, arrests, forfeiture
    • Commercial quantity offences: 10–20 years imprisonment
    • Empowered agencies: DRI, NCB, Customs, State Police, BSF, Assam Rifles
    Q: India’s proximity to two of the world’s biggest illicit opium-growing states has enhanced her internal security concerns. Explain the linkages between drug trafficking and other illicit activities such as gunrunning, money laundering and human trafficking. What countermeasures should be taken to prevent the same? (UPSC 2018) 

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  • Dams and Hydroprojects

    HMDA to use bioremediation to clean up Hussainsagar lake

    Prelims Only | Enviro & Biodiversity | Mains Paper 3: Conservation, Environmental Pollution & Degradation, Eia

    Why in the News?

    The Hyderabad Metropolitan Development Authority (HMDA) has announced a new advanced bioremediation initiative using enzyme solutions and biochar-based Bokashi balls to clean and restore Hussainsagar Lake, which has long suffered from algal blooms, foul odour, sewage inflow, and industrial pollution.

    About Hussainsagar Lake

    • A 16th-century artificial lake in Hyderabad.
    • Faces severe pollution due to:
      • Sewage inflow
      • Nutrient overload (nitrates, phosphates)
      • Industrial waste
    • Problems: algal blooms, foul odour, low Dissolved Oxygen (DO), high Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD).

    What Is Bioremediation?

    • Definition: Use of microorganisms, enzymes, or biological materials to break down pollutants and restore ecosystems.
    • Types relevant here:
      • In-situ bioremediation – treating the lake onsite without removing water.
      • Bio-augmentation – adding microbial cultures to enhance degradation.
      • Aerobic/oxygenation systems – boost DO to improve water quality.

    New Intervention Planned by HMDA

    • Enzyme Solutions

        • Enhance microbial breakdown of organic pollutants.
        • Help reduce nutrient load responsible for algal blooms.

    • Bokashi Balls (with Biochar)

      • Bokashi = fermented organic matter rich in beneficial microbes.
      • Biochar:
        • Carbon-rich material produced from biomass.
        • Increases microbial activity, absorbs toxins, improves water clarity.
      • Purpose:
        • Reduce algae, odour, pathogenic bacteria.
        • Increase water transparency and DO levels.
    In the context of solving pollution problems what is/are the advantage/disadvantages of bioremediation technique? (2017)

    1. It is a technique for cleaning up pollution by enhancing the same biodegradation process that occurs in nature. 

    2. Any contaminant with heavy metals such as cadmium and lead can be readily and completely treated by bioremediation using microorganisms. 

    3. Genetic engineering can be used to create microorganisms specifically designed for bioremediation. 

    Select the correct answer using the code given below: 

    (a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3

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  • International Space Agencies – Missions and Discoveries

    Moss Spores Survive Months in Space

    Prelims Only | Enviro & Biodiversity | Mains Paper 3: Achievements Of Indians In S&T,Awareness in various sc and tech fields

    Why in the news?

    A recent study published in iScience revealed that moss spores (Physcomitrium patens) survived nine months outside the International Space Station (ISS), enduring vacuum, cosmic radiation, microgravity, and temperature extremes. Over 80% of the spores survived and successfully germinated on return to Earth. Scientists estimate moss could survive up to 15 years in space.

    Key Findings of the Study

    • 20,000 moss spores were placed outside the ISS in March 2022.
    • Exposed to: Vacuum, Cosmic radiation, Microgravity and Extreme temperatures
    • After 283 days, the spores were retrieved.
    • Results: 80% survived
      • Among survivors, 89% germinated successfully
      • Chlorophyll levels normal except a 20% drop in chlorophyll a, but not harmful
    • Survival attributed to multiple spore wall layers offering passive protection.

    About the Species

    • Species: Physcomitrium patens
    • Model organism for plant evolutionary studies
    • Mosses are one of the earliest land plants
    • Already known for surviving:
      • Antarctica
      • Volcanic fields
      • Deserts

    Why Moss Survived – Scientific Insight

    • Multiple thick-walled layers → physical shielding
    • Ability to remain in dormant state
    • Natural mechanisms to handle:
      • Radiation
      • Desiccation
      • Freezing and thawing cycles

    Why Is This Significant?

    • Implications for Space Exploration: 
        • Ability to survive harsh space environments → potential role in: Oxygen generation, Humidity control, Soil formation on Moon/Mars.
        • Supports concepts of bioregenerative life-support systems
        • It could be used in terraforming experiments on other celestial bodies

    • Astrobiology

        • Supports the idea that primitive plant life could survive interplanetary transport.
        • Relevant to panspermia hypothesis (life spreading across planets via spores).

    • Long-term Human Habitats

      • Moss can grow with minimal resources
      • Can contribute to:
        • Closed-loop ecosystems
        • Sustainable habitats
        • Psychological well-being in isolated environments (greenery)
    Consider the following statements: (2023)

    1. Some microorganisms can grow in environments with temperature above the boiling point of water. 

    2. Some microorganisms can grow in environments with temperature below the freezing point of water. 

    3. Some microorganisms can grow in highly acidic environment with a pH below 3. 

    How many of the above statements are correct? 

    (a) Only one (b) Only two (c) All three (d) None

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  • Health Sector – UHC, National Health Policy, Family Planning, Health Insurance, etc.

    [24th November 2025] The Hindu OpED: The future of health lies in harmony

    op-ed snap | Indian Society | Mains Paper 2: Health & Education

    PYQ Relevance

    [UPSC 2019] How is the Government of India protecting traditional knowledge of medicine from patenting by pharmaceutical companies?

    Linkage: Traditional medicine is gaining global traction, so protecting it from patenting and biopiracy is now a core policy priority rather than a cultural concern. As India leads the global traditional medicine agenda, this linkage makes the topic very likely to appear in future UPSC exams under health governance, IPR and soft-power.

    Mentor’s Comment

    The global health landscape is undergoing a paradigm shift. Traditional medicine, once seen as alternative, is now being recognised as a scientific and social asset. With India emerging as a hub of innovation and evidence-based traditional research, and hosting the Second WHO Global Summit on Traditional Medicine, the world is witnessing a renewed focus on health systems rooted in balance, sustainability and technology-enabled well-being.

    INTRODUCTION

    Health, in its original meaning, has always signified harmony, within the human body, and between humans and nature. With modern lifestyles driving chronic diseases, mental strain and ecological imbalance, traditional systems of medicine offer a rediscovered pathway to well-being that integrates mind, body, community, and environment. India, with its rich heritage of Ayurveda, Yoga, Unani, Siddha and Sowa-Rigpa, is repositioning traditional medicine as an engine of science-driven global healthcare transformation.

    WHY IN THE NEWS?

    The Second WHO Global Summit on Traditional Medicine hosted by India marks a watershed moment, for the first time, traditional medicine is being institutionalised globally as a scientific, evidence-backed and sustainable component of public health systems. With around 90% of WHO member-states reporting usage of traditional medicine, and India’s AYUSH market reaching USD 34.3 billion, global health priorities are shifting from reactive sick-care to proactive well-being. The Summit signals the beginning of a new chapter where traditional medicine integrates with modern technologies, data analytics and global governance.

    Why is traditional medicine gaining global significance?

    1. Escalating lifestyle diseases: rising non-communicable diseases demand preventive, holistic models of care.
    2. Fragmented systems failing: reactive, curative-centric models cannot ensure long-term public well-being.
    3. Biodiversity-nutrition-livelihood interlinkages: traditional medicine influences food security, sustainability and livelihoods.
    4. Affordability for LMICs: for billions across low- and middle-income regions, traditional medicine remains first access to healthcare.

    How is traditional medicine evolving from belief to science?

    1. Evidence-based research: WHO emphasises integration supported by data, learning and scientific validation.
    2. Shift from consumer preference to collective responsibility: well-being linked to shared ecosystems and sustainability.
    3. Recognition as a scientific and social asset: elevated at the 2023 WHO Summit in Gandhinagar.
    4. Institutional reforms in India: dedicated AYUSH department at BIS, and global standards under ISO/TC 249/SC 2.

    What is India’s leadership role in global traditional medicine?

    1. WHO Global Traditional Medicine Centre (GTMC) in Jamnagar: a knowledge hub for innovation, analytics and sustainability.
    2. Memorandum of Understanding with WHO: India co-hosts global Summit and participates in shaping global priorities.
    3. Political and scientific commitment: Prime Minister’s focus leads to increasing investments and ecosystem building.
    4. Vision of collective global stewardship: India positions traditional knowledge as shared global heritage.

    How does technology change future pathways of traditional medicine?

    1. Digital health and analytics: enable real-time monitoring, transparency and measurable clinical outcomes.
    2. Sustainability and biodiversity research: bridges traditional practice with ecological protection.
    3. Innovation-led scaling: makes traditional systems compatible with global regulatory and safety frameworks.
    4. Data-driven inclusion: ensures equitable access to health knowledge and solutions.

    How does the Summit reshape global health governance?

    1. Benefit sharing and fair access: ensures equitable utilisation of biological and cultural assets.
    2. Value of local heritage in globalisation: respects indigenous knowledge in global supply chains.
    3. Integration with modern health priorities: aligns traditional medicine with contemporary clinical and public health goals.
    4. Ethical anchoring of future innovation: technology with community-rooted ethics and sustainability.

    CONCLUSION

    The world is moving toward a health model where prevention, sustainability, community participation and science converge. Traditional medicine, empowered by research, technology and equitable access, offers a pathway to resilience against lifestyle diseases and global health inequalities. India’s leadership in steering this transformation reinforces health not as the absence of disease, but as a state of balance between humans and nature.

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  • Labour, Jobs and Employment – Harmonization of labour laws, gender gap, unemployment, etc.

    Labour codes: what changes for workers and employers

    Explained | Economics | Mains Paper 3: Issues relating growth and development, employment

    Introduction

    The four labour codes, Code on Wages, Code on Social Security, Industrial Relations Code, and Occupational Safety, Health and Working Conditions Code, aim to simplify compliance for industries, expand social security to workers, and improve ease of doing business. However, labour being a concurrent subject, implementation depends on states, and concerns have emerged about job security, worker rights, and the impact on collective bargaining.

    Why in the News

    The government has notified the implementation of four labour codes after over five years of deliberation and the consolidation of 29 central labour laws. This marks the first time India will operate under a uniform nationwide wage system and a consolidated social security architecture. While the reforms promise simplified compliance and a push for manufacturing efficiency, trade unions warn of reduced strike power, easier employee termination, and increased precarity for informal workers, making it one of the most debated labour reforms in recent times.

    Labour Codes and the Changing Labour Landscape

    1. Consolidation of 29 laws into four codes to create uniformity and remove overlapping provisions.
    2. Target shift from penal to compliance-based enforcement, especially for small firms and first-time offences.
    3. Push for economies of scale in manufacturing, signalling alignment with global production norms.

    Code on Wages: What changes for employees and employers?

    1. Uniform definition of wages: It ensures consistency in minimum wage calculation across states and sectors.
    2. Mandated national floor wage: It enables states to set minimum wages only above the national baseline.
    3. Time-bound wage payment: within 2 days of resignation/termination and 7 days of completion of the wage period.
    4. Broader coverage for all employees irrespective of industry or wage threshold.
    5. Overtime provisions strengthened: capped at 48 hours weekly, 12 hours daily shift duration permitted with breaks.

    Code on Social Security: Is the social net expanding?

    1. Unified ecosystem of social security: It covers unorganised, informal, gig, and platform workers for the first time.
    2. National Social Security Board: For recommendations, registration, schemes, and funding decisions.
    3. Corporate Co-contribution: Corporates may co-contribute to gig/platform worker benefits but funding split still unclear.
    4. ESIC expansion: Applies to sectors previously exempt; plantation workers included voluntarily.
    5. Formalisation incentive through maternity benefits, gratuity reforms, and inclusion of fixed-term employees.

    Industrial Relations Code: Does it limit collective bargaining?

    1. Stricter strike rules: 60-day notice before strike and prohibition of strike in the next 14 days of conciliation.
    2. Increase in threshold: Threshold for prior permission for layoffs raised from 100 to 300 workers, enabling easier hiring-firing.
    3. Negotiating Union provision: Only unions with 51% membership can negotiate; multi-union negotiation councils for fragmented memberships.
    4. Push for stable industrial climate: It is criticised for shrinking bargaining space for workers.

    OSH Code: Will workplace safety improve?

    1. Standardised norms: Across industries norms for working hours, workplace safety, and facility obligations.
    2. Mandatory free annual health check-ups: For workers in notified industries.
    3. Women allowed in all sectors and night shifts: subject to safety conditions.
    4. Increased accountability for establishments: In case of handling hazardous activities and migrant labour.

    Conclusion

    The labour codes aim to simplify compliance and strengthen India’s labour market to support manufacturing-led growth. However, concerns persist regarding job security, collective bargaining, and implementation across states. Successful outcomes depend on balancing economic flexibility with worker protection and ensuring that reforms lead to formalisation without vulnerability.

    PYQ Relevance

    [UPSC 2024] Discuss the merits and demerits of the four ‘Labour Codes’ in the context of labour market reforms in India. What has been the progress so far in this regard?

    Linkage: Growth driven mainly by labour productivity has led to GDP rising without proportional job creation. This links to the four Labour Codes, which seek higher productivity and flexibility, but face concerns on whether they will create jobs while protecting workers.

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  • How can State PSCs be reformed

    Explained | Polity | Mains Paper 2: Indian Constitution – historical underpinnings, evolution, features, amendments, significant provisions and basic structure

    Introduction

    Public Service Commissions are constitutional institutions meant to ensure merit-based appointments insulated from political pressures. A century after the Montagu–Chelmsford report envisaged them, State PSCs face credibility challenges due to recruitment irregularities and systemic inefficiencies that affect millions of aspirants.

    Why in the news?

    At the 2025 National Conference of Chairpersons of State Public Service Commissions hosted by Telangana PSC, members acknowledged recruitment controversies and demanded urgent reforms. Aspirant protests in Hyderabad highlighted how even minor delays disrupt youth livelihood prospects. Persistent exam cancellations and unclear syllabi have deepened mistrust despite PSCs’ constitutional mandate of meritocracy.

    Historical evolution of State PSCs :

    1. Montagu-Chelmsford Report :
      1. Recommended statutory recruitment bodies for welfare-oriented administration.
      2. Laid conceptual foundation for PSCs in India.
    2. First Public Service Commission (1926) :
      1. Set up for the Government of India before Independence.
      2. Marked beginning of institutionalised merit-based recruitment.
    3. Constitutionalisation through Article 315:
      1. Provided for separate Public Service Commissions for Union and States.
      2. Ensured autonomy and continuity post-Independence.

    Constitutional structure and organisation :

    1. Appointment and tenure of members: Governor appoints chairperson and members with fixed tenure and protected service conditions.
    2. Constitutional independence: PSCs function autonomously and discharge duties without executive interference.
    3. Role of UPSC in relation to State PSCs: UPSC may advise State PSCs on service matters when requested.
    4. Role of Ministry of Personnel: Helps maintain coherence in administrative policies across States.

    Present functioning and examination framework :

    1. Syllabus review mechanism: Periodic syllabus updates mandated to align with evolving administrative requirements.
    2. Question paper setting and evaluation: PSC sets papers, evaluates answer scripts and prepares selection lists.
    3. Cut-offs and result publication: Merit lists released after evaluation; criteria finalised by the PSC.

    Current challenges and bottlenecks

    1. Irregular recruitment cycles: Long gaps between notification and appointments disrupt careers and spark protests.
    2. Lack of transparency: Limited disclosure on answer keys and evaluation has lowered institutional credibility.
    3. Paper leaks and cancellations: Allegations of malpractice lead to cancellation, delays and erosion of public trust.
    4. Outdated syllabus issues: Poor syllabus revisions fail to reflect new governance themes and legal developments.
    5. Inconsistent standards across States: Divergent evaluation standards hinder mobility and generate inequality.

    Proposed reforms and restructuring measures:

    1. Revised manpower planning: Systematic vacancy forecasting to prevent examination delays.
    2. Fixed examination calendar: Annual, predictable and uniform recruitment schedule across States.
    3. Transparent evaluation policy: Mandatory disclosure of answer keys, normalisation criteria and cut-off logic.
    4. Academic and administrative alignment: Regular syllabus revision to match governance and administrative reality.
    5. Professional expertise induction: Inclusion of subject experts to improve paper quality and evaluation fairness.

    Conclusion

    State PSCs were created to provide equal opportunity in public employment. However, recruitment delays, unclear syllabi and opacity have damaged public trust. Ensuring predictability, transparency and institutional professionalism is essential to protect youth aspirations and restore confidence in constitutional recruitment bodies.

    PYQ Relevance

    [UPSC 2024] What are the aims and objects of the recently passed and enforced Public Examination (Prevention of Unfair Means) Act, 2024? Whether University/State Education Board examinations too are covered under the Act?

    Linkage: The Act directly links to the PSC crisis by targeting leaks, exam fraud and loss of trust in public recruitment. It sets a future-ready template for PSC reforms through transparency, deterrence and integrity in examinations.

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