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Russian Invasion of Ukraine: Global Implications

Russia’s Sale of Alaska to US

World Mapping | International Relations | Mains Paper 2: Effect Of Policies & Politics Of World On India'S Interests

Why in the News?

United States President Donald Trump and his Russian counterpart Vladimir Putin are set to meet in Anchorage, Alaska to discuss how to end the war in Ukraine.

Russia's Sale of Alaska to US

About Alaska:

  • Acquisition: Largest U.S. state; Purchased from Russia in 1867 for $7.2 million.
  • Mountains: Includes Alaska Range with Mount Denali (20,310 ft), the highest peak in North America.
  • Geography: Brooks Range separates central Alaska from the Arctic far north.
  • Tundra: Northern regions feature vast tundra, permafrost, and Arctic coastal plains.
  • Glaciers: Hosts 100,000+ glaciers, including Bering Glacier, the largest in North America.
  • Forests: About 5% glacier ice, with extensive boreal and temperate rainforests in the south.
  • Volcanoes: More than 70 active volcanoes in Aleutians and Alaska Peninsula.
  • Seismic Activity: Located on the circum-Pacific seismic belt, prone to powerful quakes (e.g., 1964 Alaska earthquake).
  • Water Resources: Contains 3 million+ lakes and 3,000+ rivers, among the most water-rich regions globally.
  • Peninsulas: Includes Alaska Peninsula, Kenai Peninsula, and Seward Peninsula (linked to ancient Bering land bridge).

Why did Russia sell Alaska to the US?

  • After the Crimean War (1853–56), Russia was financially strained and needed funds.
  • Alaska was seen as a remote, unprofitable liability with declining fur trade.
  • Russia feared Britain might seize Alaska easily from nearby Canada in a future war.
  • Selling it to the United States ensured goodwill and balanced British power.
  • The $7.2 million sale (1867) turned a weakly defended outpost into cash for reforms.

Geopolitical Significance of Alaska:

  • Natural Resources: Rich in oil, gas (e.g., Prudhoe Bay discovery, 1968), fisheries, and minerals vital for U.S. energy security.
  • Shipping Routes: Offers access to Arctic Sea routes, increasingly navigable due to climate change.
  • Strategic Gateway: Provides access to the Arctic and Pacific, enhancing U.S. naval and air capabilities.
  • Defense Value: Proximity to Russia made it critical in the Cold War and remains vital in Arctic competition.
  • Military Presence: Hosts major U.S. bases and radar systems for missile defense and surveillance.
  • Arctic Council Role: Strengthens U.S. claims in polar governance and Arctic Council negotiations.
  • Scientific Hub: Serves as a center for climate, seismic, and polar ecosystem research.
[UPSC 2025] Consider the following statements:

I. Anadyr in Siberia and Nome in Alaska are a few kilometers from each other, but when people are waking up and getting set for breakfast in these cities, it would be different days.

II. When it is Monday in Anadyr, it is Tuesday in Nome.

Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

(a) I only * (b) II only (c) Both I and II (d) Neither I nor II

 

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Higher Education – RUSA, NIRF, HEFA, etc.

[14th August 2025] The Hindu Op-ed: The Ceding of Academic Freedom in Universities

op-ed snap | Governance | Mains Paper 2: Governance, Transparency & Accountability, Citizens Charters

PYQ Relevance

[UPSC 2014] Should the premier institutes like IITs/IIMs be allowed to retain premier status, allowed more academic independence in designing courses and also decide mode/criteria of selection of students? Discuss in light of the growing challenges.

Linkage: This PYQ directly links to the article’s core theme of academic autonomy by addressing whether premier institutions should have greater freedom in curriculum design, student selection, and governance. The article highlights how over-regulation, political interference, and funding control erode such freedoms across Indian universities. Answering this PYQ can draw on the article’s arguments for institutional autonomy, diversity, and the dangers of one-size-fits-all regulation.

Mentor’s Comment

Academic freedom is central to nurturing innovation, fostering critical thought, and sustaining democratic accountability in higher education. It ensures that universities remain spaces for questioning, debate, and independent research, free from undue political or bureaucratic interference. In the Indian context, constitutional guarantees under Articles 19(1)(a) and 21, along with policy frameworks like the NEP 2020, lay a foundation for such autonomy, yet over-regulation and ideological pressures often undermine it. This article illustrates these challenges vividly, linking them to global patterns and emphasising the need for reforms that safeguard autonomy while ensuring institutional accountability.

Introduction

Academic freedom is the lifeblood of higher education, enabling questioning, debate, and independent thought. Any restriction on this freedom undermines knowledge creation, weakens the teaching–learning process, and, in the long run, hampers the nation’s intellectual, social, and economic progress.

Core Arguments in Favour of Academic Freedom in Universities

  1. Universities as Centres of Critical Inquiry:
    1. Universities must be spaces where students and faculty can challenge existing ideas, debate openly, and explore new perspectives.
    2. Questioning is not rebellion, it is the foundation of knowledge development.
    3. Freedom for Students & Faculty: Students need the right to ask questions without fear. Faculty must have autonomy to challenge conventional wisdom in their fields.
  2. Institutional Autonomy:
    1. Universities must independently decide curriculum and pedagogy.
    2. External political or bureaucratic interference in academic content dilutes intellectual rigour.
    3. Universities contribute ideas for science, technology, economic policy, and social reform.
    4. Act as “conscience-keepers” through public intellectual engagement.
    5. Autonomy fosters accountability but accountability should be through transparent institutional mechanisms, not political intervention
    6. Rankings, despite flaws, can help ensure performance-based accountability
  3. Impact on Innovation & Society:
    1. Restricting academic discourse narrows creativity in research and stifles innovation.
    2. Over time, the economy, society, and polity bear the cost through diminished problem-solving capacity.
  4. Open Intellectual Spaces:
    1. Universities should freely invite diverse voices and speakers.
    2. Restricting platforms for dialogue harms learning outcomes and social progress.

Erosion of Academic Autonomy: Challenges and Way Forward

  1. Freedom in Research:
    1. Universities and faculty must set research priorities and agendas free from political or ideological bias.
    2. Funding should be based on peer review, not prejudice or preference.
    3. Fundamental research needs time, resources, and tolerance for dissenting views.
    4. Lack of such an environment partly explains why Indian universities have not produced Nobel laureates in recent decades.
  2. The Indian Reality:
    1. Curricula are regulated and straitjacketed; reading lists are often politically vetted.
    2. Promising non-mainstream research, especially in humanities and social sciences, is discouraged.
    3. Government-controlled funding bodies can indirectly dictate research themes.
    4. Even private universities self-censor to avoid antagonising political authorities.
  3. Regulation and Autonomy:
    1. UGC Act, 1956 grants regulation powers but often centralises control.
    2. NEP 2020 proposes Higher Education Commission of India to streamline governance but risks uniformity over diversity.
    3. Autonomy must be administrative, financial, and academic with accountability ensured via transparent governance systems, not political directives.

Case in Point – Academic Freedom Under Strain in India

  1. JNU Reading List Controversy (2019): Certain texts removed from syllabi for “ideological bias.”
  2. IIT-Madras Student Group Derecognition (2015): Suspension after alleged criticism of government policies.
  3. Ashoka University Resignations (2021 & 2023): Faculty exits over lack of institutional support for academic freedom.
  4. UGC Advisory (2022): Urged avoidance of events critical of government policies.

Global Context

  1. Restrictions in democracies (Argentina, Hungary, Türkiye) and authoritarian states (China, Russia, Vietnam).
  2. The US faced funding cuts under the Trump administration, risking erosion of its innovation edge.
  3. China limits social sciences freedom but maintains merit-based appointments in top institutions.

Conclusion

Academic freedom is not a privilege, it is a necessity for national growth. Curtailing it is an attack on the very roots of innovation, democratic engagement, and societal advancement.

Value Addition

India’s Academic Freedom Snapshot

  1. Academic Freedom Index 2023: Low score; declining trend since 2013
  2. QS World University Rankings – Few Indian universities in global top 200; autonomy cited as a factor
  3. NAAC Accreditation: Less than 35% of HEIs accredited
  4. UGC Autonomy Regulations: 82 universities granted autonomy (2018–2023)
  5. Global Comparison: US, UK, Germany ranked significantly higher in academic freedom

Regulation of Indian Universities

  1. University Grants Commission (UGC) Act, 1956: regulates standards, allocates funds, recognises institutions.
  2. AICTE: governs technical education institutions
  3. NAAC: accredits higher education institutions
  4. National Education Policy (NEP) 2020 proposes:
    1. Higher Education Commission of India (single regulator)
    2. Academic, administrative, and financial autonomy
    3. Flexibility in curriculum and interdisciplinarity
  • Challenges:
    1. Political interference in appointments and syllabus
    2. Over-centralisation vs. institutional diversity
    3. Risk of self-censorship in private institutions

Mapping Micro Themes

GS Paper Topic/Theme Micro Theme Example
GS Paper II Education & Rights Academic freedom as a democratic necessity Art. 19(1)(a) & 21 protecting campus speech
GS Paper II Higher Education Regulation UGC, NEP 2020, institutional autonomy IIT autonomy reforms
GS Paper III Innovation & R&D Freedom boosting research productivity Correlation between autonomy and patents

Practice Mains Question

Essay: “The quest for uniformity is the worst enemy of creativity.”

  1. Evaluate the relationship between academic freedom and democratic accountability in India.

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J&K – The issues around the state

Aid and advice: On Jammu and Kashmir and the Lieutenant-Governor’s Assembly member nominations

Explained | Polity | Mains Paper 2: Federalism

The Union Ministry of Home Affairs (MHA) has told the J&K High Court that the Lieutenant-Governor (L-G) can nominate five Assembly members without the “aid and advice” of the elected government. This position has sparked a constitutional debate over democratic accountability in a politically sensitive Union Territory where such nominations could alter the balance of power. This is significant because these nominations could decide the majority in a 119-member House, potentially overturning the people’s electoral verdict. The High Court is examining whether this undermines the Constitution’s basic structure.

Core issues before the J&K High Court

  1. Constitutional question: Whether the 2023 amendments to the J&K Reorganisation Act, allowing the L-G to nominate five members, violate the Constitution’s basic structure.
  2. Potential impact: These five voting members could “convert a minority government into a majority government and vice versa,” influencing governance stability.
  3. Judicial scope: Goes beyond statutory interpretation into democratic essence.

Provisions of the 2023 amendments

  1. Sections 15A & 15B of the Jammu and Kashmir Reorganisation Act, 2019: Allows nomination of two Kashmiri migrants (including one woman) and one from Pakistan-occupied J&K, in addition to two women if inadequately represented.
  2. Total seats: Creates five nominated members in the 119-member Assembly.
  3. Voting rights: These nominees have full voting powers.

Centre’s justification of this power

  1. MHA’s submission: Nominations fall outside the elected government’s remit, citing K. Lakshminarayanan vs Union of India (Puducherry).
  2. Legal references: Invokes “sanctioned strength” concept, including elected + nominated members, and Section 12 of the 1963 Union Territories Act on voting procedures.
  3. Approach: Focuses on legal technicalities rather than broader constitutional implications.

Concerns over democratic implications

  1. Risk of mandate distortion: In a tight Assembly, nominees could decide government stability.
  2. Precedent in Puducherry: In 2021, nominated members plus defectors contributed to the collapse of the Congress-led government.
  3. UT context: J&K’s downgrade from State to UT in 2019 happened without consultation with elected representatives, making accountability critical.

Supreme Court jurisprudence on L-G’s powers

  1. Delhi Services Cases (Government of NCT of Delhi vs. Union of India (2018), Government of NCT of Delhi vs. Union of India & Anr. (2023)): SC held that the L-G should act on the “aid and advice” of the elected government, with discretion as the exception.
  2. Contradiction: MHA’s stance that nominations lie outside the elected government’s domain runs counter to this jurisprudence.

Conclusion

The J&K nominations issue highlights the tension between administrative authority and the democratic mandate. In politically sensitive regions, bypassing elected governments in decisions that can shift Assembly majorities risks undermining public trust and the constitutional promise of representative governance.

Value Addition
  • Basic Structure Doctrine: It evolved through landmark cases such as Kesavananda Bharati vs State of Kerala (1973), which holds that Parliament cannot amend the Constitution in a way that damages its essential features. Representative democracy and federalism are recognised as part of this basic structure.
  • Lakshminarayanan Case (2019): In K. Lakshminarayanan vs Union of India, the Supreme Court upheld the Centre’s power to nominate MLAs in Puducherry without consulting the elected government. While constitutionally valid, the aftermath showed that nominated members could be politically aligned with the Centre, leading to destabilisation of the elected government. This precedent is now central to the J&K dispute, as similar powers are being exercised by the L-G.
  • Delhi vs L-G Jurisprudence: Through Government of NCT of Delhi vs Union of India (2018) and Government of NCT of Delhi vs Union of India & Anr. (2023), the Supreme Court emphasised that the L-G should act on the “aid and advice” of the elected Council of Ministers, except in explicitly stated matters of discretion. This jurisprudence reinforces the principle that administrative authority should not override the electoral mandate, making the MHA’s argument in J&K appear contrary to evolving constitutional norms.
  • Union Territory Governance Model: Union Territories with legislatures (like Delhi, Puducherry, and now J&K) operate under a hybrid governance system where the Centre retains significant control while local governments have legislative powers. This model inherently contains tensions between central authority and local democratic accountability. In politically sensitive UTs like J&K, such tensions are magnified, especially when powers like nominations can shift legislative majorities.

Mapping Micro Themes for GS Paper II

Topic Micro Theme Example
Centre–State Relations Constitutional role of L-G in UTs & states J&K L-G nominations without elected govt’s aid and advice
Electoral Process Integrity Impact of nominated members on Assembly majority Puducherry 2021 govt collapse case
Basic Structure Doctrine Threat to democratic accountability HC challenge to J&K Reorganisation Act amendments
Comparative Jurisprudence Lakshminarayanan vs Union of India precedent Puducherry nominated MLAs case
Federalism in Special Regions J&K statehood restoration debate SC acknowledgement & public demand

PYQ RELEVANCE

[UPSC 2016] Discuss the essentials of the 69th Constitutional Amendment Act and the controversies regarding the powers of the Lieutenant Governor vis-à-vis the elected government in the NCT of Delhi.

Linkage: The 69th Constitutional Amendment Act created a legislative assembly for Delhi and defined the relationship between the L-G and the elected government, leading to recurring disputes over whether the L-G must act on the “aid and advice” of the Council of Ministers.

The J&K nominations case mirrors this constitutional tension—while Delhi’s dispute involved administrative control and services, J&K’s controversy centres on the L-G’s power to nominate voting members without elected government concurrence. Both situations raise a common constitutional question: Can the L-G exercise discretionary powers in a manner that can override or alter the democratic mandate? This makes Delhi’s precedent and Supreme Court rulings directly relevant to interpreting J&K’s case.

Practice Mains Question

Discuss the constitutional implications of granting the Lieutenant-Governor of Jammu & Kashmir the power to nominate Assembly members without the aid and advice of the elected government. In your answer, examine its impact on the democratic process in light of Supreme Court jurisprudence.

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Foreign Policy Watch: India-Africa

Africa is challenging China’s mining hegemony

Explained | International Relations | Mains Paper 2: Effect Of Policies & Politics Of World On India'S Interests

For two decades, China has led Africa’s mining sector, securing vast stakes in cobalt, lithium, copper, and iron ore. Now, African governments and civil society are challenging opaque contracts, environmental damage, and lack of value addition. The old “raw resources for infrastructure” model is giving way to demands for local processing, transparency, and economic sovereignty.

Significance

For the first time in decades, China’s unchallenged hold on African mining is weakening. Nations like the DRC, Namibia, and Zimbabwe are renegotiating deals, banning raw mineral exports, and holding Chinese firms accountable for environmental and labour violations. The scale is significant, in 2024 alone, DRC lost $132 million due to tax exemptions for Chinese companies. These actions could reshape global cobalt and lithium supply chains essential for the green economy.

China’s Long-standing Dominance in Africa’s Mining

  1. Control over critical minerals: DRC produces 80% of the world’s cobalt; China controls ~80% of that output via deals like Sicomines.
  2. Infrastructure-for-resources model: Chinese firms exchanged infrastructure for mining rights, but local benefits have been minimal.

Drivers of the Pushback Against Chinese Projects

  1. Civil society pressure: Groups like Congo Is Not for Sale exposed $132 million revenue loss in 2024.
  2. Market-linked risks: Contracts tied to commodity prices risk leaving nations with no investment in downturns.
  3. Government renegotiations: DRC raising stake in joint venture with Sinohydro & China Railway Group from 32% to 70%.

African Nations Taking Assertive Measures

  1. DRC: Cancelled Chemaf Resources’ sale to China’s Norin Mining after state miner Gecamines’ opposition.
  2. Namibia: Alleged $50 million bribe by Xinfeng Investments; failure to build promised processing facilities.
  3. Zimbabwe: $300 million Huayou Cobalt lithium plant; benefits may flow back to China without safeguards.

Environmental and Social Concerns from Chinese Mining

  1. Pollution incidents: Acid spill in Zambia contaminated the Kafue River.
  2. Biodiversity protection: Hwange National Park coal permit blocked for ecological reasons.
  3. Community and heritage impacts: Cameroon’s Lobé-Kribi Iron Ore Project opposed by NGOs over health and cultural threats.

Policy Shifts for Economic Sovereignty

  1. Export bans: Zimbabwe (2022) and Namibia (2023) banned unprocessed lithium exports to promote local beneficiation.
  2. Retention of value: Policy aims to strengthen domestic processing, but risk of elite capture remains without broader reforms.

Conclusion

China remains Africa’s largest mining partner, but African nations are increasingly asserting control through renegotiations, environmental enforcement, and value addition. If sustained, these actions could reposition Africa from a raw material supplier to an active player in global green economy supply chains.

Value Addition

China’s Role in Mining in Africa (2000–2024)

Scale of Presence

  1. Largest external mining partner: Operates in over 15 African countries.
  2. Dominance in cobalt & lithium: Controls ~80% of DRC’s cobalt output; major stakes in lithium mines in Zimbabwe, Namibia.

Investment Model

  1. Infrastructure-for-resources deals: e.g., Sicomines agreement in DRC (mining rights in exchange for roads, hospitals, railways).
  2. High-value acquisitions: Purchase of mining stakes from global and local firms to secure long-term supply chains.

Strategic Objectives

  1. Securing supply for EV & battery industries: Critical minerals channelled to Chinese manufacturing hubs.
  2. Vertical integration: Ownership from extraction to processing facilities (mostly located in China).

Criticism & Concerns

  1. Limited local benefits: Minimal skills transfer, inadequate job creation.
  2. Environmental damage: Incidents like Zambia’s Kafue River acid spill.
  3. Opaque contracts: Alleged bribery (Namibia) and lack of transparency in revenue flows.

Shifts & Resistance

  1. Renegotiations and policy pushback: DRC increasing state stake in ventures; export bans in Zimbabwe and Namibia.
  2. Civil society pressure: Activist coalitions exposing revenue losses and demanding fairer contracts.

Critical Minerals Geopolitics

  1. Strategic importance: Minerals like cobalt, lithium, and copper are essential for EV batteries, renewable energy storage, and electronics manufacturing.
  2. Global competition: Control over their supply chains influences technological dominance in the clean energy transition.
  3. China’s leverage: By securing ~80% of DRC’s cobalt and significant lithium reserves, China holds a strategic advantage over rivals such as the US, EU, and Japan.
  4. UPSC linkage – Relevant for GS II (International Relations) and GS III (Economy, Technology), particularly in questions on energy security and global trade politics.

Resource Nationalism

  1. Definition: A policy stance where nations assert control over natural resources to maximise domestic benefit and reduce foreign dependency.
  2. African examples: Zimbabwe and Namibia banning export of unprocessed lithium; DRC renegotiating mining contracts to increase state ownership.
  3. Implications: Can boost domestic processing industries but may deter foreign investment if not paired with stable policy frameworks.

Mapping Micro Themes

GS Paper Theme/Topic Micro Theme Example
GS Paper II International Relations South-South cooperation & friction China-Africa mining ties
GS Paper II Governance Resource nationalism DRC renegotiation of Sicomines
GS Paper III Environment Ecological threats from mining Hwange NP permit denial, Kafue River spill

PYQ Relevance

[UPSC 2021] “The USA is facing an existential threat in the form of China, that is much more challenging than the erstwhile Soviet Union.” Explain

Linkage: While the question is US–China centric, Africa’s mining sector is a key arena of US–China competition. China’s dominance over Africa’s critical minerals gives it strategic leverage in global supply chains, posing long-term geopolitical and economic challenges to the US, a dimension comparable to Cold War-era resource and influence battles.

Practice Mains Question

Examine how Africa’s policy shift in mineral governance could alter global supply chains for critical minerals.

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Animal Birth Control (ABC) Program

Prelims Only | Governance | Mains Paper 2: Governance, Transparency & Accountability, Citizens Charters

Why in the News?

The Supreme Court has recently called returning sterilised stray dogs to the streets under the Animal Birth Control (ABC) Program as “unreasonable and absurd” and ordered they be moved to shelters.

About Animal Birth Control (ABC) Program:

  • Purpose: Humane, scientifically proven method to control stray dog populations and reduce rabies.
  • Legal Basis: First under Animal Birth Control (Dogs) Rules, 2001 (under the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals Act, 1960); updated as Animal Birth Control Rules, 2023.
  • Development: Created with support from the World Health Organization (WHO).
  • Core Method: “Catch–sterilise–vaccinate–release” model; prohibits relocation or culling.
  • Implementation: Managed by municipalities, municipal corporations, and panchayats.
  • Authorisation: Only organisations recognised by the Animal Welfare Board of India (AWBI) can conduct programs.
  • Animal Birth Control Rules, 2023:
    • Implemented to comply with Supreme Court guidelines in Writ Petition No. 691 of 2009.
    • Assigns responsibility to local bodies (municipalities, corporations, panchayats) to conduct ABC programs for sterilisation and immunisation of stray dogs.
    • Prohibits relocation of stray dogs as a means of population control; instead, they must be sterilised and returned to the same area.
    • Only organisations recognised by the Animal Welfare Board of India (AWBI) can conduct ABC programs.

Key Features:

  • Sterilisation Target: Minimum 70% of stray dogs in an area within one reproductive cycle (~6 months).
  • Focus: Female sterilisation at a 70:30 female-to-male ratio.
  • Rabies Control: Mandatory rabies vaccination (ABC–ARV) for every sterilised dog.
  • Infrastructure: Kennels, veterinary facilities, vehicles, and hygienic shelters required.
  • Recordkeeping: Detailed records for catching, surgery, vaccination, and release.
  • Monitoring: State and local committees ensure compliance and handle complaints.
  • Legal Protection: Mass relocation or killing prohibited under the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals (PCA) Act, 1960.
[UPSC 2010] Consider the following statements:

1. Every individual in the population is equally susceptible host for Swine Flu.

2. Antibiotics have no role in the primary treatment of Swine Flu

3. To prevent the future spread of Swine Flu in the epidemic area, the swine (pigs) must all be culled.

Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

Options: (a) 1 and 2 only* (b) 2 only  (c) 2 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3

 

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Tax Reforms

New Income Tax Bill, 2025

Prelims Only | Economics | Mains Paper 3: Indian Economy

Why in the News?

Parliament has passed the Income-tax Bill, 2025, replacing the 1961 law with a leaner, simpler version free of redundant provisions and archaic language, effective April 1, 2026.

About New Income Tax Bill, 2025:

  • Purpose: Replaces the Income Tax Act, 1961 after more than 60 years to simplify the law, remove redundant provisions, and modernise tax administration.
  • Effective Date: Comes into effect from April 1, 2026.
  • Structural Changes: Sections reduced from 819 to 536; chapters from 47 to 23.
  • Conciseness: Word count cut from 5.12 lakh to 2.6 lakh, with 39 tables and 40 formulas for clarity.
  • New Concept: Introduces “tax year” defined as April 1 to March 31.

Key Features:

  • Refunds: Restores refund claims on belated returns by removing the earlier restriction.
  • Tax Collected at Source (TCS) Clarity: Nil TCS for Liberalised Remittance Scheme (LRS) remittances for education funded by financial institutions.
  • Corporate Tax: Corrects errors in inter-corporate dividend deduction for companies opting for concessional tax rates.
  • Alternate Minimum Tax (AMT) Alignment: Aligns AMT provisions for Limited Liability Partnerships (LLPs) with existing rates.
  • Nil-Tax Deducted at Source (TDS) Certificate: Permits taxpayers with no liability to obtain a nil-TDS certificate.
  • Transfer Pricing: Clarifies transfer pricing provisions, set-off of losses, and alignment with Section 79 on “beneficial owner.”
  • Non-Profit Organisation (NPO) Benefit: Expands exemption to 5% of total donations, instead of only anonymous donations.
  • House Property Income: Clarifies 30% standard deduction after municipal taxes.
  • Search Definition: Retains “virtual digital space” definition to include cloud storage, email, and social media accounts.
  • Data Handling: Standard Operating Procedure (SOP) to be issued for handling personal digital data seized in searches.
[UPSC 2025] Consider the following statements: Statement I: In India, income from allied agricultural activities like poultry farming and wool rearing in rural areas is exempted from any tax. Statement II: In India, rural agricultural land is not considered a capital asset under the provisions of the Income-tax Act, 1961.

Which one of the following is correct in respect of the above statements?

(a) Both Statement I and Statement II are correct and Statement II explains Statement I

(b) Both Statement I and Statement II are correct but Statement II does not explain Statement I*

(c) Statement I is correct but Statement II is not correct

(d) Statement I is not correct but Statement II is correct

 

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Global Geological And Climatic Events

1950 Assam Earthquake and Future Seismic Risks in the Himalayas

Prelims Only | Geography | Mains Paper 1: Important Geophysical Phenomena

Why in the News?

75 years ago on August 15, 1950, a magnitude 8.6 earthquake — the strongest recorded on land — struck Northeast India and surrounding regions.

1950 Assam Earthquake and Future Seismic Risks in the Himalayas

About the Earthquake:

  • Magnitude: 8.6, the strongest recorded earthquake on land.
  • Impact Area: Tremors lasted 4–8 minutes, felt over 3 million sq. km in India, Myanmar, Bangladesh, Tibet, and South China.
  • Casualties: Over 1,500 deaths in India and 4,000+ in Tibet; heavy livestock losses and infrastructure destruction.
  • Secondary Disasters: Triggered landslides blocking rivers, followed by devastating flash floods.

Geological and Tectonic Setting:

  • Epicentre: 40 km west of Rima (Zayu), near India–Tibet border in the Mishmi Hills.
  • Tectonic Context: Located on Indian–Eurasian Plate boundary within Eastern Himalayan Syntaxis (EHS), influenced by the Sunda Plate.
  • Fault Type: Strike-slip motion with thrust faulting — atypical for Himalayan quakes.
  • Plate Convergence: Eastern Himalayas converge at 10–38 mm/year vs. ~20 mm/year elsewhere.
  • Aftershocks: Indicated activation of multiple faults from the Syntaxial bend to Himalayan thrust faults in Arunachal Pradesh.

Lessons and Future Risks:

  • Magnitude Potential: Confirms Himalayan segments can produce ≥8.6 magnitude events.
  • Central Himalayan Risk: Identified as likely site for similar future quake.
  • Vulnerability Today: Increased due to urbanisation and large infrastructure in seismic zones.
  • Infrastructure Safety: Necessitates strict norms for dams and high-risk projects in Eastern Himalayas.
  • Preparedness: Highlights need for seismic hazard mapping and disaster readiness.
[UPSC 2024] Consider the following statements:

1. In a seismograph, P waves are recorded earlier than S waves.

2. In P waves, the individual particles vibrate to and fro in the direction of waves propogation whereas in S waves, the particles vibrate up and down at right angles to the direction of wave propagation. Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

Options: (a) 1 only (b) 2 only (c) Both 1 and 2* (d) Neither 1 nor 2

 

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International Space Agencies – Missions and Discoveries

Orbiting Carbon Observatories (OCO) Program

Prelims Only | Science Tech | Mains Paper 3: Awareness in various sc and tech fields

Why in the News?

The Trump administration seeks to end two NASA missions under the Orbiting Carbon Observatories (OCO) program, which monitor global carbon dioxide emissions and plant health.

About Orbiting Carbon Observatories (OCO) Program:

  • Overview: A NASA Earth remote sensing initiative dedicated to monitoring atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO₂) from space.
  • Objective: Designed to enhance understanding of climate change by precisely tracking CO₂ sources and sinks.
  • Comprises three missions:
    • OCO-1: Launched in 2009 but failed shortly after launch.
    • OCO-2: Launched in July 2014 as a replacement.
    • OCO-3: Installed on the International Space Station in May 2019.

Key Features:

  • Precision Measurement: Provides high-resolution global CO₂ data and maps of plant photosynthesis.
  • Dual Capability: Measures CO₂ levels and solar-induced chlorophyll fluorescence to assess photosynthesis.
  • Applications: Detects drought, forecasts food shortages, identifies carbon sinks/sources, supports crop planning.
  • Global Reach: Tracks CO₂ distribution over continents, oceans, and remote ecosystems like Amazon and boreal forests.
  • Major Discoveries: Amazon rainforest now emits more CO₂ than it absorbs; boreal forests identified as major carbon sinks.
  • Policy Relevance: Supplies key data for climate treaties and greenhouse gas reporting.
[UPSC 2019] For the measurement/estimation of which of the following are satellite images/remote sensing data used?

1. Chlorophyll content in the vegetation of a specific location

2. Greenhouse gas emissions from rice paddies of a specific location

3. Land surface temperatures of a specific location

Select the correct answer using the code given below.

Options: (a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3*

 

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UNDP Equator Initiative Prize, 2025

IOCR | International Relations | Mains Paper 2: Important International Institutions

Why in the News?

A women farmers’ collective from Karnataka has been recognised among the ten global winners of the United Nations Development Programme’s (UNDP) Equator Prize 2025.

About UNDP Equator Initiative Award:

  • Overview: Presented under the Equator Initiative of the UNDP.
  • Awarded biennially:  To community-led initiatives reducing poverty through biodiversity conservation and sustainable use.
  • Significance: Often called the “Nobel Prize for Biodiversity Conservation”.
  • Award: Includes a cash prize of $10,000.
  • Eligibility:
    • Initiative must have existed for at least three years.
    • Must be a community-based group in a rural area of a UNDP-supported country, or an Indigenous Peoples’ community in a rural area.
    • Actions must be nature-based and benefit two or more SDGs.

Back2Basics: United Nations Development Programme (UNDP):

  • Established: 1966 by the UN General Assembly; Headquarters: New York, USA.
  • Mission: End poverty, promote democratic governance, rule of law, and inclusive institutions.
  • Focus Areas:
    • Sustainable development.
    • Democratic governance and peacebuilding.
    • Climate and disaster resilience.
  • Funding: Entirely from voluntary contributions of member states.
  • Role: Advocates for change, connects countries to knowledge, resources, and expertise for sustainable human development.
  • Key initiatives:
    • Human Development Index (HDI).
    • Sustainable Development Goals (SDG) Reports.
    • Gender Inequality Index (GII).
[UPSC 2012] The Multi-dimensional Poverty Index developed by Oxford Poverty and Human Development Initiative with UNDP support covers which of the following?

1. Deprivation of education, health, assets and services at household level

2. Purchasing power parity at national level

3. Extent of budget deficit and GDP growth rate at national level

Options: (a) 1 only * (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3

 

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Organ & Tissue Transplant- Policies, Technologies, etc.

[13th August 2025] The Hindu Op-ed: Clear the myths, recognise organ donation as a lifeline

op-ed snap | Social Justice | Mains Paper 2: Health & Education

PYQ Relevance:

[UPSC 2018] Appropriate local community level healthcare intervention is a prerequisite to achieve ‘Health for All’ in India. Explain.        

Linkage: Organ donation supports “Health for All” by requiring grassroots awareness, local leader engagement, and trained counsellors at PHCs to address myths and secure consent. Integrating it into programmes like Ayushman Bharat ensures equitable access to life-saving transplants beyond metros.

Mentor’s Comment:

Organ transplantation is one of modern medicine’s greatest achievements, yet India’s deceased donor rate is among the lowest globally. This editorial breaks myths, outlines systemic gaps, and suggests awareness and policy measures, crucial for UPSC aspirants studying public health, ethics, and governance.

Introduction

On World Organ Donation Day (August 13), India’s organ shortage stands out starkly. Annual transplants rose from 4,990 in 2013 to 18,378 in 2023, but only 1,099 came from deceased donors. The donation rate remains just 0.8 per million, far behind Spain’s 45+, causing over half a million preventable deaths each year. Myths, misinformation, and mistrust worsen the crisis, making awareness drives, medical transparency, and strong policy reforms urgent.

Scale of India’s Organ Donation Gap

  1. High fatalities: 5 lakh+ deaths yearly due to organ shortage
  2. PYQ LinkageLow deceased donor rate: 0.8/million vs Spain’s 45+/million
  3. Growing numbers, limited impact: 18,378 transplants in 2023 but majority from living donors.

Prevailing Myths and Misconceptions

  1. Body disfigurement fear: Retrieval preserves appearance for rites
  2. Religious objections: All major faiths endorse donation as compassion
  3. Brain death mistrust: Legal safeguards under Transplantation of Human Organs and Tissues Act, 1994 ensure ethical process

Eligibility Beyond Young Accident Victims

  1. Older donors viable: Kidneys, liver segments, lungs, corneas possible from natural deaths
  2. Tissue donations are valuable: Bone, skin, heart valves save/improve lives

Strengthening Awareness and Trust

  1. Community workshops: Address myths, explain medical protocols
  2. Education integration: Include donation ethics in schools/colleges
  3. Media storytelling: Use real donor-recipient cases to inspire
  4. Medical leadership: Train healthcare staff for sensitive family outreach

Policy Measures for Closing the Gap

  1. Presumed consent model: Opt-out system like Spain, Croatia
  2. Family support systems: Ensure transparency, grievance redressal
  3. Dedicated coordination teams: Guide families with empathy

Conclusion

India stands at a moral and medical crossroads. Organ donation must shift from being a rare, heroic act to a societal norm supported by robust legal safeguards and empathetic outreach. Busting myths, embedding awareness into education, and exploring bold policy innovations like presumed consent could ensure no Indian dies for want of an organ. On World Organ Donation Day, the call is clear: pledge, register, and respect the choice to give life.

Value Addition
  1. Ethical dimension: Organ donation as a moral responsibility and act of altruism (GS4)
  2. Comparative policy analysis: Presumed consent systems in Europe (Spain, Croatia)
  3. Health policy reforms: Strengthening National Organ and Tissue Transplant Organisation (NOTTO) functioning
  4. Behavioral change models: Role of social proof, cultural integration, and trust-building in public health campaigns.

Transplantation of Human Organs and Tissues Act (THOTA), 1994

  1. Provides a legal framework for removal, storage, and transplantation of human organs/tissues for therapeutic purposes.
  2. Recognizes brain death as a legal definition of death, enabling cadaver organ donation.
  3. Regulates hospitals, mandates authorization committees to approve donations (esp. for unrelated donors).
  4. Prohibits commercial trading of organs; penalizes violations with imprisonment and fines.
  5. Amended in 2011 to include tissues (e.g., cornea, skin) and strengthen enforcement.

National Organ and Tissue Transplant Organization (NOTTO): Apex body under the Ministry of Health & Family Welfare.

  1. Maintains the National Waiting List & Organ Allocation Registry
  2. Coordinates procurement, distribution, and transplantation at the national level
  3. Provides training, guidelines, and awareness campaigns
  4. Oversees ROTTOs (Regional) and SOTTOs (State) for decentralized coordination

Current Affairs Linkage

  1. The National Organ and Tissue Transplant Organization (NOTTO) has issued a landmark advisory recommending priority in organ transplants for women patients and relatives of deceased donors, a direct attempt to correct a deep-seated gender imbalance in organ transplantation.
  2. This is significant because, despite women making up 63% of living organ donors in 2023, they represented only 24% to 47% of beneficiaries across organ categories.

Ethical challenges/dilemmas related to organ donation for GS-IV:

  1. Informed Consent & Autonomy: Ensuring the donor (or family) fully understands the implications and voluntarily agrees, without coercion.
  2. Equitable Allocation: Distributing organs fairly, avoiding favoritism, wealth or influence-based bias.
  3. Transparency vs. Privacy: Balancing public accountability with the donor’s and recipient’s confidentiality.
  4. Cultural & Religious Sensitivities: Respecting diverse beliefs while promoting organ donation awareness.
  5. Prevention of Commercialization & Exploitation: Safeguarding against organ trade, coercion of vulnerable groups, and unethical incentives.

Micro Theme Mapping

GS Paper Topic Micro Themes Example
GS Paper II Health Organ donation rates & public health policy India’s 0.8 donors/million vs Spain’s 45/million
GS Paper II Governance Legal safeguards in brain death declaration Transplantation of Human Organs and Tissues Act, 1994
GS Paper II Education Health awareness through curriculum Introducing organ donation in schools/colleges
GS Paper IV Ethics Compassion and altruism in health decisions Faith leaders endorsing organ donation

Practice Mains Questions:

“In India, organ donation is more a matter of societal will than medical capacity.” Critically examine, suggesting measures to improve donation rates. (250 words)

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Innovations in Sciences, IT, Computers, Robotics and Nanotechnology

How does satellite internet work?

Explained | Science Tech | Mains Paper 3: S&T - Applications In Everyday Life

Why in the News:

Elon Musk’s Starlink will soon launch in India, promising high-speed internet access in regions beyond the reach of ground-based networks. This is significant as it can bridge rural-urban gaps, improve disaster resilience, and strengthen defence capabilities. Globally, satellite internet has been a lifeline during Hurricane Harvey and a tactical tool in the Russia-Ukraine war. For India, it represents both a technological leap and a strategic necessity.

Introduction:

In today’s digitised and interconnected world, internet access is as vital as electricity or transport. Traditional cable and tower-based networks excel in cities but falter in remote terrains. Satellite internet, powered by mega-constellations like Starlink, offers a borderless, high-resilience alternative that operates irrespective of geography.

Why are ground-based internet networks economically unviable in certain regions?

  1. Physical Infrastructure Limits: Cables and towers are uneconomical for sparsely populated or remote regions
  2. Disaster Vulnerability: Infrastructure can be wiped out during floods, earthquakes, or storms
  3. On-the-Go Connectivity Gap: Mobile and temporary operations (airplanes, ships, oil rigs) often remain underserved

How does satellite internet overcome these challenges?

  1. Global Coverage: Operates regardless of terrain or terrestrial infrastructure
  2. Rapid Deployment: Can be set up quickly to meet sudden demand surges
  3. Mobility Advantage: Supports moving platforms and remote sites
  4. Dual-Use Potential: Functions for both civil and military purposes (e.g., Ukrainian defence, Siachen Glacier operations)

What makes the new wave of satellite internet significant?

  1. Mega-Constellations: Networks like Starlink have thousands of satellites in Low Earth Orbit (LEO)
  2. Disaster Response Role: Viasat aided Hurricane Harvey operations when 70% of cell towers failed.
  3. Defence Integration: Ukrainian drones fitted with Starlink to bypass Russian jamming; Indian Army use in high-altitude conflict zones
  4. Security Concerns: Smuggled Starlink devices used by insurgent groups and drug cartels

Working of satellite internet:

  1. Two Segments: Space segment (satellites) and ground segment (user terminals, gateways).
  2. Service Life: Satellites operate for 5–20 years depending on design.
  3. Orbits:
    1. GEO (35,786 km): Wide coverage, high latency; unsuitable for real-time apps. Example: Viasat GX.
    2. MEO (2,000–35,786 km): Medium latency, requires constellations. Example: O3b.
    3. LEO (<2,000 km): Low latency, small coverage; requires mega-constellations. Example: Starlink’s 7,000+ satellites.

Key Differences between satellites in GEO, MEO AND LEO:

Feature Geostationary Earth Orbit (GEO) Medium Earth Orbit (MEO) Low Earth Orbit (LEO)
Altitude 35,786 km above equator 2,000 – 35,786 km Below 2,000 km
Relative Motion Stationary relative to a point on Earth Moves relative to Earth Moves quickly relative to Earth
Coverage ~1/3 of Earth (no polar coverage) Larger than LEO, smaller than GEO; needs constellation for global coverage Small footprint; single satellite covers area like an Indian metro city
Satellite Size Large Large Smaller, often table-sized
Cost & Deployment Expensive, long deployment Expensive, smaller constellations Cheaper, quicker to deploy
Latency High (unsuitable for time-sensitive apps) Medium (lower than GEO but still limits real-time use) Very low (good for real-time use)
Example Viasat Global Xpress (GX) O3b constellation (20 satellites) Starlink (7,000+ satellites, aiming for 42,000)
Key Drawback High delay due to distance Still costly, latency not ideal for all uses Needs thousands of satellites for global coverage

How do LEO mega-constellations maintain connectivity?

  1. On-Board Processing: Improves efficiency and reduces terminal complexity
  2. Optical Inter-Satellite Links: Satellites communicate directly in space for faster routing
  3. Seamless Handoff: Steerable antennas track multiple satellites to maintain uninterrupted service

What are the key applications of satellite internet?

  1. Civil Connectivity: Rural broadband, IoE (Internet of Everything)
  2. Transportation: Navigation, self-driving cars, logistics optimisation
  3. Public Administration: Smart cities, disaster warnings, rescue coordination
  4. Healthcare: Telemedicine, remote diagnostics
  5. Agriculture: Precision farming, crop health monitoring
  6. Defence & Security: Real-time communication in conflict zones, strategic surveillance

Conclusion

Satellite internet represents not just a technological upgrade but a strategic asset in the digital era. For India, it offers a pathway to bridge the digital divide, enhance national resilience, and project influence in the global communications domain. However, its dual-use nature demands strong regulatory frameworks to balance innovation, accessibility, and security.

Value Addition

Key Terms & Phrases Explained

  • Satellite Internet: A communication service where internet connectivity is provided through satellites orbiting the Earth, rather than terrestrial cables/towers. It enables access in remote, disaster-hit, or mobile scenarios.
  • Mega-Constellation: A large network of hundreds or thousands of satellites, often in Low Earth Orbit (LEO), working in coordination to provide continuous coverage. Example: Starlink (planned 42,000 satellites).
  • Latency: Time taken for a signal to travel from sender to receiver; critical for real-time applications like video conferencing or online gaming.
  • Optical Inter-Satellite Links (OISL): Laser-based connections between satellites, enabling direct space-to-space data transfer without routing through ground stations, reducing delays and congestion.
  • Dual-Use Technology: A technology with both civilian and military applications. In satellite internet, the same network can support remote learning and healthcare or battlefield communication and drone operations.
  • Digital Divide: The socio-economic gap between those with access to modern digital technologies (internet, computing) and those without.
  • International Telecommunication Union (ITU): A UN agency responsible for coordinating global telecom networks, including orbital slot and spectrum allocation for satellites.
  • On-Board Processing: Satellite’s ability to process data directly in orbit, improving signal quality, speed, and reducing complexity of user terminals.
  • Seamless Handoff: Automatic switching of user connection from one satellite to another as satellites move, ensuring uninterrupted service.
  • Internet of Everything (IoE): An extension of IoT where not only devices, but also data, processes, and people are interconnected via the internet.

Mapping  Micro Themes

Paper Macro Theme Micro Themes Sub-Micro / Example
GS Paper III Types of Orbits GEO (Geostationary) INSAT series, GSAT satellites
MEO (Medium Earth Orbit) O3b constellation for broadband
LEO (Low Earth Orbit) Starlink, OneWeb
GS Paper III Application in Navigation GNSS Variants GPS (USA), GLONASS (Russia), Galileo (EU), IRNSS/NavIC (India)
LEO & MEO in Navigation Faster signals, better coverage
GS Paper II Policy & Governance India’s Space Policy 2023 PPP in satellite communication
International Coordination ITU spectrum allocation

Practice Mains Question:

Discuss the potential of satellite internet in bridging the digital divide in India. Examine the associated security and regulatory challenges.

PYQ Linkage:

[UPSC 2018] Why is the Indian Regional Navigational Satellite System [IRNSS] needed? How does it help in navigation? 

Linkage: IRNSS (also called NavIC) is India’s indigenous satellite-based navigation system providing accurate position information over India and surrounding regions.

Just like IRNSS uses satellites for positioning, satellite internet uses similar orbital infrastructure for data connectivity. Understanding satellite orbits, latency, and ground segments from this topic directly aids in explaining IRNSS’s working, advantages, and strategic value in navigation.

 

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Labour, Jobs and Employment – Harmonization of labour laws, gender gap, unemployment, etc.

Debunking the myth of job creation

Explained | Economics | Mains Paper 3: Issues relating growth and development, employment

Why in the News?

The government has recently approved the Employment Linked Incentive (ELI) Scheme as one of the largest fiscal commitments towards employment generation in recent years. The scale of underemployment in India is striking, over 53% of graduates are working in semi-skilled jobs and 46% of low-skill workers earn less than ₹1 lakh a year raising questions about whether such a scheme can genuinely address unemployment or will deepen structural inequalities.

Significance of ELI Scheme:

  1. Government Approval: Cleared on July 1, 2025, with ₹99,446 crore outlay.
  2. Primary Aim: Provide fiscal incentives to employers for job creation, especially in manufacturing.
  3. Significance: Represents one of the largest government-led employment incentive packages in India.

Issues with the ELI Scheme’s design:

  1. Employer-Centric Approach: Focuses on incentivising employers rather than directly empowering workers.
  2. Capital-Labour Asymmetry: Risks strengthening employer bargaining power while leaving workers vulnerable.
  3. Exclusion of Informal Sector: 90% of India’s workforce, largely informal, is excluded as the scheme prioritises EPFO-registered firms.
  4. Underprepared Workforce: Only 4.9% of youth have received formal vocational training, creating a mismatch between jobs and skills.

Skill Mismatch and Underemployment Trends in India:

  1. Low Skill Utilisation: Only 8.25% of graduates work in jobs matching their qualifications.
  2. High Underemployment: 53% of graduates and 36% of postgraduates in semi-skilled or elementary roles.
  3. Wage Disparity: 46% of low-skilled workers earn < ₹1 lakh/year, while only 4.2% of specialised graduates earn ₹4–8 lakh/year.
  4. Inefficient Education-to-Employment Pipeline: Shows systemic disconnect between education system and industry needs.

Sectoral Imbalance and Employment Implications:

  1. Manufacturing Bias: Targets manufacturing despite its declining employment elasticity.
  2. Employment Share: Manufacturing employs <13% of total workforce, while agriculture and services employ ~70%.
  3. Potential Marginalisation: Rural youth, women, and informal workers, largely in low-skill services/agriculture, risk being left out.
  4. Automation Pressure: Capital-intensive manufacturing growth reduces labour absorption.

Risks to Job Quality and Employment Sustainability:

  1. Disguised Unemployment: May encourage enterprises to relabel old jobs as new to claim subsidies.
  2. Structural Inequality: Channels fiscal benefits to already formalised enterprises.
  3. Bypassing Informal Workforce: Misses the majority of new labour market entrants in the informal sector.
  4. Stagnant Productivity: Without skill investment, job creation may remain low-quality.

Policy Alternatives for Equitable Employment Generation:

  1. Investment in Skilling: Strengthen vocational training to prepare low-skilled workers
  2. Education Reforms: Align curricula with industry demands
  3. Social Security Inclusion: Extend benefits to informal workers for equity
  4. Shift to Long-Term Strategy: Focus on productivity, job quality, and labour rights rather than short-term headcount increases.

Conclusion

The ELI Scheme reflects a high-investment, employer-focused strategy that risks deepening existing inequalities in India’s labour market. Without addressing the skill mismatch, informal sector exclusion, and sectoral imbalances, the scheme may generate headcount without creating sustainable livelihoods. A shift towards worker-centric, skill-driven, and socially inclusive employment policies is essential to ensure equitable economic growth.

Value Addition

Economic Survey 2024–25

  • Key Insight: Reveals that only 8.25% of graduates are in jobs matching their qualifications, with 53% of graduates underemployed in semi-skilled or elementary roles.
  • Relevance: Strengthens arguments on the education–employment disconnect and the urgent need for targeted skilling reforms.
  • Application: Can be quoted in answers on unemployment, skill development, or human capital formation.

Dual Labour Market Theory

  • Concept: The labour market is split into two segments, formal (primary) with stable jobs, better wages, and benefits; and informal (secondary) with insecure, low-paid work and no social protection.
  • Relevance to ELI Scheme: The scheme’s EPFO-based targeting inherently supports the formal sector while neglecting the 90% informal workforce, deepening this divide.
  • Application: Useful in analysing structural inequality in employment policies.

Employment Elasticity

  • Definition: The responsiveness of employment growth to GDP growth.
  • India’s Case: Manufacturing’s employment elasticity is declining due to automation and capital-intensive processes.
  • Relevance to ELI Scheme: Explains why heavy focus on manufacturing may not yield proportional employment gains.
  • Application: Adds depth when evaluating sectoral choices in employment policy.

ILO’s “Decent Work” Agenda

  • Framework: Promotes productive employment, rights at work, social protection, and social dialogue.
  • Relevance: The ELI Scheme lacks strong components on worker rights, social protection for informal workers, or job quality improvement — thereby falling short of ILO’s standards.
  • Application: Ideal for international comparison in labour policy answers.

Disguised Unemployment

  • Definition: A situation where more workers are employed than necessary, resulting in negligible or zero marginal productivity.
  • Indian Context: Common in agriculture and informal services.
  • Relevance to ELI Scheme: Risk of enterprises relabeling existing jobs as new to claim subsidies, creating apparent employment without productivity gains.
  • Application: Can be linked to inefficiencies in job creation schemes and low productivity traps.

Mapping Microthemes:

GS Paper Theme Micro Theme Example from Article
GS Paper III Economy Employment generation policies ₹99,446 crore ELI Scheme
GS Paper III Economy Formal–informal sector divide 90% informal workforce excluded
GS Paper III Economy Skill mismatch & underemployment 8.25% graduates in matching jobs
GS Paper III Economy Sectoral imbalance Manufacturing bias despite low share in jobs
GS Paper II Governance Policy design flaws Employer-centric incentives

Practice Mains Question

  1. Critically evaluate the Employment Linked Incentive (ELI) Scheme in the context of India’s structural labour market challenges. Suggest policy measures to ensure equitable and sustainable employment growth. (250 words)

PYQ Linkage:

[UPSC 2014] “While we flaunt India’s demographic dividend, we ignore the dropping rates of employability.” What are we missing while doing so? Where will the jobs that India desperately needs come from? Explain.

Linkage: Address the role of skilling in tackling unemployment, evaluate gaps in current initiatives, and connect with how ELI Scheme mirrors or misses these elements. The PMKVY question emphasises the necessity of industry-relevant skills for employment generation. The ELI Scheme, while aiming at job creation, lacks a robust skilling component, risking the same shortcomings seen in earlier programmes like PMKVY.

 

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Judicial Reforms

Removal of High Court Judges

Prelims Only | Polity | Mains Paper 2: Executive & Judiciary

Why in the News?

Lok Sabha Speaker has initiated removal proceedings against a Judge of the Allahabad High Court by admitting a motion signed by 146 members and forming a three-member inquiry committee.

About Appointment of High Court Judges:

  • Constitutional Basis: Article 217 of the Constitution of India.
  • Appointing Authority: President of India, in consultation with the Chief Justice of India (CJI), Governor of the concerned State, and Chief Justice of the concerned High Court.
  • Collegium System: The proposal is initiated by the High Court’s Chief Justice, forwarded through the Chief Minister and Governor, and decided by the CJI along with the two senior-most judges of the Supreme Court.
  • Chief Justice Posting Policy: Chief Justices are appointed from outside the State to ensure impartiality.
  • Transfers: The CJI and senior-most judges of the Supreme Court decide transfers to maintain judicial independence.

Removal Process:

  • Grounds: Proved misbehaviour or incapacity.
  • Procedure: Impeachment process under Articles 124(4) and 217, and Section 3(2) of the Judges (Inquiry) Act, 1968.
  • Initiation: Motion signed by at least 100 Lok Sabha MPs or 50 Rajya Sabha MPs.
  • Inquiry: 3-member committee comprising a Supreme Court judge, a Chief Justice of a High Court, and a distinguished jurist investigates the charges.
  • Voting Requirement: Two-thirds majority in both Houses of Parliament for removal.
  • In-House Mechanism: CJI can initiate internal inquiries and advise resignation in serious cases.

Other Notable Cases:

  • Justice V. Ramaswami (1993): Faced impeachment for financial misconduct; motion failed in Lok Sabha.
  • Justice Soumitra Sen (2011): Resigned after Rajya Sabha voted for removal over fund misappropriation.
  • Justice K. Veeraswamy: Corruption case remained unresolved until his death.
  • Justice Shamit Mukherjee (2003), Justice Nirmal Yadav (2008), Justice S.N. Shukla (2017): Faced criminal charges for corruption after in-house inquiries.
[UPSC 2007] Consider the following statements:

1. The mode of removal of a Judge of a High Court in India is the same as that of the removal of a Judge of the Supreme Court.

2. After retirement from office, a permanent Judge of a High Court cannot plead or act in any court or before any authority in India.

Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

Options: (a) 1 only * (b) 2 only (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2

 

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Jallikattu Debate

Dhiri Bull Fighting Festival of Goa

Prelims Only | Art and Culture | Mains Paper 1: Arts & Culture

Why in the News?

Many legislators of the Goa Assembly across party lines demanded the legalisation of Dhiri Bull Fighting in Goa.

About Dhiri Bull Fighting:

  • Overview: Goan sport where two bulls lock horns in paddy fields or grounds.
  • Cultural Link: Associated with post-harvest feasts and church celebrations.
  • Nature of Contest: Bulls push until one retreats; no matadors or killing involved.
  • Event: Bulls given unique names, treated like local icons.
  • Betting: High-stakes wagers involve locals and Goan diaspora.

Recent Controversy:

  • Legal Ban: Banned in 1997 under Prevention of Cruelty to Animals Act after a fatality.
  • Judicial Position: Supreme Court upheld the ban; events continue secretly.
  • Political Push: Lawmakers (2024–25) seek legalisation for cultural/tourism value.
  • Proposed Model: Advocates want regulated events, citing Jallikattu’s example.

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Health Sector – UHC, National Health Policy, Family Planning, Health Insurance, etc.

[pib] State Health Regulatory Excellence Index (SHRESTH)

PIBPrelims Only | Governance | Mains Paper 2: E-Governance

Why in the News?

The Union Health Ministry has launched the State Health Regulatory Excellence Index (SHRESTH), a first-of-its-kind national framework to benchmark and strengthen state drug regulatory systems.

About State Health Regulatory Excellence Index (SHRESTH):

  • Purpose: National initiative by Union Health Ministry to benchmark and strengthen state drug regulatory systems.
  • Developer: Designed by Central Drugs Standard Control Organization (CDSCO).
  • Objective:  To benchmark and improve the performance of state-level drug regulatory authorities across India through a transparent, data-driven framework.
  • Method: Uses a transparent, data-driven framework and acts as a virtual gap assessment tool for maturity certification.

Key Features:

  • State Categories: Manufacturing states assessed on 27 indices; distribution-focused states/UTs assessed on 23 indices.
  • Evaluation Themes: Human resources, infrastructure, licensing, surveillance, and responsiveness.
  • Data Submission: Monthly metric data submitted by the 25th; scores shared on the 1st of the next month.
  • Performance Benchmarking: Rankings encourage cross-learning and adoption of best practices.
  • Capacity Building: Workshops, joint trainings, and regulatory audits to strengthen state systems.
  • Digital Integration: Dashboards like Not of Standard Quality (NSQ) for real-time monitoring.
  • Global Standards: Supports India’s goal to meet WHO-equivalent medicine quality norms, building on WHO Maturity Level-3 vaccine status.
[UPSC 2023] Consider the following statements:

Statement-I: India’s public sector health care system largely focuses on curative care with limited preventive, promotive and rehabiliative care.

Statement-II: Under India’s decentralized approach to health care delivery, the States are primarily responsible for organizing health services.

Which one of the following is correct in respect of the above statements?

Options: (a) Both Statement-I and Statement-II are correct and Statement-II is the correct explanation for Statement-I

(b) Both Statement-I and Statement-II are correct and Statement-II is not the correct explanation for Statement-I *

(c) Statement-I is correct but Statement-II is incorrect

(d) Statement-I is incorrect but Statement-II is correct

 

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Freedom of Speech – Defamation, Sedition, etc.

Section 152 of the Bharatiya Nyaya Sanhita (BNS)

Prelims Only | Polity | Mains Paper 2: Indian Constitution - historical underpinnings, evolution, features, amendments, significant provisions and basic structure

Why in the News?

The Supreme Court has raised a key question—whether the “potentiality of abuse” of Section 152 of the Bharatiya Nyaya Sanhita (BNS), which punishes acts endangering the sovereignty, unity, and integrity of India, could be a ground to declare the provision unconstitutional.

Section 152 of the Bharatiya Nyaya Sanhita (BNS)

About Section 152 BNS:

  • Deals with: Acts endangering sovereignty, unity, and integrity of India.
  • Origin: Introduced in the Bharatiya Nyaya Sanhita, 2023, effective 1 July 2024, replacing Section 124A IPC (sedition).
  • Scope: Criminalises purposeful or knowing acts that:
    • Excite secession, armed rebellion, or subversive activities.
    • Encourage separatist feelings.
    • Endanger sovereignty, unity, or integrity of India.
  • Means Covered: Words (spoken/written), signs, visible representation, electronic communication, financial means, or any other method.
  • Punishment: Life imprisonment or imprisonment up to 7 years + fine.
  • Nature of Offence: Cognizable, non-bailable, triable by Court of Session.
  • Exception Clause: Lawful criticism of government measures to seek change—without inciting rebellion/secession—is not an offence.
  • Key Difference from Section 124A IPC: Focus shifted from “disaffection against Government” to direct threats against the nation’s unity and sovereignty, with explicit recognition of digital-era methods.

Issues with Section 152 BNS:

  • Potential for Misuse: Broad and subjective terms like “endangering sovereignty” can be stretched to target political dissent, journalism, and activism.
  • Vagueness: Undefined concepts (e.g., “sovereignty” in context of speech) create uncertainty, enabling arbitrary interpretation by authorities.
  • Similarity to Sedition Law: Despite rewording, its core effect mirrors Section 124A IPC, which is under constitutional challenge for curbing free speech.
  • Chilling Effect on Free Speech: Risk of self-censorship among journalists, activists, and citizens due to fear of prosecution.
  • High Punishment and Cognizability: Harsh penalties combined with arrest without warrant heighten scope for harassment before judicial scrutiny.
  • Digital Surveillance Concerns: Explicit coverage of electronic communication and financial means may widen investigative reach into personal digital activities.
  • Judicial Burden: Courts will need to repeatedly interpret the law to balance Article 19(1)(a) freedom of speech with state security.
[UPSC 2025] Sedition has become my religion” was the famous statement given by Gandhiji at the time of:

(a) the Champaran Satyagraha (b) publicly violating Salt Law at Dandi* (c) attending the Second Round Table Conference in London (d) the launch of the Quit India Movement

 

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Electronic System Design and Manufacturing Sector – M-SIPS, National Policy on Electronics, etc.

India Semiconductor Mission (ISM)

Prelims Only | Economics | Mains Paper 3: Effects Of Liberalization On The Economy, Changes In Industrial Policy and their effects on Industrial Growth

Why in the News?

The Union Cabinet has approved four new projects under the India Semiconductor Mission (ISM), adding to the country’s push for a robust semiconductor and display manufacturing ecosystem.

About India Semiconductor Mission (ISM):

  • Overview: Launched in 2021; Operates under the Ministry of Electronics and Information Technology (MeitY)
  • Purpose: Develop a sustainable semiconductor and display manufacturing ecosystem in India.
  • Scope: Supports the entire value chain — from chip design to fabrication, assembly, testing, packaging, and display manufacturing.
  • Administrative Role: Receives and evaluates applications for schemes under the Semicon India Programme and engages with industry stakeholders to attract investment.

Key Components:

  • Semiconductor Fabs Scheme: Fiscal support for setting up semiconductor wafer fabrication plants in India.
  • Display Fabs Scheme: Incentives for manufacturing TFT LCD and AMOLED display panels.
  • Compound Semiconductors / Silicon Photonics / Sensors Fab & ATMP/OSAT Scheme: Support for advanced semiconductor technologies and packaging facilities.
  • Design Linked Incentive (DLI) Scheme: Incentives and infrastructure support for IC, SoC, chipset, and semiconductor-linked design projects; administered by CDAC; includes support for startups.
  • Modernisation of Semi-Conductor Laboratory (SCL), Mohali: Upgrading as a brownfield fab.
  • Comprehensive Coverage: Includes manufacturing, R&D, packaging, and design support.
[UPSC 2012] Recently there has been a concern over the short supply of a group of elements called rare earth metals. Why?

1. China, which is the largest producer of these elements, has imposed some restrictions on their export.

2. Other than China, Australia, Canada, Chile, these elements are not found in any country.

3. Rare earth metals are essential for the manufacture of various kinds of electronic items and there is growing demand for these elements.

Select the correct answer using the code given below:

Options: (a)  1 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 1 and 3 only * (d) 1, 2 and 3

 

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Innovations in Sciences, IT, Computers, Robotics and Nanotechnology

Muon g-2 Experiment

Prelims Only | Science Tech | Mains Paper 3: Awareness in various sc and tech fields

Why in the News?

Scientists at Fermilab in the USA have made an ultra-precise measurement of the muon’s magnetic behaviour, a finding that could hint at new physics beyond current laws.

Muon g-2 Experiment

Understanding Muon and G-2:

  • Overview: A muon is a subatomic particle like an electron but about 200 times heavier.
  • Behaviour: It has spin, making it act like a tiny magnet.
  • g-Factor: The magnet’s strength is measured by the g-factor. In simple theory, g = 2, but quantum effects make it slightly different — this difference is called g-2 (g minus 2).
  • Physics Relevance: Measuring g-2 can reveal unknown forces or particles beyond the Standard Model.

The Fermilab Breakthrough:

  • Precision Record: Fermilab (USA) measured muon’s g-2 to an accuracy of 0.127 parts per million — comparable to detecting a 4-gram change on a 4-tonne elephant.
  • Method: Muons were sent into a large magnetic ring, measuring the gap between spin rate and orbital rate.
  • Results: Matches earlier experiments; disagreement with theory depends on calculation method used.
  • Next Steps: Japan’s upcoming experiment will independently test results.

Significance:

  • Potential New Physics: If the gap is real, it may signal undiscovered forces or particles.
  • Refining Theory: If not, calculations will improve, sharpening known physics.
  • Broader Impact: Advances precision science and deepens global understanding of fundamental physics.
  • Lesson: Ultra-precise measurements can uncover hidden truths about nature.
[UPSC 2013] The efforts to detect the existence of Higgs boson particle have become frequent news in the recent past. What is/are the importance/importances of discovering this particle?

1. It will enable us to under-stand as to why elementary particles have mass.

2. It will enable us in the near future to develop the technology of transferring matter from one point to another without traversing the physical space between them.

3. It will enable us to create better fuels for nuclear fission.

Select the correct answer using the codes given below.

Options: (a) 1 only* (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3

 

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Health Sector – UHC, National Health Policy, Family Planning, Health Insurance, etc.

Reviving civic engagement in health governance

op-ed snap | Social Justice | Mains Paper 2: Health & Education
[UPSC 2018] Appropriate local community level healthcare intervention is a prerequisite to achieve ‘Health for All’ in India. Explain.

Linkage: Define “Health for All,” stress the role of community-level interventions, give examples, analyse challenges, and suggest improvements. The article illustrates this through doorstep schemes and participatory platforms like VHSNCs, showing both their potential and the need for empowered local engagement to achieve universal health coverage.

Mentor’s Note: As states roll out doorstep healthcare schemes like Makkalai Thedi Maruthuvam in Tamil Nadu and Gruha Arogya in Karnataka, the delivery of medical services has never been closer to people’s homes. But are citizens equally close to influencing the policies that shape their health systems? This article examines the role, challenges, and future of civic engagement in India’s health governance, critical for UPSC aspirants studying governance, social justice, and public health policy.

Introduction:

The health sector in India has witnessed significant decentralisation and outreach in recent years, with state-level doorstep healthcare schemes targeting non-communicable diseases (NCDs) and improving last-mile service delivery. While these programmes mark a leap in proactive care, the real test of a healthy democracy lies in the citizens’ ability to meaningfully engage with health governance. Public participation affirms democratic values, improves accountability, and ensures policies reflect community realities. However, despite institutional mechanisms like Village Health Sanitation and Nutrition Committees (VHSNCs) and Mahila Arogya Samitis, citizen participation remains sporadic and often symbolic.

The Subject of Citizen Engagement in Health Governance

Historically, health governance was a government-led function. However, it has evolved to include a diverse range of stakeholders, including civil society organizations, professional medical bodies, hospital associations, and trade unions. This multi-actor landscape underscores the need for robust civic participation.

The Rationale for Civic Engagement in Health Governance

  1. Democratic Empowerment: Affirms citizens’ rights and dignity in decision-making.
  2. Affirms self-respect and counters epistemic injustice: Ensures that the knowledge and lived experiences of communities are incorporated into policy-making.
  3. Accountability & Anti-Corruption: Inclusive participation challenges elite capture and opaque systems.
  4. Improved Health Outcomes: Fosters collaboration with frontline workers and enhances service uptake.
  5. Fosters collaboration and trust: Encourages mutual understanding between providers and communities.

Institutional Frameworks for Participation

  1. Rural Mechanisms: VHSNCs, Rogi Kalyan Samitis under NRHM (2005), with untied funds for local initiatives.
  2. Urban Platforms: Mahila Arogya Samitis, Ward Committees, NGO-led forums.
  3. Design Intent: Inclusion of women and marginalised groups, local problem-solving.

Committees that are involved in local health services:

  • Village Health Sanitation and Nutrition Committees (VHSNCs) – Rural-level platforms under the National Rural Health Mission (NRHM), meant to involve communities in planning and monitoring local health services.
  • Rogi Kalyan Samitis (RKS) – Hospital/health facility–level bodies to manage resources and improve service delivery.
  • Mahila Arogya Samitis (MAS) – Women-led urban community groups under the National Urban Health Mission for health awareness and monitoring.
  • Ward Committees – Urban local body forums for community participation in service delivery, including health.
  • NGO-led Committees – Non-government platforms facilitating civic participation in health planning and monitoring.

Challenges to Effective Engagement

  1. Structural Issues
    1. Committees not formed in some areas; where present, plagued by: Ambiguous roles, Irregular meetings, Poor intersectoral coordination and Social hierarchies limiting participation
  1. Mindset Barriers
    1. Policymakers view communities as beneficiaries rather than rights-holders.
    2. Target-based evaluation such as the number of individuals reached overshadows participatory processes. It results in a system that prioritizes numerical targets over qualitative engagement.
    3. Dominance of medical professionals with little public health training. This leads to hierarchical and medicalized systems that are disconnected from community realities.
    4. Promotions based on seniority, not expertise.
  1. Resistance Factors
    1. Fear of accountability pressure.
    2. Regulatory capture by dominant interests.
    3. Unequal playing field in decision-making.

Consequences of Weak Engagement

  1. Communities resort to protests, legal actions, and media campaigns.
  2. Health inequities persist due to unaddressed structural barriers.
  3. Policy alienation reduces trust in public health systems.

The Way Forward: Two-Pronged Strategy

  1. Empowering Communities
    1. Information dissemination: Disseminate information on health rights & governance platforms.
    2. Fostering civic awareness: Civic awareness programmes and health literacy from school level.
    3. Intentional outreach: Targeted outreach to marginalised groups.
    4. Capacity building: Provide tools, training, and resources for effective participation.
  1. Sensitising Governance Actors
    1. Moving beyond blame: Shift perception from “poor awareness” to recognising structural determinants of health.
    2. Collaborative partnership: View communities as partners, not passive recipients.
    3. Activating platforms: Ensure platforms are functional, inclusive, and outcome-linked.

Conclusion:

Doorstep delivery of healthcare addresses physical accessibility, but without robust civic engagement, it risks becoming a one-way service delivery mechanism devoid of democratic accountability. True transformation requires communities to be seen and to see themselves, as co-creators of health systems, with institutional structures that are inclusive, functional, and empowered.

Value Addition- Extra Mile

Beneficiary model and a rights-holder model in health governance:

  • The beneficiary model perceives citizens as passive recipients of welfare schemes, where success is judged by coverage and numbers rather than the quality or inclusivity of service delivery.
  • In contrast, the rights-holder model positions people as active stakeholders with enforceable rights, capable of influencing health policies, demanding accountability, and shaping programmes to suit community needs.
  • In the Indian context, the predominance of the beneficiary mindset often results in top-down schemes, token participation, and limited empowerment, as seen in the functioning gaps of platforms like VHSNCs.
  • The rights-holder approach, by empowering communities with knowledge, tools, and representation, can foster participatory governance, address structural inequities, and improve health outcomes.
  • Way forward: Moving from a beneficiary to a rights-holder model requires mindset change among governance actors, strengthening community platforms, and embedding accountability mechanisms to ensure people are partners, not passive recipients, in health governance.

Key Concepts: 

  • Participatory Governance: A governance model where citizens actively shape decisions and policies; here, it means communities influencing health planning through platforms like VHSNCs rather than being passive recipients.
  • Epistemic Injustice – When certain voices or local knowledge are undervalued; in health governance, marginalised communities’ lived experiences are often ignored in policy decisions.
  • Elite Capture – When influential groups dominate participatory spaces; in health committees, medical professionals or local elites may overshadow ordinary citizens’ concerns.
  • Regulatory Capture – When regulatory bodies act in favour of dominant interests; in healthcare, policy and oversight may get skewed toward medical-industrial interests instead of community needs.

International Parallel: WHO’s Alma-Ata Declaration (1978) on “Health for All” emphasised community participation.

Quote for Enrichment: “Nothing about us without us” – slogan for participatory policy-making.

Mapping Micro-Themes:

Paper Micro Theme Example
GS-II Community participation in health VHSNCs, Mahila Arogya Samitis
GS-II Governance mindset shift/Citizen-Centric Administration Moving from beneficiary model to rights-holder model
GS-II and GS-III Health inequalities Marginalised groups lacking access
GS-II and

GS -IV

 Accountability in public health Preventing elite capture
GS-III Science and Technology (Health Tech) Health Information Systems and Data and Governance
GS-IV Ethics in governance Respecting agency and dignity
GS-IV Probity in governance Citizen engagement in reducing corruption and ensuring integrity in the health sector
GS-IV Empathy and Compassion Need for health administrators and to develop empathy for community realities and structural challenges

Practice Mains Question:

“Proactive healthcare delivery without participatory governance risks creating service dependency rather than empowerment.” Discuss with reference to recent state-level health initiatives in India. (250 words)

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Industrial Sector Updates – Industrial Policy, Ease of Doing Business, etc.

What will be the impact of Google antitrust case?

Explained | Economics | Mains Paper 3: Effects Of Liberalization On The Economy, Changes In Industrial Policy and their effects on Industrial Growth

The Google–Competition Commission of India (CCI), anti-trust case is a pivotal moment for India’s digital market regulation. It revolves around allegations that Google abused its dominant position in the Android ecosystem to indulge in anti-competitive practices, especially through mandatory Google Play Billing System (GPBS) usage and bundling of proprietary apps. The matter now rests with the Supreme Court, which will hear appeals from Google, the Competition Commission of India (CCI), and the Alliance Digital India Foundation (ADIF) in November 2025.

Background: The Core Dispute in Brief

CCI’s Key Findings (2022)

  1. Abuse of Dominance under Section 4 of the Competition Act, 2002.
  2. Mandatory use of Google Play Billing System (GPBS) for in-app purchases (15–30% commission).
  3. Self-preferencing — exempting YouTube from GPBS, giving it a cost advantage.
  4. Bundling of Google apps (Search, Chrome, YouTube) with Android licensing.
  5. Imposed a ₹936.44 crore fine and behavioural remedies (decoupling payment system, transparency in billing data, no use of developer data for competitive advantage).

Google’s Defence

  1. Open-Source Nature: Open-source Android with no obligation to install Google apps if the Play Store is not licensed.
  2. Pre-installation improves user experience and security.
  3. Security and User Experience: GPBS ensures fraud protection and global distribution reach.
  4. Exemptions for in-house services reflect different business models.
  5. Market Competition: Success of major Indian apps (like PhonePe and Paytm) on the Android platform as proof of competitive market

National Company Law Appellate Tribunal (NCLAT) Ruling (March 2025)

  1. Upheld parts of CCI’s findings (bundling & GPBS abuse).
  2. Reduced penalty to ₹216.69 crore (proportionality principle).
  3. Struck down some remedies, reinstated two key transparency-related directions in review.

Broader Implications and Stakeholders

  1. Consumers: More choice and possibly lower in-app prices via alternative payment gateways; risk of Android ecosystem fragmentation.
  2. Indian Startups & Developers: Level playing field, competitive payment options, and stronger bargaining power against Big Tech.
  3. Smartphone Manufacturers (OEMs): Greater flexibility to pre-install own services or use alternative Android versions without losing Play Store access.
  4. Google & Global Tech: May need to re-evaluate global Android business model; could trigger similar regulations in other countries.
  5. Regulatory Bodies: Will define CCI’s role in digital market regulation and set precedent for balancing innovation, competition, and consumer rights.

Conclusion

The Google antitrust case is not just about app payments — it is about defining the rules of engagement in India’s platform economy. The Supreme Court’s verdict will influence how innovation, competition, and consumer rights are balanced in the digital age. It could either mark a new era of platform accountability or reinforce the status quo, shaping the way over a billion Indians interact with their smartphones

 

Value Addition:

Antitrust:

  • It refers to a set of laws and regulations designed to prevent monopolies, stop abuse of market dominance, and ensure fair competition in the market.
  • Purpose: Protect consumers, encourage innovation, and maintain a level playing field for businesses.
  • Example in India: The Competition Act, 2002, enforced by the Competition Commission of India (CCI), is India’s primary antitrust law
  • Example globally: The Sherman Antitrust Act (1890) in the U.S.
  • In simple words: Antitrust laws stop big companies from becoming so powerful that no one else can compete with them fairly.

 

Mapping Micro Themes

Subject Topic Name Micro Theme Example
GS Paper -II Regulatory Institutions Role, functions, and challenges of statutory bodies like CCI & quasi-judicial bodies like NCLAT CCI’s penalty on Google for abuse of dominance; NCLAT’s partial reversal
Government Policies Policy needs for digital governance & fair digital ecosystem Draft Digital Competition Bill; TRAI’s consultation on platform regulation
Judicial Intervention Role of judiciary in interpreting digital economy laws Supreme Court hearing Google–CCI appeal
GS Paper-III Competition Law Abuse of dominance, anti-competitive practices, cartelisation in the digital economy Google Play Billing System commission model
Digital Economy Impact of Big Tech on market structure, innovation, startups App developers’ reduced bargaining power due to Google’s policies
Innovation vs Regulation Balancing tech growth and preventing monopolistic behaviour CCI’s remedies vs Google’s claim of user experience efficiency
Digital Public Goods Need for open, fair ecosystems for inclusive growth UPI as an open-access payment system in contrast to GPBS
Platform Neutrality Equal treatment for all apps/services on digital platforms Ban on self-preferencing in EU’s Digital Markets Act

 

PYQ Linkage

[UPSC 2020] How is the Government of India protecting traditional knowledge of medicine from patenting by pharmaceutical companies?

Linkage: This question demands explaining legal, institutional, and international mechanisms (like TKDL, Patents Act provisions, WIPO engagement) that protect India’s traditional medicinal knowledge from unfair patenting. Similarly, in the Google–CCI case, India is using competition law and regulatory bodies to protect local digital market interests against global corporate dominance, ensuring fair competition and safeguarding the domestic innovation ecosystem.

 

Practice Mains Question:

“In the context of India’s Competition Act, 2002, discuss how the Google–CCI case reflects the challenges of regulating digital platform dominance. Suggest measures to balance innovation and market fairness.”

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