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Type: Explained

These Newscards correspond to the explained section of various newspapers. They become immensely important for both prelims and mains and special attention needs to be paid to them

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G20 : Economic Cooperation ahead

Without great powers on board, G20 is a drift

Explained | International Relations | Mains Paper 2: Bilateral, Regional and Global Groupings and agreements involving India

Introduction

The G20 emerged from the ashes of the 2008 crisis as the principal platform steering global financial stability, representing both advanced and rising powers. Over time, however, geopolitical rifts, protectionist shifts, and weakened multilateralism have steadily eroded its efficacy. The absence of great powers, divergent national priorities, and competing minilaterals now raise questions about the G20’s ability to act as an anchor for global economic coordination.

Why in the News

The G20 has entered a phase of visible fragmentation as major powers like the US, China, and Russia increasingly skip or downgrade their participation, marking a sharp contrast to its central role during the 2008 global financial crisis. Trump chose to boycott the 2025 G20 summit, which was hosted by South Africa in Johannesburg. The earlier summits, including Bali 2022 and New Delhi 2023, were marked by absence of key leaders such as Putin and Xi, signalling an unprecedented weakening of multilateral cooperation. The article highlights how the G20, once elevated to the “premier forum for international economic cooperation,” is now reduced to a middle-power platform with diminishing relevance. This drift, caused by unilateralism, great-power tensions, and rival blocs, is a major setback for global governance.

How Did the G20 Rise From Crisis to Centrality?

  1. Global Financial Crisis (2008): Elevated from a finance ministers’ forum to a leaders’ summit after the Lehman collapse, recognising the need for collective economic stabilisation.
  2. US-EU Leadership: President Bush convened the first summit; European leaders pushed to formalise it as the central platform for crisis response.
  3. Inclusive Membership: Plural representation of middle powers, India, China, Brazil, Indonesia, gave the G20 legitimacy beyond the G7.

Why Is the G20 Losing Relevance Today?

  1. Great-Power Withdrawal: Absence of Xi and Putin (2023) indicates declining commitment by major actors.
  2. Shift to Bilateralism: 2022 Bali summit dominated by US-China bilateral diplomacy, overshadowing collective agenda.
  3. Competing Priorities: US focus on securitising trade; China’s rivalry; Russia’s Ukraine conflict, reducing appetite for multilateral compromise.
  4. Fragmentation: Emergence of parallel groups like G2 ideas, Quad, IPEF, diluting G20 centrality.

What Role Did Unilateralism Play in Weakening the G20?

  1. America First (Trump Era):
    1. Protectionist shift and retreat from multilateral commitments.
    2. Trade war with China and sanctions redirected US focus to bilateral power play.
    3. Undermined collective financial architecture, making G20 coordination difficult.
  2. Return of Great-Power Rivalry:
    1. US-China confrontation replaced cooperative economic agenda.
    2. Russia’s isolation post-Ukraine war created a split within member states.

How Did the Absence of the Big Three Impact Multilateral Decision-Making?

  1. Reduced Negotiating Power: Without the US, China, and Russia at full participation, G20 communiqués lost substance.
  2. Lowered Stakes: Middle powers alone cannot push structural financial reforms.
  3. Decline in Issue Ambition: Meetings shifted from global macroeconomic governance to modest incremental outcomes.
  4. Loss of Crisis-Time Authority: Unlike 2008-09 summits which produced coordinated fiscal and financial action, recent meetings lacked decisive outcomes.

What Does the G20 Drift Mean for India?

  1. Opportunity Shrinks: India’s earlier success, G20 admitting AU under its presidency, may not translate into sustained influence without great-power participation.
  2. Rise of Minilaterals: Quad, I2U2, IPEF may overshadow the G20’s relevance for India’s long-term strategic and economic diplomacy.
  3. Squeezed between Powers: India must balance ties with the US, China, and Russia while leading middle-power groupings.
  4. Reduced Global Economic Voice: Weak G20 undermines India’s push for reforms in global financial architecture and voice of Global South.

Conclusion

The G20’s drift reflects the broader fragmentation of global governance, marked by strategic rivalry, unilateral policies, and weakened collective will. Without full engagement of great powers, the forum risks becoming symbolic rather than substantive. For India, the challenge is balancing leadership of the Global South with managing rival great-power agendas in an increasingly divided world.

PYQ Relevance

[UPSC 2023] ‘Virus of Conflict is affecting the functioning of the SCO’. In the light of the above statement point out the role of India in mitigating problems.

Linkage: Great-power rivalry within SCO mirrors the G20’s paralysis, where conflicting interests of major powers weaken collective decision-making. India’s balancing role in SCO highlights how middle powers attempt to preserve multilateral relevance amid widening geopolitical fractures.

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Historical and Archaeological Findings in News

Is Macaulay to blame for the colonial mindset or is he a convenient in politics?

Explained | History | Mains Paper 1: Modern Indian History

INTRODUCTION

The original article presents two contrasting viewpoints on the legacy of Thomas Babington Macaulay and the larger question of whether India still carries a “colonial mindset.” One side argues that India must overcome colonial-era mental frameworks in governance and education, while the other contends that modern education, introduced during Macaulay’s era, opened unprecedented avenues for mobility, equality, and intellectual emancipation. The debate extends far beyond Macaulay himself, touching upon structural, cultural, and linguistic dimensions of Indian society.

WHY IN THE NEWS

Recent political speeches invoking the need to shed the “colonial mindset” have revived discussions originally linked to Macaulay’s educational policies. This has become a major talking point because India is undergoing curricular reforms, language policy changes, and institutional restructuring aimed at “decolonising” governance. The article’s sharply divergent interpretations of Macaulay’s role illustrate how deeply contested India’s intellectual foundations remain, signalling a transition moment in national identity formation.

Colonial Mindset and Institutional Continuity

  1. Bureaucratic culture: India’s administrative behaviour still follows colonial-era norms which are hierarchical functioning, rigid procedure, and deference to authority.
  2. Governance style: Parliamentary debate formats, legal drafting, and official communication structures reflect patterns institutionalised in the 19th century.
  3. State-society distance: Colonial governance cultivated separation between rulers and the public; remnants of this continue to shape administrative attitudes today.

Language Politics and the Question of English

  1. Symbolic centrality: English remains associated with power, aspiration, and official legitimacy, a legacy reinforced since Macaulay’s time.
  2. Cultural alienation: Critics argue that English-medium dominance creates distance from Indian culture and languages.
  3. Functional utility: Supporters highlight that English acts as a bridge across states, classes, and caste barriers, enabling mobility in education and employment.

Access to Knowledge: Who Controlled Learning?

  1. Caste-linked exclusion: Traditional Sanskritic education was historically limited to higher castes, restricting intellectual opportunities for marginalised groups.
  2. Modern education’s rupture: English-medium education introduced during and after Macaulay’s reforms allowed many excluded communities, especially lower castes, to enter learning spaces earlier denied to them.
  3. Emergence of new elites: Modern schooling produced a new professional class that reshaped politics, administration, and social reform movements.

Cultural Legitimacy and Competing Knowledge Traditions

  1. Hierarchy of knowledge: Colonial frameworks often positioned Western science and literature as superior, affecting how India valued its own traditions.
  2. Reclaiming indigenous systems: The current push for “decolonising education” attempts to restore space for Indian languages, philosophies, and scientific knowledge.
  3. Plural intellectual heritage: The article stresses that Indian modernity today requires balancing global knowledge with regional identities, rather than choosing one over the other.

Political Use of Historical Figures: The Macaulay Symbol

  1. Simplification of history: Macaulay is used as a political metaphor, either as a symbol of cultural loss or as an emblem of liberation through modernity.
  2. Narrative battles: Both sides selectively highlight aspects of his legacy to advance contrasting visions of nationalism and development.
  3. Identity construction: The debate signifies broader attempts to define what should constitute “Indian” knowledge and national pride.

CONCLUSION

The debate around Macaulay is not merely about a historical figure but about India’s contemporary struggle between decolonisation, modernity, and social justice. The article shows that India’s identity debates hinge on deeper questions: who gets access to knowledge, which languages define opportunity, how institutions remember their past, and what kind of society India aspires to build. A nuanced understanding requires moving beyond binaries, embracing global knowledge while valuing indigenous intellectual traditions.

Value Addition
Thomas Babington Macaulay (1800-1859)

  • A British historian, politician, and member of the Governor-General’s Council in India (1834-1838).
  • Key architect of British cultural, educational, and legal policy during early colonial rule.

Major Contributions / Reforms

Macaulay’s Minute on Education (1835)

  1. Pushed for English-medium education replacing Persian & Sanskrit as official languages of instruction.
  2. Advocated creating a class of “persons Indian in blood and colour but English in taste, morals and intellect.”
  3. Led to Anglicist victory over Orientalists.
  4. Directly shaped India’s modern schooling structure.

Introduction of English Education

  1. Helped expand Western science, literature, and rational thought in India.
  2. Facilitated spread of modern professions, law, medicine, engineering, administration.
  3. Enabled mobility for communities excluded from traditional Sanskritic learning.

Indian Penal Code (IPC)

  1. Macaulay chaired the First Law Commission (1834).
  2. Drafted the IPC (completed 1837, enacted 1860), foundation of India’s criminal law for 163 years.
  3. Promoted uniform, codified, written law replacing diverse customary systems.

Civil Services Ethos

  1. Strengthened the model of a centralised, rule-bound bureaucracy.
  2. Contributed to long-term continuity of British administrative culture in independent India.

Cultural-Epistemic Impact

  1. Elevated Western knowledge as superior to traditional Indian systems.
  2. Influenced linguistic hierarchies, English became linked to power, prestige, and opportunity.
  3. Triggered long-term debates on colonial mindset, cultural legitimacy, and identity.

Criticisms (For Balance in Mains Answers)

  1. Dismissed Indian literature as inferior (“A single shelf of a good European library is worth the whole native literature of India and Arabia.”).
  2. Accused of fostering elitism and alienation through English dominance.
  3. Reinforced cultural and epistemic hierarchies privileging the West.

Positive Interpretations 

  1. English education enabled lower castes to bypass restricted Sanskritic order.
  2. Opened pathways to modernity, science, constitutionalism and global mobility.
  3. Created early Indian public sphere, newspapers, debates, modern nationalism.

Conclusion for Mains

Macaulay’s legacy is complex, he entrenched a colonial mindset but also enabled modern intellectual and social transformation. His ideas continue to influence India’s education, law and cultural debates even today.

PYQ Relevance

[UPSC 2014] Examine critically the various facets of economic policies of the British in India from mid-eighteenth century till independence. 

Linkage: The question aligns with the article’s themes of colonial economic restructuring, knowledge hierarchies, and institutional continuity introduced under British rule. It is relevant because British economic policies shaped the social, cultural and educational divides that the article highlights through the Macaulay debate.

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G20 : Economic Cooperation ahead

Return of the G2: Trump, China and the mirage of a bipolar world

Explained | International Relations | Mains Paper 2: Bilateral, Regional and Global Groupings and agreements involving India

INTRODUCTION

The reference to a “G2” resurfaced when US President Trump publicly announced that “The G2 will be convening shortly,” signalling a possible US-China duopoly in global decision-making. The Trump-Xi Busan meeting revived an older idea first articulated by economist C. Fred Bergsten in 2005. However, despite dramatic optics, the summit lacked institutional depth and showcased a transactional, spectacle-driven diplomatic approach. The renewed G2 talk generated global unease, especially among allies and emerging economies, given the risks of marginalisation and disruption of regional balances in the Indo-Pacific.

WHY IN THE NEWS 

Trump’s declaration that the US and China would meet as a “G2” revived the idea of a US-China duopoly at a moment of systemic geopolitical flux. The Busan meeting created significant global debate because, despite high-profile optics and selective trade concessions (soybean purchases, tariff relief, fentanyl cooperation), there were no structural commitments or conflict-management mechanisms. The sudden bypassing of broader multilateral processes unsettled allies and intensified concerns of shrinking strategic space for countries like India, especially amid shifting economic projections that show a long-term move toward a tripolar world rather than a bipolar G2.

G2 Revival: What Does the Busan Moment Signify?

  1. Performative Diplomacy: Trump framed the meeting as a G2 encounter, signalling a claim to architect a new global order driven by bilateral spectacle rather than institutional negotiations.
  2. Transactional Bargains: China resumed US soybean imports; the US eased select tariffs and technology restrictions; cooperation was pledged on fentanyl precursors and rare-earth supply chains.
  3. Absence of Structure: No new institutions, principles, or crisis-management mechanisms were created, making the meeting high on optics but low on structural impact.

China’s Strategic Calculus Behind the G2 Optics

  1. Symbolic Parity: Great-power parity aligns with China’s long-term ambition for equal status with the US, enhancing its global narrative.
  2. Economic Off-ramp: Tariff relief and tech flexibility help stabilise China’s domestic economy amid headwinds such as overcapacity and slowing productivity.
  3. Controlled Ambiguity: China avoided endorsing a formal duopoly, using strategic ambiguity to retain flexibility while cultivating Global South networks.

Structural Fragility of a US-China Duopoly

  1. Deep Bilateral Contradictions: Taiwan, technology dependence, and military rivalry create structural barriers to stable cooperation.
  2. Lack of Institutional Grounding: No formal mechanisms exist to manage disputes or align long-term strategic objectives.
  3. Risk to Alliances: The G2 idea signals that alliances are expendable, undermining confidence among US partners in Asia and Europe.

Global Implications of the G2 Notion

  1. Destabilising for Allies: Japan, South Korea, Australia fear erosion of regional balance if the US deprioritises alliances.
  2. Institutional Marginalisation: G2 bypasses multilateral institutions, weakening global governance frameworks.
  3. Supply-Chain Reconfiguration: A US-China bilateral alignment could redirect global supply chains, adversely affecting Indo-Pacific economies.

Why the G2 Idea Alarms India

  1. Risk of Strategic Sidelining: A bilateral shortcut between the US and China may marginalise India despite its rising economic weight.
  2. Supply Chain Dependence: India’s dependence on Chinese imports (electronics, APIs, critical minerals) becomes more vulnerable.
  3. Quad Uncertainty: A possible thaw between the US and China creates ambiguity around the Indo-Pacific strategy and Quad commitments.
  4. Manufacturing Disadvantage: Reduced US pressure on China undercuts India’s ambition to position itself as a credible alternative manufacturing hub.

Long-term Trend: A Tripolar, Not Bipolar, World

  1. Economic Projections: PwC and Goldman Sachs project by 2050 a tripolar structure: China (1st), India (2nd), US (3rd) in PPP terms.
  2. Limits on China’s Rise: Demographic contraction and industrial overcapacity constrain China’s long-term dominance.
  3. India’s Structural Advantages: Young workforce, expanding market, tech ambitions support India’s rise as a major economic pole.
  4. US Position: Innovation strength persists, but political polarisation and ageing demographics slow future growth.

CONCLUSION

Trump’s revival of the G2 is more spectacle than substance, reflecting a transitional phase rather than a durable geopolitical redesign. Structural contradictions, alliance concerns, and global economic shifts limit the feasibility of a US-China duopoly. The long-term trajectory points to broader multipolarity, with India emerging as a critical pole in global politics. The Busan moment thus underscores the instability of great-power bargains that bypass wider global participation and institutional frameworks.

PYQ Relevance

[UPSC 2021] “The USA is facing an existential threat in the form of China, that is much more challenging than the erstwhile Soviet Union.” Explain.

Linkage: The PYQ statement directly connects to intensifying US-China strategic rivalry, which shapes the global balance of power, technology races, and Indo-Pacific security dynamics. It is highly relevant for GS-II (IR) as it influences India’s strategic space, Quad calculus, supply-chain realignments, and the emerging multipolar world order.

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Climate Change Impact on India and World – International Reports, Key Observations, etc.

How Delhi’s air quality monitors work and why their readings can falter

Explained | Enviro & Biodiversity | Mains Paper 3: Conservation, Environmental Pollution & Degradation, Eia

INTRODUCTION

Delhi operates a dense network of 40 Continuous Ambient Air Quality Monitoring Stations (CAAQMS) that serve as automated laboratories tracking eight key pollutants. These stations guide the daily AQI, enable pollution-control measures and emergency responses, and form the backbone of environmental governance. However, recent judicial scrutiny and scientific studies highlight significant gaps in equipment suitability, calibration, meteorological sensitivity, and data reliability, creating a critical governance challenge.

WHY IN THE NEWS 

The Supreme Court recently demanded clarity on whether Delhi’s air-quality monitoring equipment is suited to city-specific pollution and meteorological conditions. This scrutiny is significant because Delhi heavily depends on AQI data for health advisories and regulatory actions, yet multiple stations fail to generate adequate, validated data on many days. A CAG report and recent scientific studies show systematic errors, including 30-40% overestimation of PM2.5 under high humidity, raising concerns about the credibility of pollution data itself.

How Delhi’s Air Quality Monitoring System Functions

  1. CAAQMS Network: Operates 40 automated, temperature-controlled stations functioning as compact laboratories across different city zones.
  2. Regulatory Basis: Functions under CPCB’s 2012 guidelines, which define calibration steps, quality-control procedures, and uniform monitoring standards.
  3. Pollutant Coverage: Tracks eight pollutants, PM2.5, PM10, NO₂, SO₂, CO, O₃, NH₃, Pb, ensuring representative citywide measurement.
  4. Instrumentation Setup: Stations contain racks of analysers, pumps, and data loggers, with sampling inlets mounted on masts above the roof to capture ambient air.

How Pollutants Are Measured Inside the Stations

  1. Beta Attenuation Monitors (BAM): Use beta ray attenuation to measure particulate concentration by assessing signal weakening through collected particulate mass.
  2. Gaseous Pollutant Monitors: Use optical and chemiluminescent methods, depending on pollutant type, to detect gas behaviour under specific wavelengths.
  3. National Standards: Measurements follow NAAQS procedures, including “gravimetric, wet-chemical and automatic instrument-based techniques” ensuring comparable data across India.

Factors That Distort or Corrupt Monitoring Readings

  1. Equipment Performance: AQI depends on validated data; CPCB requires 16 hours of reliable data per day for at least three pollutants, including PM2.5 or PM10.
  2. System Failures: Calibration lapses, power outages, and extreme weather cause routine station downtime.
  3. CAG Findings: A report tabled in Parliament revealed several stations failed to generate adequate, valid, real-time data, especially for pollutants like lead, Ammonia, etc.
  4. Location-Based Distortions: Stations placed near buildings, trees, or exhaust vents risk skewed results due to poor dispersion.
  5. Meteorological Disruptions: Severe weather disrupts data transmission, reducing continuity in real-time updates.

What Scientific Studies Reveal About Measurement Accuracy

  1. Variability with Humidity: CSIR–NPL’s 2021 analysis showed PM2.5 measurements vary with RH, particle mass loading, boundary layer height, and ventilation effects.
  2. Overestimation Threshold: When RH > 60%, BAM monitors exhibited 30-40% overestimation of PM2.5 because water absorption artificially increases mass signal attenuation.
  3. High-Pollution Episodes: Dust-heavy conditions can cause a factor up to 5 underestimation, as heavy loading disturbs air beam pathways.
  4. USEPA Insights: Notes that “high filter loading can lead to flow perturbations,” and “excessive particulate accumulation” disrupts instrument stability.
  5. Recommended Corrections: Scientists recommend site-specific correction factors, which were shown to reduce overestimation errors from 46% to under 2%.

Why This Issue Matters for Governance and Public Health

  1. Policy Dependence on Data: Emergency actions (GRAP stages, school closures, construction bans) rely on AQI accuracy.
  2. Public Health Impact: Misreporting distorts exposure assessments, health risk communication, and hospital preparedness.
  3. Environmental Justice: Vulnerable groups (elderly, children, labourers) depend on reliable alerts for safe mobility.
  4. Accountability: Data reliability determines CPCB, DPCC and state-level regulatory performance.

CONCLUSION

Delhi’s air pollution management depends critically on trustworthy, scientifically robust, and well-maintained monitoring infrastructure. While the city has one of India’s largest automatic monitoring networks, recent judicial scrutiny and scientific findings reveal persistent calibration errors, equipment inconsistencies, and meteorological vulnerabilities. Ensuring accuracy requires standardised maintenance, site-specific correction factors, stronger institutional oversight, and resilient instrumentation capable of performing reliably under Delhi’s complex pollution environment.

PYQ Relevance

[UPSC 2021] Describe the key points of the revised Global Air Quality Guidelines (AQGs) released by WHO (2021). How are these different from the 2005 update? What changes in India’s National Clean Air Programme are required to achieve these standards?

Linkage: The question links directly to GS-III themes of environmental pollution, health-based standards, and regulatory capacity. It is highly relevant as India’s NCAP, NAAQS and AQI-based governance must realign with WHO’s stricter 2021 guidelines to ensure credible monitoring, policy effectiveness, and public health protection.

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Banking Sector Reforms

Rupee is Asia’s worst performing currency

Explained | Economics | Mains Paper 3: Indian Economy

Introduction

The Indian Rupee has depreciated 4.3% against the US Dollar in 2025, making it Asia’s worst-performing currency. Analysts warn that the INR may slide to ₹90 per USD if the India-US trade deal does not materialise soon. The rupee’s movement is now driven more by global dollar strength than by domestic fundamentals. Persistent capital outflows, a rising trade deficit, U.S. tariffs, and a surge in gold imports have intensified pressure on the domestic currency.

Why This Matters: Rupee Hits Asia’s Lowest Position

The rupee’s sharp 4.3% calendar-year depreciation marks one of the steepest declines among Asian currencies. This contrasts sharply with the appreciation seen in much of the Asian currency complex, led by the Chinese Yuan through strong intervention by China’s central bank. The situation is aggravated by India’s record $41.7 billion trade deficit, U.S. tariff shocks, and a gold price spike that spurred a 200% rise in ETF investments. The worsening outlook raises concerns of the rupee breaching ₹90 per USD, a level not previously approached in recent years.

Drivers Behind the Rupee’s Depreciation

  1. Global Dollar Strength: Dollar appreciation of 3.6% over two months increased pressure on most Asian currencies, including the INR.
  2. External Shocks:
    1. U.S. tariffs on Indian goods directly added stress.
    2. High precious metal prices increased import bills.
  3. Capital Outflows: The current account remains “benign”, but the depreciation is driven by capital flight, not trade fundamentals.
  4. Comparative Weakness: INR weakened more than IDR (2.9%) and PHP (1.3%), marking a distinct underperformance.

Rupee’s Position Relative to Asian Peers

  1. Underperformance vs. China and Indonesia: Specialists note that while Indonesian Rupiah and Chinese Yuan have depreciated, INR weakened further.
  2. Better Than Structurally Weak Majors: INR still fares better than the Japanese Yen and Korean Won, which face domestic policy constraints.
  3. Asian Currency Complex Trend: Most Asian currencies appreciated, driven by Chinese intervention through PBOC/SAFE signalling.

Market Movements and Recent Lows

  1. New Lows Recorded: Rupee touched 88.8 per USD on 21 November 2025, breaking earlier RBI-supported levels.
  2. Intraday Weakness: Fell further to 89.66, signalling intense currency-market stress.
  3. Partial Recovery: Rupee recovered to 89.22 by Tuesday, though still significantly weaker on a monthly basis.

Trade Deficit and Macro Pressures Intensifying Rupee Weakness

  1. Record Trade Deficit: October witnessed a $41.7 billion merchandise trade deficit triggered by tariff hikes.
  2. Gold Import Surge:
    1. Gold imports spiked to $14.72 billion in October.
    2. Gold ETF demand rose by 200% due to soaring global prices.
  3. Twin External Shocks: Tariffs + gold price rise combine with geopolitical uncertainty to pressure the currency.

Impact of the U.S. Tariffs and Policy Changes

  1. 50% Tariff Imposed by U.S.: Direct impact on India’s export competitiveness, worsening the trade deficit.
  2. Cumulative Effect on Rupee: Tariffs + gold imports + dollar strength + capital outflows create a compounding depreciation effect.
  3. Forward Outlook: Without a trade deal with the U.S., the rupee may breach ₹90 per USD.

Conclusion

The rupee’s position as Asia’s worst-performing currency signals deeper stresses in India’s external sector. The depreciation stems from global dollar dominance, tariff shocks, capital outflows, and rising import bills. While partial recoveries occur, the broader trajectory depends heavily on the India-US trade negotiations and management of external vulnerabilities. Ensuring macroeconomic stability will require coordinated steps in trade policy, forex management, and domestic economic resilience.

PYQ Relevance

[UPSC 2018] How would the recent phenomena of protectionism and currency manipulations in world trade affect macroeconomic stability of India?

Linkage: It is directly linked to GS-3: External Sector, as it examines how tariffs and currency moves affect India’s macroeconomic stability. It is relevant for understanding exchange-rate volatility, CAD pressures, and global protectionist trends.

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Right To Privacy

Decoding personality rights in the age of AI

Explained | Governance | Mains Paper 2: Executive & Judiciary,Governance, Transparency & Accountability, Citizens Charters

Introduction

Personality rights, traditionally rooted in privacy, dignity, and control over one’s identity—are facing unprecedented stress due to generative AI. Deepfake technologies, synthetic media, and AI-generated impersonation are creating new risks of deception, reputational harm, financial loss, and large-scale identity exploitation. Recent legal disputes involving celebrities highlight widening vulnerabilities and the absence of a robust legal framework in India.

Why in the News? 

Amitabh Bachchan and Aishwarya Rai recently approached the Delhi High Court seeking protection against AI-generated videos that imitated their identity, voice, and catchphrases. This marks a major turning point because AI deepfakes are now powerful enough to replicate personalities at scale and for commercial misuse, something never seen before. The case exposes how India lacks a unified personality-rights legislation even as misuse grows rapidly, contrasting sharply with the stricter frameworks in the US, EU, and China.

Erosion of Personality Rights in the AI Era

  1. AI Deepfakes: Enable face swaps, voice clones, and synthetic content that manipulate identity and support misinformation, malice, extortion, and erosion of trust.
  2. Unchecked AI Use: Generates mass commodification of human identity, intensifying reputational and financial vulnerabilities.
  3. Technological Trigger: The rise of generative AI tools has amplified impersonation risks and blurred lines between authenticity and deception.

How Does Indian Law Currently Address Personality Rights?

  1. Fragmented Framework: India relies on privacy principles, constitutional protection, and selective case law but lacks a dedicated statute.
  2. Judicial Protection:
    1. Justice K.S. Puttaswamy case (2017) upheld privacy as a fundamental right.
    2. Amitabh Bachchan v. Rajat Nagi (2022) recognised personality rights.
    3. Anil Kapoor v. Simply Life India (2023) banned misuse of his catchphrase “jhakaas” and likeness for diluted brand value.
    4. Arijit Singh v. Golden Ventures LLP (2024) protected his voice from AI replication.
  3. Regulatory Limits: IT Act 2000 and Intermediary Guidelines 2021 address impersonation and deepfakes but lack enforcement clarity, especially for cross-border misuse.

How Do Global Jurisdictions Handle Personality Rights?

  1. United States
    1. Right of Publicity: Treated as transferable property.
    2. Tennessee’s ELVIS Act (2024) bans unauthorized AI voice cloning and deepfake performances.
    3. Character.AI Cases: Highlight how AI models create digital personas that blur reality.
    4. First Amendment Constraints: Free speech limits over-regulation.
  2. European Union
    1. GDPR: Provides dignity-based protection over personal and biometric data.
    2. EU AI Act (2024): Classifies deepfakes as high risk, mandates transparency and labelling.
  3. China
    1. Internet Court Rulings (2024): AI-generated synthetic voices must not deceive consumers.
    2. AI-related cases treat voice actors and media workers as harmed individuals needing redress.

Why Does India Need a Comprehensive Personality-Rights Law?

  1. Legal Vacuum: No dedicated statute addressing AI impersonation, deepfakes, monetisation of likeness, and cross-border exploitation.
  2. AI Platforms’ Liability: Lack of clear obligations for watermarking, transparency, and algorithmic accountability.
  3. Global Pressure: AI’s transnational nature demands compliance with international standards.
  4. Growing Harm: Cases of identity theft, synthetic celebrity endorsements, and psychological impact from digital cloning are rising.

What Should India’s Legal Framework Include?

  1. Explicit Definition: Clear categorisation of personality rights, covering image, voice, likeness, name, gestures, and distinctive traits.
  2. Platform Accountability: Mandatory watermarking, AI content labelling, and traceability.
  3. Consent Architecture: Requirement of explicit consent for any AI-generated replication.
  4. Civil and Criminal Remedies: Compensation mechanisms and penalties for willful impersonation.
  5. Cross-Border Enforcement: Harmonisation with EU, US, and global regulatory practices.
  6. Ethical AI Standards: Transparency norms, audit trails, and safeguards against dataset misuse.

Conclusion

AI has radically transformed the nature of identity and personhood, challenging traditional legal doctrines surrounding privacy and personality rights. India must move from fragmented protections to a comprehensive, future-ready framework that secures individual autonomy while supporting responsible AI innovation. Without such reform, the risks of impersonation, exploitation, and identity erosion will only multiply.

PYQ Relevance

[UPSC 2024] Right to privacy is intrinsic to life and personal liberty and is inherently protected under Article 21 of the Constitution. Explain.

Linkage: This question directly links to personality rights and AI deepfakes, as both derive from the privacy-autonomy framework under Article 21. It is relevant because the erosion of digital identity through AI impersonation tests the very constitutional protection the Puttaswamy judgment established.

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Governor vs. State

What will mean for Chandigarh if it is brought under Article 240

Explained | Polity | Mains Paper 2: Federalism
Introduction
Chandigarh is a Union Territory that also serves as the shared capital of Punjab and Haryana. The Governor of Punjab currently holds additional charge as the Administrator of Chandigarh. The proposal to place Chandigarh under Article 240 of the Constitution may allow the Centre to appoint an independent Administrator and frame regulations for Chandigarh without relying on state mechanisms. The move carries political, administrative, and federal ramifications, especially for Punjab and Haryana.
Why in the news? 
Bringing Chandigarh under Article 240 could give the Centre sweeping legislative and administrative powers over the Union Territory, including the ability to repeal or amend laws applicable to Chandigarh through Parliament or Presidential regulations. This marks a sharp departure from the existing model, where Punjab’s Governor also administers Chandigarh. The move could influence bureaucratic control, fiscal provisions, and power distribution among Punjab, Haryana, and the Centre, making the stakes exceptionally high.
What is Article 240?
  • Empowers the President to make regulations for the peace, progress and good government of certain Union Territories.
  • Regulations issued under Article 240 have the force of Parliamentary law, making them equivalent to an Act of Parliament.
  • Allows amendment or repeal of existing laws in a UT, giving the Union direct legislative authority.
  • Applies to UTs without a legislative assembly: Andaman & Nicobar Islands, Lakshadweep, Dadra & Nagar Haveli and Daman & Diu.
  • Applies to Puducherry only when its Assembly is dissolved or suspended, enabling temporary Central control.
  • Enables the Centre to bypass State governments in UT governance, creating a more unitary administrative model.
Chandigarh’s current administrative arrangement
  1. Shared capital system: Chandigarh serves as the capital of both Punjab and Haryana.
  2. Additional charge: The Governor of Punjab functions as the Administrator of Chandigarh.
  3. UT governance limitations: Chandigarh lacks its own Legislative Assembly.
What Article 240 enables
  1. Sweeping Central authority: The President can make regulations for peace, progress, and good government for UTs.
  2. Regulatory override: Any law applicable to Chandigarh can be repealed or amended via Parliamentary legislation.
  3. Direct central rule template: Similar model followed in Andaman & Nicobar Islands, Lakshadweep, Dadra & Nagar Haveli, Daman & Diu, Puducherry (when its Assembly is dissolved/suspended).
Implications if Chandigarh is brought under Article 240
  1. Independent Administrator: No additional charge by Punjab Governor; Centre appoints directly.
  2. Bureaucratic restructuring: Large administrative staff of Punjab and Haryana currently posted in Chandigarh may face institutional and coordination changes.
  3. Legislative possibilities: May enable eventual Legislative Assembly for Chandigarh in the future.
  4. Greater Central oversight: Budgetary and policy matters would fall more firmly under Union control.
  5. Concerns raised: Critics fear this would give excessive control to the Centre.
Arguments that the move benefits Chandigarh
  1. Clear autonomy: Reduced administrative overlap from two states.
  2. Institutional accountability: A dedicated Administrator creates faster decision-making.
  3. Long-term governance clarity: Removes ambiguity caused by shared capital model.
Previous administrative attempts
  1. 1984 attempt: Proposal to appoint an independent Administrator linked to counter-terror coordination; Punjab was under President’s Rule.
  2. 2016 attempt: Opposition arose due to the practice of Punjab Governor holding Administrator’s charge.
Conclusion
Placing Chandigarh under Article 240 reflects a significant recalibration of Centre-State dynamics. While the move promises administrative clarity and efficiency, it raises questions of federal balance and the political stakes of Punjab and Haryana. The issue remains a critical case-study in Indian federalism, constitutional design, and UT governance.
PYQ Relevance
[UPSC 2024] What changes has the Union Government recently introduced in the domain of Centre-State relations? Suggest measures to be adopted to build the trust between the Centre and the States and for strengthening federalism.
Linkage: The question reflects the recent shift in Centre-State power balance through greater Union control in administrative, fiscal and institutional domains. It links directly with debates like Chandigarh under Article 240, Governor-State tensions, GST Council dynamics and UT re-organisation, core themes of Indian federalism in GS-II.

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Labour, Jobs and Employment – Harmonization of labour laws, gender gap, unemployment, etc.

Labour codes: what changes for workers and employers

Explained | Economics | Mains Paper 3: Issues relating growth and development, employment

Introduction

The four labour codes, Code on Wages, Code on Social Security, Industrial Relations Code, and Occupational Safety, Health and Working Conditions Code, aim to simplify compliance for industries, expand social security to workers, and improve ease of doing business. However, labour being a concurrent subject, implementation depends on states, and concerns have emerged about job security, worker rights, and the impact on collective bargaining.

Why in the News

The government has notified the implementation of four labour codes after over five years of deliberation and the consolidation of 29 central labour laws. This marks the first time India will operate under a uniform nationwide wage system and a consolidated social security architecture. While the reforms promise simplified compliance and a push for manufacturing efficiency, trade unions warn of reduced strike power, easier employee termination, and increased precarity for informal workers, making it one of the most debated labour reforms in recent times.

Labour Codes and the Changing Labour Landscape

  1. Consolidation of 29 laws into four codes to create uniformity and remove overlapping provisions.
  2. Target shift from penal to compliance-based enforcement, especially for small firms and first-time offences.
  3. Push for economies of scale in manufacturing, signalling alignment with global production norms.

Code on Wages: What changes for employees and employers?

  1. Uniform definition of wages: It ensures consistency in minimum wage calculation across states and sectors.
  2. Mandated national floor wage: It enables states to set minimum wages only above the national baseline.
  3. Time-bound wage payment: within 2 days of resignation/termination and 7 days of completion of the wage period.
  4. Broader coverage for all employees irrespective of industry or wage threshold.
  5. Overtime provisions strengthened: capped at 48 hours weekly, 12 hours daily shift duration permitted with breaks.

Code on Social Security: Is the social net expanding?

  1. Unified ecosystem of social security: It covers unorganised, informal, gig, and platform workers for the first time.
  2. National Social Security Board: For recommendations, registration, schemes, and funding decisions.
  3. Corporate Co-contribution: Corporates may co-contribute to gig/platform worker benefits but funding split still unclear.
  4. ESIC expansion: Applies to sectors previously exempt; plantation workers included voluntarily.
  5. Formalisation incentive through maternity benefits, gratuity reforms, and inclusion of fixed-term employees.

Industrial Relations Code: Does it limit collective bargaining?

  1. Stricter strike rules: 60-day notice before strike and prohibition of strike in the next 14 days of conciliation.
  2. Increase in threshold: Threshold for prior permission for layoffs raised from 100 to 300 workers, enabling easier hiring-firing.
  3. Negotiating Union provision: Only unions with 51% membership can negotiate; multi-union negotiation councils for fragmented memberships.
  4. Push for stable industrial climate: It is criticised for shrinking bargaining space for workers.

OSH Code: Will workplace safety improve?

  1. Standardised norms: Across industries norms for working hours, workplace safety, and facility obligations.
  2. Mandatory free annual health check-ups: For workers in notified industries.
  3. Women allowed in all sectors and night shifts: subject to safety conditions.
  4. Increased accountability for establishments: In case of handling hazardous activities and migrant labour.

Conclusion

The labour codes aim to simplify compliance and strengthen India’s labour market to support manufacturing-led growth. However, concerns persist regarding job security, collective bargaining, and implementation across states. Successful outcomes depend on balancing economic flexibility with worker protection and ensuring that reforms lead to formalisation without vulnerability.

PYQ Relevance

[UPSC 2024] Discuss the merits and demerits of the four ‘Labour Codes’ in the context of labour market reforms in India. What has been the progress so far in this regard?

Linkage: Growth driven mainly by labour productivity has led to GDP rising without proportional job creation. This links to the four Labour Codes, which seek higher productivity and flexibility, but face concerns on whether they will create jobs while protecting workers.

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How can State PSCs be reformed

Explained | Polity | Mains Paper 2: Indian Constitution - historical underpinnings, evolution, features, amendments, significant provisions and basic structure

Introduction

Public Service Commissions are constitutional institutions meant to ensure merit-based appointments insulated from political pressures. A century after the Montagu–Chelmsford report envisaged them, State PSCs face credibility challenges due to recruitment irregularities and systemic inefficiencies that affect millions of aspirants.

Why in the news?

At the 2025 National Conference of Chairpersons of State Public Service Commissions hosted by Telangana PSC, members acknowledged recruitment controversies and demanded urgent reforms. Aspirant protests in Hyderabad highlighted how even minor delays disrupt youth livelihood prospects. Persistent exam cancellations and unclear syllabi have deepened mistrust despite PSCs’ constitutional mandate of meritocracy.

Historical evolution of State PSCs :

  1. Montagu-Chelmsford Report :
    1. Recommended statutory recruitment bodies for welfare-oriented administration.
    2. Laid conceptual foundation for PSCs in India.
  2. First Public Service Commission (1926) :
    1. Set up for the Government of India before Independence.
    2. Marked beginning of institutionalised merit-based recruitment.
  3. Constitutionalisation through Article 315:
    1. Provided for separate Public Service Commissions for Union and States.
    2. Ensured autonomy and continuity post-Independence.

Constitutional structure and organisation :

  1. Appointment and tenure of members: Governor appoints chairperson and members with fixed tenure and protected service conditions.
  2. Constitutional independence: PSCs function autonomously and discharge duties without executive interference.
  3. Role of UPSC in relation to State PSCs: UPSC may advise State PSCs on service matters when requested.
  4. Role of Ministry of Personnel: Helps maintain coherence in administrative policies across States.

Present functioning and examination framework :

  1. Syllabus review mechanism: Periodic syllabus updates mandated to align with evolving administrative requirements.
  2. Question paper setting and evaluation: PSC sets papers, evaluates answer scripts and prepares selection lists.
  3. Cut-offs and result publication: Merit lists released after evaluation; criteria finalised by the PSC.

Current challenges and bottlenecks

  1. Irregular recruitment cycles: Long gaps between notification and appointments disrupt careers and spark protests.
  2. Lack of transparency: Limited disclosure on answer keys and evaluation has lowered institutional credibility.
  3. Paper leaks and cancellations: Allegations of malpractice lead to cancellation, delays and erosion of public trust.
  4. Outdated syllabus issues: Poor syllabus revisions fail to reflect new governance themes and legal developments.
  5. Inconsistent standards across States: Divergent evaluation standards hinder mobility and generate inequality.

Proposed reforms and restructuring measures:

  1. Revised manpower planning: Systematic vacancy forecasting to prevent examination delays.
  2. Fixed examination calendar: Annual, predictable and uniform recruitment schedule across States.
  3. Transparent evaluation policy: Mandatory disclosure of answer keys, normalisation criteria and cut-off logic.
  4. Academic and administrative alignment: Regular syllabus revision to match governance and administrative reality.
  5. Professional expertise induction: Inclusion of subject experts to improve paper quality and evaluation fairness.

Conclusion

State PSCs were created to provide equal opportunity in public employment. However, recruitment delays, unclear syllabi and opacity have damaged public trust. Ensuring predictability, transparency and institutional professionalism is essential to protect youth aspirations and restore confidence in constitutional recruitment bodies.

PYQ Relevance

[UPSC 2024] What are the aims and objects of the recently passed and enforced Public Examination (Prevention of Unfair Means) Act, 2024? Whether University/State Education Board examinations too are covered under the Act?

Linkage: The Act directly links to the PSC crisis by targeting leaks, exam fraud and loss of trust in public recruitment. It sets a future-ready template for PSC reforms through transparency, deterrence and integrity in examinations.

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Overcoming resistance: On the National Action Plan on Antimicrobial Resistance (2025–29)

Explained | Science Tech | Mains Paper 3: Awareness in various sc and tech fields

Introduction

The Government has introduced the second iteration of the National Action Plan on Antimicrobial Resistance (NAP-AMR) in response to escalating resistance to antibiotics across sectors. While version 1 generated marginal gains and placed AMR on India’s health agenda, its sluggish implementation led to persistent misuse of antibiotics, weak state collaboration, and rising resistance. New evidence, including the 2023 WHO Global Antibiotic Resistance Surveillance report, confirms the urgency for renewed stewardship and a strengthened One Health strategy.

Why in the News?

 India has launched Version 2 of the National Action Plan on AMR amid alarming data that in 2023, one in three bacterial infections in India showed resistance to commonly used antibiotics, against one in six globally. The spike comes despite NAP-AMR (2017–21), revealing that implementation, not intent, is the major roadblock. The new plan is a crucial attempt to arrest a humongous health, veterinary and environmental crisis before last-line antibiotics become fully ineffective.

Why did Version 1 of NAP-AMR fall short?

  1. Sluggish implementation: Raised the profile of AMR nationally but failed to translate into coordinated ground-level action.
  2. Weak state participation: Only a few states formulated policies; Kerala alone implemented effectively, registering a slight drop in AMR levels.
  3. Narrow ecosystem focus: Neglect of veterinary, environment, agriculture and aquaculture vectors.
  4. Enforcement gaps: Despite a ban on Colistin as a growth promoter in the husbandry sector, misuse continued in varying degrees.

How serious is AMR in India today?

  1. High disease burden: High infectious disease load increases antibiotic exposure and accelerates resistance.
  2. Overuse and misuse: Indiscriminate use in healthcare and self-medication remain widespread.
  3. Critical pathogens advancing: E. coli and Klebsiella pneumoniae show high resistance to critical antibiotics, rendering last-line drugs ineffective.

Why has AMR become a multi-sectoral challenge?

  1. Agriculture & husbandry: Growth promoters and preventive antibiotic usage fuel microbial resistance.
  2. Veterinary medicine: Improper prescription and uncontrolled access to antibiotics.
  3. Soil & water contamination: Antibiotic residues affect ecosystems and re-enter human food chains.
  4. Aquaculture & food processing: Residues facilitate community-level resistance.

Why is One Health no longer optional?

  1. Integrates human, animal and environmental health to handle widespread resistance emerging across the food chain and biosphere.
  2. Breaks inter-sectoral silos to ensure synchronised surveillance and regulation.
  3. Guides community-level resistance mitigation, not just tertiary hospitals.

What must Version 2 achieve to succeed?

  1. Strong antibiotics stewardship programmes across community and hospital settings.
  2. Reliable nationwide surveillance network beyond pandemic-led laboratory expansion.
  3. State partnership and compliance mechanisms rather than voluntary policy uptake.
  4. Accountability measures for misuse in human healthcare, veterinary practice and agriculture.

Conclusion

India stands at a critical point where policy intent must translate into enforceable implementation. The success of NAP-AMR (Version 2) depends on strong stewardship, inter-state coordination, and an uncompromising One Health approach. Without systemic commitment, antibiotic resistance risks becoming the defining public health disaster of the decade.

Value Addition

What is AMR? 

  • Antimicrobial Resistance (AMR) refers to a biological phenomenon in which microorganisms such as bacteria, viruses, fungi, and parasites evolve to resist the action of antimicrobial drugs. As a result, standard treatments become ineffective, infections persist, and the risk of spread, severe illness, and mortality increases.

India AMR data cue:

  • WHO Global Antibiotic Resistance Surveillance Report (2023): 1 in 3 bacterial infections in India resistant to commonly used antibiotics, compared to 1 in 6 globally.

Kerala as a Model State 

  • Kerala is often cited as the only state that implemented its state-level action plan on AMR effectively enough to show measurable impact.
  • Key success factors:
    • Strong state-led antibiotic stewardship programme
    • Mandatory prescription audits and regulation of over-the-counter sales
    • Hospital-level AMR surveillance linked to community-level action
    • Training of medical and veterinary practitioners
    • Public awareness + behavioural campaigns

PYQ Relevance

[UPSC 2014] Can overuse and free availability of antibiotics without Doctor’s prescription, be contributors to the emergence of drug-resistant diseases in India? What are the available mechanisms for monitoring and control? Critically discuss the various issues involved.

Linkage: This question is directly relevant as India faces one of the world’s highest AMR burdens driven by misuse and over-the-counter sale of antibiotics. It links to National Action Plan on AMR (Version 2), antibiotic stewardship, surveillance gaps, and public health governance.

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Agricultural Sector and Marketing Reforms – eNAM, Model APMC Act, Eco Survey Reco, etc.

How India’s agri exports posted impressive growth

Explained | Agriculture | Mains Paper 3: Agriculture and related issues

Introduction

Agriculture continues to be a critical pillar of India’s external trade. Despite restrictions on cereals in recent years, India is witnessing robust export performance driven by meat, rice, spices, fruits-vegetables, tobacco, and marine products. Import trends indicate rising edible oil dependence and inflation moderation.

Why in the News?

India’s agricultural exports have surged faster than overall merchandise exports, reaching $25.9 billion in April-September 2024, a 25.8% jump over the previous year, compared to a marginal 0.1% rise in total exports. This turnaround comes after a period of contraction due to export curbs (2022-23) on key items like wheat and non-basmati rice. The renewed momentum signals policy success, global demand recovery, and diversification beyond the US market.

What is driving the recent surge in agri exports?

  1. Policy relaxation: Lifting of post-Ukraine export curbs on wheat, rice, sugar, etc., improved outbound shipments.
  2. Market diversification: Growth in demand from Latin America, Africa, Middle-East reduced dependency on the US.
  3. Production rebound: Normal monsoon boosted availability of sugar, spices, seafood, fruit-veg.
  4. High-value product focus: Marine goods ($4.8 bn), non-basmati rice ($2.85 bn), and cotton ($1.6 bn) led performance.

Which products are leading the export spike?

  1. Marine products: Largest export category at $4.8 bn Apr-Sep 2024.
  2. Rice (Non-basmati): Strong recovery despite earlier restrictions ( $2.85 bn ).
  3. Buffalo meat & poultry: $2.25 bn & $0.414 bn exports supported by West Asia.
  4. Fresh fruits & vegetables: Jump to $1.49 bn due to tomato, onion shipments.
  5. Sugar & tobacco: Robust global prices drove exports above $0.9 bn and $0.82 bn respectively.

How have imports behaved during the same period?

  1. Edible oils dominate: $7.3 bn, showing structural import dependence.
  2. Cashew, pulses, fresh fruits: Rising imports due to domestic shortfalls.
  3. Wheat trade flip: Exports rose post-2022 restrictions but imports revived due to domestic price pressures.
  4. India remains a net agri-exporter, but oil imports remain a vulnerability.

What are the key factors shaping fluctuations in exports?

  1. Geopolitics & tariffs:
    1. US-China trade tensions: Opened new windows for India.
    2. Trump-era duties impacted Indian produce.
    3. Russia war disrupted sunflower oil & grain flows.
  2. Commodity price volatility: FAO Index declined and this led to lower export values for wheat, sugar.
  3. Logistics: Container shortages & high freight (2022-23) stabilised by 2024.

What are the major challenges ahead?

  1. Export restrictions continue on items like wheat, some rice variants.
  2. Quality & traceability issues: Growing scrutiny by EU/Australia.
  3. Climate shocks impacting horticulture and cash crops.
  4. Overdependence on 2-3 markets for meat, marine products.

Conclusion

India’s recent agricultural export growth reflects policy easing, supply recovery, and expanding market access. However, sustaining competitiveness demands edible oil self-reliance, quality upgrades, logistics reforms, and stable export policies. Balanced agri-trade will support farmer income and strengthen India’s role in global food value chains.

PYQ Relevance

[UPSC 2022] What are the main bottlenecks in the upstream and downstream process of marketing of agricultural products in India?

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Governor vs. State

SC clarifies Governor’s powers: How SC answered 14 questions President posed

Explained | Polity | Mains Paper 2: Indian Constitution - historical underpinnings, evolution, features, amendments, significant provisions and basic structure

Introduction

The Supreme Court’s opinion on the President’s 14 queries recalibrates the balance between Raj Bhavan and elected state governments. It ends the uncertainty around “pocket veto”, clarifies that gubernatorial discretion is narrow, and rejects any judicial power to impose timelines on constitutional authorities. The ruling is significant because it formalises procedural discipline without enabling judicial overreach, and reveals continued ambiguity that may trigger future litigation.

Why in the news?

The Supreme Court delivered a rare and highly consequential opinion under Article 143, addressing 14 constitutional doubts raised by the President regarding the Governor’s powers on Bills, aid and advice, delay, and discretion. It is a big development because the Court categorically ruled out the Governor’s “pocket veto”, reaffirmed that discretion is exceptional, not routine, and clarified that the judiciary cannot impose procedural timelines on constitutional posts. This marks a striking departure from previous ambiguities in Centre-State relations and reopens debate on federal accountability.

What constitutional options are available to a Governor when a Bill is presented?

  1. Four Constitutional Options: Return the Bill, reserve it for the President, assent, or withhold assent; these options arise strictly from Article 200.
  2. Bar on Pocket Veto: The ruling prohibits an indefinite delay, emphasising that constitutional silence cannot be exploited to stall legislation.
  3. Return of Bill Allowed Only Once: The Governor cannot repeatedly send the same Bill back once the House re-passes it.
  4. No Withhold After Re-passage: Once the legislature re-adopts a Bill, the Governor must assent, ensuring legislative primacy.

Is the Governor bound by aid and advice of the Council of Ministers?

  1. Binding Advice Rule: Aid and advice are mandatory except in constitutionally specified discretionary functions.
  2. No Unfettered Discretion: The Governor’s disagreement with political outcomes does not justify refusing advice.
  3. Improper Refusal: The Court held that a Governor cannot withhold assent simply because a new government would not prefer the Bill.

Are the Governor’s discretionary powers unlimited?

  1. Narrow Discretion: Discretion is “exceptional”, not a general supervisory authority over the legislature.
  2. Subjective Satisfaction Allowed Only for President’s Reservation: Under Article 200, the Governor may reserve a Bill if doubts on constitutionality exist.
  3. Judicial Review Retained: Reserving a Bill on irrelevant grounds is open to legal challenge.
  4. Discretion Must Meet Constitutional Purpose: Decisions must align with constitutional morality, not political preference.

Can timelines be imposed on Governors or the President?

  1. No Judicially Enforceable Deadlines: The Court cannot prescribe rigid timelines because the Constitution does not contain them.
  2. Institutional Respect Principle: Judiciary recognises the separation of powers and avoids issuing operational directives to constitutional authorities.
  3. Practical Concern Highlighted: While Governors should act “reasonably expeditiously”, this remains non-justiciable.

Are actions under Article 200 justiciable?

  1. Yes, on Limited Grounds: Courts may intervene if the Governor acts on irrelevant considerations or violates constitutional limits.
  2. Reasonableness Standard Applies: Judicial review ensures the Governor does not misuse constitutional silence to stall governance.
  3. Invalid Withholding Possible: A Governor withholding assent after re-passage would be unconstitutional and challengeable.

Can a Governor substitute his decision with the President’s under Article 201?

  1. Permissible Only for Constitutionality Doubts: The Governor may reserve Bills only when genuine constitutional issues arise.
  2. No Arbitrary Referral: Relying on the President for policy disagreements is unconstitutional.

Can courts adjudicate contents of Bills?

  1. Judicial Review Limited: Courts cannot examine legislative content before enactment except for exceptional situations.
  2. No Pre-Enactment Censorship: Validity can be tested only after the Bill becomes law.
  3. Reiterates Separation of Powers: Judiciary cannot intrude into legislative functioning.

Can the President exercise constitutional powers in place of the Governor under Article 142?

  1. Court Rejects the Assumption: No constitutional fiction allows the President to step into the Governor’s role.
  2. Limits to Article 142: It cannot rewrite constitutional architecture.

Conclusion

The opinion reaffirms constitutional restraint, narrows gubernatorial discretion, disallows “pocket vetoes”, strengthens legislative sovereignty, and emphasises judicial non-interference in executive timelines. Yet the Court’s hesitation to set procedural limits leaves space for future litigation, signalling continuing tensions in Indian federalism.

PYQ Relevance

[UPSC 2022] Discuss the essential conditions for exercise of the legislative powers by the Governor. Discuss the legality of re-promulgation of ordinances by the Governor without placing them before the Legislature.

Linkage: This PYQ is directly relevant as the latest SC Article 143 opinion clarifies the Governor’s narrow legislative powers and rejects misuse like delay or withholding assent. It links to the issue of constitutional propriety, making re-promulgation without placing ordinances before the legislature clearly unconstitutional.

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Is federalism in retreat under single party hegemony?

Explained | Polity | Mains Paper 2: Federalism

INTRODUCTION

The rationalisation of GST ushered in a new era of indirect taxation but triggered concerns among several States regarding declining revenue autonomy. Disputes around compensation, centrally-sponsored schemes, disaster relief funding, and Finance Commission recommendations have reached the Supreme Court, raising a fundamental question: Is Indian federalism being structurally reshaped under a single-party political hegemony?

The conversation in the article traces how fiscal and political federalism has shifted from cooperative frameworks in the 1990s to competitive and increasingly centralised dynamics post-2014.

WHY IN THE NEWS

The article is significant because it captures the unprecedented stress on fiscal federalism under GST, the decline of traditional accommodation politics, and the growing disconnect between richer southern States and the Union’s redistributive design. For the first time since liberalisation, States across the political spectrum are questioning the vertical imbalance and the shrinking autonomy embedded in taxation, grants, and centrally sponsored schemes. The issue is compelling because these structural tensions coincide with the rise of a dominant national party, altering how bargaining, negotiation, and regional representation historically shaped Indian federalism.

Shifts in Federalism: From Accommodation to Assertion

  1. Federal Coalition Politics: Provided space for regional parties to influence national policy in the 1990s; reforms had federal character, and Centre-State interaction increased.
  2. Decline of Accommodation: Rise of single-party majority reduced negotiation; regional anxieties and political identities feel less represented.
  3. BJP’s Unitary Political Vision: Emphasises uniformity over accommodation, reducing incentives for coalition-based bargaining.

How Has GST Altered the Fiscal Architecture?

  1. Loss of Tax Autonomy: States surrendered sovereign taxation power; they now depend on shared revenues and compensation.
  2. Compensation Tensions: Delays triggered mistrust; design issues, particularly Finance Commission-linked vertical imbalance, create sustained stress.
  3. Redistributive Principle: Southern States argue that redistributive transfers have become structurally rigid without acknowledging their economic efficiency.

What Is Driving Regional Inequality and Fiscal Stress?

  1. Unequal Growth Patterns: Southern States showed high economic growth but lack employment-intensive outcomes; inequality persists.
  2. Structural Vertical Imbalance: Centre retains key taxation powers while States bear expenditure responsibilities; this misalignment fuels fiscal dissatisfaction.
  3. Urbanisation and Labour Migration: Remittances from poorer northern States sustain the growth of southern economies, deepening interdependence yet also friction.

How Has Single-Party Dominance Reshaped Political Federalism?

  1. Reduced Federal Bargains: With weaker regional representation at the Centre, the cooperative ethos has weakened.
  2. Rise of Central Schemes: States perceive centralisation in scheme design, financing patterns, and conditionalities.
  3. Executive Federalism: More meetings, consultations, and vertical controls replacing political negotiation platforms like the Planning Commission.

Why Are Delimitation and Census Triggering Concerns?

  1. Southern States’ Anxiety: Fear losing political weight due to lower population growth relative to northern States.
  2. Economic Contribution vs Representation: High-growth States feel the political architecture does not reward efficient governance.
  3. One Nation, One Election Debate: Seen as another centralising push, weakening federal political competition.

CONCLUSION

The article concludes that the crisis in Indian federalism is not merely episodic but structural, rooted in post-GST fiscal architecture, weakened accommodation politics, regional disparities, and the rise of a dominant national party. The challenge is to redesign mechanisms of trust, negotiation, and fiscal balance so that India’s federal compact remains resilient to political shocks and centred on cooperative problem-solving.

PYQ Relevance

[UPSC 2024] What changes has the Union Government recently introduced in the domain of Centre-State relations? Suggest measures to be adopted to build the trust between the Centre and the States and for strengthening federalism.

Linkage: This PYQ directly aligns with the article’s core themes of growing centralisation, GST-driven fiscal stress, and weakening accommodation politics between the Centre and States. It links perfectly with the discussion on fiscal imbalance, GST Council tensions, Finance Commission changes, and the impact of single-party dominance on federal bargaining.

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Terrorism and Challenges Related To It

The threat of digital tradecraft in terrorism

Explained | Security Issues | Mains Paper 3: External State & Non-State Actors: Challenges To Internal Security.

Introduction

The blast near Delhi’s Red Fort on November 10, killing 15 and injuring over 30, exposed the operational use of encrypted digital platforms, dead-drop communication, and modular terror cells. The investigation demonstrates a transition from traditional networks to digitally shielded ecosystems, reducing visibility for intelligence agencies and constraining surveillance outcomes.

The new face of terror: What has the investigation revealed?

  1. Encrypted Communication: Enables concealed coordination, protects identity layers, and reduces interception by routing messages through shielded platforms.
  2. Digital Dead-Drops: Facilitates asynchronous message exchange without direct contact, ensuring operational secrecy and reducing surveillance exposure.
  3. Compartmentalised Cells: Strengthens deniability by separating roles across modules led by three individuals linked to medical and academic institutions.
  4. Behavioural Masking: Utilises familiar vehicles and repetitive low-risk movement patterns to support covert reconnaissance without triggering alerts.
  5. Enhanced IED Architecture: Ensures higher lethality through layered mechanisms and precise triggering processes.

Distinctive Features of This Incident

  1. Multi-Layer Encryption: Reduces actionable intelligence, constrains lawful interception, and delays early detection of operational chatter.
  2. Surveillance-Resistant Tools: Utilises VPNs, spoofed identifiers, and encrypted messaging apps, enabling secure command dissemination.
  3. Hybrid Planning: Integrates digital coordination with physical site visits, ensuring real-time situational assessment without exposing handlers.
  4. Decentralised Decision Structures: Prevents traceability by shifting from hierarchical control to remote guidance via anonymised digital nodes.

Why are modern counterterrorism frameworks struggling?

Constraints on Counterterrorism Architecture

  1. Limited Penetration of Encrypted Platforms: Restricts information extraction, narrows visibility over operational trails, and weakens evidence chains.
  2. Diminished HUMINT Opportunities: Reduces physical touchpoints and complicates informant-based intelligence generation.
  3. Fragmented Global Cooperation: Slows data sharing when platforms are hosted outside domestic jurisdiction, weakening investigation pace.
  4. Technological Mismatch: Creates capability gaps as terror networks adopt advanced masking, encryption, and anonymisation faster than security upgrades.

Operational Impact of Digital Tradecraft

  1. End-to-end encryption (E2EE) Platforms: Shields logistics, finances, and movement plans, enabling uninterrupted operational execution.
  2. Remote Radicalisation and Supervision: Facilitates cross-border ideological influence and guidance without physical linkages.
  3. Metadata Evasion: Minimises digital footprints by exploiting layered encryption and controlled online presence.
  4. Coordination Efficiency: Enhances planning speed and reduces command exposure by relying on decentralised digital frameworks.

Required Strategic Adaptations

  1. Digital Forensics Expansion: Strengthens cryptographic analysis, behavioural modelling, and dark-web investigation capacity.
  2. Lawful Interception Reform: Establishes judicially supervised mechanisms enabling secure access to encrypted communication when mandated.
  3. Inter-Agency Data Fusion: Integrates intelligence, cyber cells, and police units on unified platforms to improve threat detection and response.
  4. Cyber Infrastructure Modernisation: Enhances surveillance technologies, metadata analytics, and predictive systems to match digital threat evolution.
  5. International Data Cooperation: Accelerates cross-border evidence sharing and improves alignment with global counterterrorism frameworks.

Conclusion

The Red Fort blast demonstrates a shift toward encrypted, decentralised, and digitally concealed terror ecosystems. The emerging landscape requires specialised digital forensics, integrated intelligence systems, and balanced legal frameworks to strengthen operational readiness. Counterterrorism capacities must evolve to address threats emerging from opaque digital environments rather than visible physical terrains alone.

PYQ Relevance

[UPSC 2016] Use of Internet and social media by non-state actors for subversive activities is a major concern. How have these been misused in the recent past? Suggest effective guidelines to curb the above threat.

Linkage: The misuse of Internet and social media by non-state actors remains a recurring internal security theme. The encrypted digital activity with respect to the recent The recent Red Fort blast make the issue current and significant. The topic continues to appear because communication networks are now central to modern security threats.

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Internal Security Architecture Shortcomings – Key Forces, NIA, IB, CCTNS, etc.

More than two decades later, there is light at the end of the Red Corridor

Explained | Security Issues | Mains Paper 3: External State & Non-State Actors: Challenges To Internal Security.

INTRODUCTION

Left-Wing Extremism (LWE) has historically affected large tribal hinterlands across central India. Recent field reports indicate a visible decline in Maoist hold, accompanied by expanding state presence, renewed market activity, and local confidence in security forces. The transformation represents a significant shift from earlier decades marked by fear, isolation, and violence.

Why in the news?

A major setback to Maoists occurred recently when top Andhra-Odisha border commander Madvi Hidma was killed in a security operation, followed by the elimination of seven more Maoists, including an explosives expert. These back-to-back encounters highlight the rapid weakening of LWE networks across the Red Corridor.

Why is the region witnessing a visible shift in confidence?

  1. Reduced Fear: The article notes that locals now openly interact with security forces, signalling erosion of Maoist coercion.
  2. Increased Presence: Security deployment strengthened continuous area domination, reducing the probability of Maoist reprisals.
  3. Civilian Mobility: Market activity in evening hours increased, contrasting earlier periods when movement after dusk was restricted due to threats.
  4. Symbolic Change: Locals offering security personnel chai and sitting freely with them indicates behavioural trust, not forced compliance.

What structural changes weakened Maoist dominance?

  1. Road Connectivity: New roads and bridges reduced forest isolation, weakening Maoist geographical advantage and enabling faster troop mobility.
  2. Communication Facilities: Mobile networks expanded surveillance, reduced Maoist anonymity, and enabled quicker civilian distress calls.
  3. Administrative Outreach: Frequent visits by district officials ensured service delivery and reduced ideological appeal.
  4. Disruption of Recruitment: Youth engagement in local markets, transport, and small businesses reduced Maoist manpower pipelines.

How did security operations evolve on the ground?

  1. Stronghold Penetration: Forces entered areas earlier considered “liberated zones”, indicating territorial rollback.
  2. Integrated Command: Inter-state coordination between Chhattisgarh, Maharashtra, Telangana improved operational continuity.
  3. Sanitisation Efforts: Regular area domination patrols lowered the possibility of ambushes.
  4. Intelligence Support: Human intelligence from locals increased due to declining fear, enabling targeted strikes.

What has changed in the population’s everyday life?

  1. Economic Activity: Markets extending late into evening reflect safety and disposable income circulation.
  2. Transport Revival: Locals travelling without escorts marks reduced threat perception.
  3. Women’s Movement: Increased participation by women in markets shows greater autonomy and reduced intimidation.
  4. Community Interaction: Openness to engage with forces signals normalisation of state-citizen interaction.

Why has the Maoist strategy weakened?

  1. Loss of Terrain Control: Eroded forest sanctuaries limit guerrilla advantage.
  2. Depleted Cadres: Surrenders and casualties reduced leadership continuity.
  3. Ideological Attrition: Reduced resonance of Maoist messaging as development outreach substitutes grievances.
  4. Operational Fatigue: Continuous pressure limited long-duration planning, reducing capability for large-scale attacks.

CONCLUSION

The article highlights a decisive shift in the Red Corridor, where expanded state presence and growing public confidence have significantly reduced Maoist influence. The transition reflects a combination of operational consistency, improved connectivity, and changing local behaviour, collectively signalling a new phase in India’s long battle against Left-Wing Extremism.

PYQ Relevance

[UPSC 2022] Naxalism is a social, economic and developmental issue manifesting as a violent internal security threat. Discuss the emerging issues and suggest a multilayered strategy to tackle the menace of Naxalism.

Linkage: The PYQ matches the article’s focus on LWE decline driven by security consolidation and development outreach. It directly links to how improved roads, markets, and public confidence are weakening Naxalism.

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Artificial Intelligence (AI) Breakthrough

Agentic AI: Tech’s newest buzzword

Explained | Science Tech | Mains Paper 3: Awareness in various sc and tech fields

Introduction

Agentic AI refers to a new class of artificial intelligence systems capable of executing multistep tasks, adapting to processes, and performing actions independently rather than merely responding to prompts. The term has witnessed a rapid surge in public and industry attention, driven by new academic reports and its promise of automating complex workflows. The development marks a notable shift from conventional chatbots that were largely conversational and instruction-bound.

Why in the News?

It is in the news due to a new report by the Massachusetts Institute of Technology and the Boston Consulting Group describing it as a “new class of systems that can plan, act, and learn on their own.” Google searches for the term have skyrocketed, reflecting a sharp contrast from its obscurity just a year ago.

What Makes Agentic AI Different?

  1. Autonomous Execution: Moves beyond responding to instructions by executing multistep processes and adapting as they proceed.
  2. Planning Capability: Breaks high-level goals into sequential steps and performs them independently.
  3. Human-Like Behaviour: Sounds more natural and expressive, yet retains training-based limitations without genuine understanding.

Why Has the Term Skyrocketed?

  1. New MIT–BCG Report: Classifies agentic systems as a new AI class with independence in planning and learning.
  2. Search Spike: Google searches for the term hit a peak earlier this fall.
  3. Corporate Adoption: Major tech firms such as OpenAI, Google, IBM, Microsoft, and Salesforce are building or integrating agentic systems.

How Does Agentic AI Work in Real-world Tasks?

  1. Execution of Goal Chains: Systems take inputs like “Here are the great ideas” and “And then complete the task.”
  2. Application in Online Services: Includes personal finance assistance, bill interpretation, dispute resolution, or travel booking using card data.
  3. Complex Task Automation: Involves computer access and stepwise execution of guidelines for high-level objectives.

What Is Driving Industry Optimism?

  1. Workflow Automation Promise: Amazon sees agentic systems as key to automating cloud operations and enterprise-level tasks.
  2. Operational Transformation: Viewed as one of the biggest AI evolutions since early generative models.
  3. Security Applications: Potential as “personal shields” against spam, fraud, and phishing by acting on email and digital data.

What Are The Concerns or Limitations?

  1. Marketing Hype vs Utility: The term is being debated due to its sudden popularity and vague boundaries.
  2. Lack of True Autonomy: Systems act within training limits despite appearing highly capable.
  3. Ethical and Trust Issues: The blending of autonomous actions with sensitive tasks (finance/computers) raises oversight concerns.

Conclusion

Agentic AI represents a shift from conversational to autonomous process-executing systems. While the term has rapidly gained traction due to academic endorsement and industry optimism, its real potential depends on responsible deployment, ethical guardrails, and clarity around autonomy and control. Its emergence signals an important moment in the evolution of artificial intelligence with direct implications for governance, security, and digital administration.

Value Addition

Generative AI

  • Definition: AI systems capable of generating new content, text, images, audio, or code, based on patterns learned from training data.
  • Core Function: Produces responses to prompts; does not take independent action.
  • Examples: ChatGPT, Midjourney, DALL·E.

Large Language Models (LLMs)

  • Definition: Models trained on vast datasets to understand and produce human-like language.
  • Role: Backbone of generative AI.
  • Limitation: No planning ability; follows instructions linearly.

Agentic AI

  • Definition: A new class of AI systems that can plan, act, and learn on their own, breaking down goals into steps and executing them without constant user input.
  • Core Difference from Generative AI: Moves from responding to acting.
  • Example (from article): An agent that interprets medical bills, disputes charges, or handles complex computer tasks.

AI Agents

  • Definition: Software entities capable of autonomous actions in an environment to achieve goals.
  • Role in Agentic AI: Agents are the functional units that perform the tasks.

Multistep Automation

  • Definition: A system that converts a single instruction into multiple executable actions.
  • Agentic Relevance: This is the defining capability that transforms chatbots into autonomous systems.

High-level Goal Breakdown

  • Definition: Ability of an AI to take an abstract goal (e.g., “organise my travel”) and break it into actionable steps.
  • Example: Travel bookings using credit card data.

Autonomy in AI

  • Definition: The degree to which an AI system can act without human intervention.
  • Agentic Context: Full or partial autonomy is central to its functionality.

PYQ Relevance

[UPSC 2023] How can Artificial Intelligence (AI) help clinical diagnosis? Do you perceive any threat to privacy of the individual in the use of AI in healthcare?

Linkage: Agentic AI builds on this by not just assisting but autonomously executing tasks such as interpreting bills or acting on sensitive data. The privacy risks highlighted in the PYQ directly connect to concerns over AI agents accessing personal digital information while acting independently.

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Trade Sector Updates – Falling Exports, TIES, MEIS, Foreign Trade Policy, etc.

Excessive dependence: On India’s external trade landscape

Explained | Economics | Mains Paper 3: Infrastructure: Energy, Ports, Roads, Airports, Railways Etc.

Introduction

India recorded a historic goods trade deficit in October ($41.68 billion), following a sharp rise from September’s $32.15 billion deficit. The decline in exports, driven largely by the U.S.’s steep tariffs, coincides with an abnormal spike in gold and silver imports, rupee depreciation, and heavy portfolio outflows. The article highlights how India’s dependence on the U.S. market has exposed it to both economic and diplomatic vulnerabilities, raising questions about whether the shift in trade patterns is structural or a temporary response to external shocks.

Why in the News

India’s record October trade deficit of $41.68 billion, the sharpest ever, signals a significant disruption in its external trade landscape. Exports plunged due to the U.S.’s sudden 50% tariffs, critical because the U.S. is India’s largest export market, while gold imports tripled and silver inflows rose fivefold, creating an unprecedented import spike.

A Rising Trade Deficit and What It Reveals

  1. Record Deficit ($41.68 bn): Reflects a sequential deterioration from September’s $32.15 bn deficit, signalling a disturbing shift.
  2. Export Fall (-11.8% YoY): Goods exports dropped to $34.38 bn (from $38.98 bn in 2024), driven primarily by U.S. tariffs.
  3. Heavy Import Surge: Driven by a dramatic rise in bullion inflows and the use of cheaper imported intermediates.

Why the U.S. Tariffs Hit India Hard

  1. 50% Tariff Shock: Imposed in August, directly affecting sectors for which the U.S. has been India’s major market since 2018-19.
  2. Large Market Dependence: The U.S. remains the biggest buyer of India’s textiles, yarn, readymade garments, and engineering goods.
  3. Export Decline (-9% YoY): Overall exports to the U.S. contracted sharply in October.

What Is Driving the Surge in Gold and Silver Imports?

  1. Gold Imports Tripled: Rising from $4.92 bn (last October) due to economic uncertainty.
  2. Silver Imports Up Fivefold: Indicates hedging behaviour rather than seasonal demand.
  3. Rupee Weakening (₹85.6 to ₹88.4): Encouraged investors to seek bullion as a safe asset.

Sector-Wise Export Stress

  1. Cotton Yarn & Handlooms (-13.31%): Major labour-intensive sector hit due to tariff-led slowdown.
  2. Man-Made Yarn (-11.75%): Reflects weakening competitiveness.
  3. Readymade Garments (-12.88%): Particularly vulnerable to U.S. demand contraction.
  4. Engineering Goods (-16.71%): Hit despite being a major export strength area.

Is the Import Surge a Structural Pattern?

  1. Cheaper Intermediate Goods: Firms increasingly rely on imported inputs to maintain export competitiveness.
  2. Depreciating Rupee: Makes imports costlier but also signals reduced domestic sourcing.
  3. Need for HS-Chapter Analysis: A breakdown by commodity and source country will clarify which imports are rising structurally.

Government Measures and Their Limitations

  1. Export Promotion (₹25,060 crore over 6 years): Centre has stepped in to cushion exporters.
  2. RBI Relief Measures: Target tariff-affected exporters.
  3. Too Early to Call It Structural: Realignment of supply chains and market diversification could take years.

Geopolitical Shifts and Bilateral Trade Dynamic

  1. India-U.S. Bilateral Trade Agreement: If concluded soon, October’s deficit spike may be temporary.
  2. Russian Imports Down (-27.73%): Sharp drop indicates effort to reduce crude dependence.
  3. U.S. Imports Up (13.89%): Suggests attempt to ease American concerns over trade imbalance.

Conclusion

India’s record trade deficit underscores the risks of concentrated export dependence and volatile imports driven by economic uncertainty. While the current shift may be partly reactionary, persistent decline in labour-intensive exports and rising reliance on imported intermediates signal deeper structural weaknesses. Managing this transition will require sustained policy intervention, diversification of markets, and a recalibration of India’s trade portfolio to mitigate vulnerability.

PYQ Relevance

[UPSC 2018] How would the recent phenomena of protectionism and currency manipulations in world trade affect macroeconomic stability of India?

Linkage: The U.S. tariff shock and rupee weakening in the article directly mirror the PYQ’s theme, showing how protectionism and currency swings widen India’s trade deficit. Together, they illustrate the resulting stress on India’s macroeconomic stability.

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Foreign Policy Watch: India-Africa

India needs to ‘connect, build and revive’ with Africa

Explained | International Relations | Mains Paper 2: India & Its Neighborhood - Relations

Introduction

India’s partnership with Africa is embedded in shared anti-colonial history, South-South cooperation, and long-standing developmental commitments. Over the last decade, India’s diplomatic presence, investments, training initiatives, and cultural engagement have expanded across the continent. However, shifting geopolitical equations, intensifying global competition, and Africa’s rising economic potential demand an upgraded, value-driven, and sustained approach. The article argues that India must now “connect, build and revive” its Africa policy to maintain its strategic foothold and align with Africa’s aspirations.

Why in the News?

A decade after hosting the largest-ever India-Africa Forum Summit, India’s engagement with Africa is again at a pivotal moment. India has added 17 new missions, trade has crossed USD 100 billion, and investment flows are surging. Yet Indian trade still lags behind China, and many flagship promises made in 2015 require renewed momentum. As Africa is set to become home to one-fourth of the world’s population by 2050, the scale, urgency, and strategic importance of India’s outreach makes this moment historically significant.

How has India’s outreach to Africa evolved in the past decade?

  1. Expanded diplomatic footprint: India added 17 new missions across Africa, enhancing its on-ground presence and bilateral engagement.
  2. Rising investment flows: India’s investment stock has crossed USD 100 billion, making it among Africa’s top five investors.
  3. Growth in trade partnerships: Bilateral trade has crossed USD 100 billion, demonstrating the growing economic synergy.
  4. Enhanced defence cooperation: Joint naval exercises such as AIMKEME (April 2025) saw participation from navies of Kenya, Madagascar, Mauritius, Mozambique, Seychelles, South Africa, and Tanzania.
  5. Stronger multilateral alignment: India played a key role in enabling African Union membership in the G20, elevating Africa’s global voice.

Why is Africa emerging as a strategic priority for India?

  1. Demographic transformation: By 2050, one in four people on Earth will be Africa, a major consumer, labour, and talent base.
  2. Economic potential: Africa will be the world’s third-largest economy, creating opportunities in technology, health, infra, and manufacturing.
  3. Geopolitical influence: Africa’s global role is expanding, and India aims to support African representation in global institutions and peacekeeping operations.
  4. Shared developmental priorities: From education to digital public goods, India’s model aligns naturally with African development aspirations.

What challenges persist in India-Africa trade relations?

  1. Lag behind China: India’s trade with Africa is expanding but still far behind China, which has deeper and wider market penetration.
  2. Logistical hurdles: Indian firms often face bureaucratic delays, small balance sheets, and scalability issues.
  3. Fragmented strategy: India’s UPID, digital stack, and trade missions have strengths but lack coordinated continental impact.
  4. Competition from Europe and Asia: New entrants are building deeper financial and infrastructural linkages across the continent.

How is India building capacity and knowledge partnerships in Africa?

  1. Human capital initiatives: India’s most enduring export to Africa is human capital, created through scholarships, training programs, and institutional partnerships.
  2. Education & digital training: The new IIT Madras campus in Zanzibar is a flagship example of education-based cooperation.
  3. Decadal knowledge ecosystems: Pan-African e-Network and India’s ITEC programme continue to train thousands across African nations.
  4. Institutional bridges: African experts, ministers, and students working in India create lasting diplomatic and economic linkages.

What future steps should India take to revitalise momentum?

  1. Move from promises to real outcomes: Lines of credit must become visible, viable, and deliverable rather than symbolic.
  2. Build the India-Africa Digital Corridor: Collaboration on UPI, Aadhaar-stack, and digital payments can create a shared digital infrastructure.
  3. Reinforce the institutional base: Revive the summit-based momentum of IAFS and reintroduce regular leadership exchanges.
  4. Integrate private sector participation: Encourage start-ups, MSMEs, and fintech companies to expand into African markets.
  5. Strengthen maritime cooperation: The Western Indian Ocean is becoming central to supply-chain security and blue-economy partnerships.

Conclusion

India’s partnership with Africa is rooted in trust, shared history, and developmental solidarity. But the world around both regions is changing rapidly. Africa’s demographic rise, digital aspirations, and geopolitical importance demand that India convert intent into implementation. “Connect, build, and revive” offers a timely blueprint for elevating India-Africa relations into a mature, inclusive, and futuristic partnership, one that benefits both regions and strengthens India’s global standing.

PYQ Relevance

[UPSC 2024] Explain the reasons for the growth of Public Interest Litigation (PIL) in India. As a result of it, has the Indian Supreme Court emerged as the world’s most powerful judiciary?

Linkage: Judiciary is one of the most important topics for GS-II. This PYQ tests how failures of the lower judiciary, delay, pendency, and weak remedies, drive the rise of PILs and expand the Supreme Court’s role. The article directly shows these systemic gaps, explaining why litigants bypass subordinate courts and seek relief through PILs.

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Innovations in Biotechnology and Medical Sciences

What are UNESCO new guidelines for the use of neurotechnology

Explained | Science Tech | Mains Paper 3: Awareness in various sc and tech fields

Introduction

Neurotechnology includes devices and procedures that access, assess, or act upon neural systems. Earlier limited to health care, it now merges neuroscience, AI, computing, and engineering to improve or manipulate brain function. Rapid investments, private-sector involvement, and research innovations, such as brain implants enabling paralysed patients to speak, have increased both possibilities and ethical risks. UNESCO’s new standard attempts to balance innovation and human rights, defining responsibilities for governments, researchers, and companies.

Why in the News? 

UNESCO has issued the world’s first global normative framework on the ethics of neurotechnology, marking a major shift in global governance of brain-data systems. This is historic because neurotechnology, once confined to medicine, now expands into marketing, political persuasion, employment screening, insurance, and behaviour profiling. With misuse risks escalating and national laws lagging behind, UNESCO’s framework seeks to protect mental privacy, cognitive liberty, and brain-derived data in an era where neurodata can be exploited commercially or politically.

How does the article define neurotechnology?

  1. Devices/Procedures: Used to access, assess, and act on neural systems including the brain.
  2. Neurodata: Brain-derived data that can reveal intentions, emotions, or mental states, posing risks of exploitation.
  3. Dual-use potential: While used for medical enhancement or disability support, the same can be misused for persuasion, surveillance, or profiling.

Why is neurotechnology expanding so rapidly?

  1. Investment surge: According to a UNESCO study (2023), neurotechnology investment reached $8.6 billion, with private investment growing from $7.3 billion by 2020.
  2. Big tech involvement: Projects like US BRAIN Initiative, Elon Musk’s Neuralink accelerating market adoption.
  3. Medical promise: Supports mental health, paralysis recovery, chronic illness treatment, and palliative care.
  4. Commercial incentives: Insurance sector, HR screening, political messaging all exploring neurodata applications.

What are the key challenges highlighted?

  1. Mental privacy threats: Neurodata gives deep access to personal thoughts; existing legal standards insufficient.
  2. Political misuse: Brain signals used to influence voters or detect political leanings.
  3. Employment misuse: Screening employees for suitability, stress tolerance, or hidden traits.
  4. Commercial exploitation: Recruiting applicants based on subconscious brain responses to marketing stimuli.
  5. Human rights concerns: Risk of discrimination, autonomy loss, and manipulation.

What does UNESCO’s new framework propose?

  1. Human rights foundation: Anchors mental privacy, liberty, dignity.
  2. Responsible innovation: Based on OECD principles, responsibility, inclusion, sustainability.
  3. Four-pronged strategy:
    1. Scope definition of neurotechnology and neurodata.
    2. Identification of ethical principles for countries.
    3. Recommendations focusing on health, education, and vulnerable groups.
    4. Governance considerations for safety and equity.
  4. Intellectual property balance: Calls attention to potential conflicts between innovation and human rights when brain data becomes privatised.
  5. Open science model: Encourages free sharing of discoveries for societal benefit.
  6. Inclusive innovation: Participation of public, stakeholders, scientists, vulnerable communities.

What are the implications for governance and public policy?

  1. AI-Neuro convergence: Need for regulations preventing manipulation or exploitation of neural activity.
  2. Global governance: Calls for adoption by states to standardize mental privacy protections.
  3. Sectoral impact: Health, education, military, and employment policies require safeguards.
  4. IP reform: Recommends new licensing structures to prevent monopolisation of brain-interfacing technologies.
  5. R&D ethics: Researchers to involve the public and align innovations with societal needs, not corporate priorities.

Conclusion

UNESCO’s guidelines mark a foundational step in governing an emerging field where technological capacity has outpaced ethics. By protecting mental privacy and anchoring innovation within a human-rights framework, the guidelines seek to ensure neurotechnology remains a tool for empowerment rather than manipulation. For India and other countries, the challenge lies in integrating these recommendations into national law and ensuring safe, inclusive, and responsible neuro-innovation.

PYQ Relevance

[UPSC 2023] How can Artificial Intelligence (AI) help clinical diagnosis? Do you perceive any threat to privacy of the individual in the use of AI in healthcare?

Linkage: This directly links to the PYQ on AI in clinical diagnosis because neurotechnology goes even deeper, AI can now read and interpret brain signals, making privacy risks far sharper than ordinary medical data. The same issue fits under Ethics too, since it raises questions about autonomy, consent, dignity, and the basic right to mental privacy.

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Corruption Challenges – Lokpal, POCA, etc

Growing unchecked, no guardrails: On Cryptocurrency

Explained | Economics | Mains Paper 3: Money-Laundering & Its Prevention

INTRODUCTION

India’s crypto ecosystem is witnessing rapid expansion, with millions of users participating through exchanges that operate in a regulatory grey zone. Even though cryptocurrencies are not recognised as legal tender, trading continues unchecked through global and domestic platforms. Simultaneously, enforcement agencies report increasing difficulty in conducting investigations, seizing digital assets, and identifying crypto flows due to lack of disclosure norms, anonymous digital wallets, and absence of a comprehensive cryptocurrency law.
As the RBI continues to caution against private crypto assets on grounds of financial instability, the mismatch between rapid adoption and weak regulatory architecture is emerging as a major economic and governance challenge.

WHY IN THE NEWS? 

The Indian crypto industry is projected to grow from $2.6 billion in 2024 to $15 billion by 2035, showing unprecedented expansion despite lack of regulatory oversight. This contrast, booming investments vs. near-absence of guardrails, has placed the industry at the centre of policy debate. Law-enforcement agencies have flagged that crypto-linked frauds, pump-and-dump schemes, and money-laundering networks are rising, while agencies lack legal backing and technical capability to tackle cases, making the issue urgent and nationally significant.

Understanding Cryptocurrencies and Exchanges

What are cryptocurrencies?

  • Decentralised Digital Assets: Built on blockchain, enabling encrypted, irreversible peer-to-peer transactions.
  • No Government Backing: Value based purely on demand-supply and market sentiment.
  • Popular Coins: Bitcoin, Ethereum; Indian users largely rely on global exchanges.
  • Not Legal Tender in India: Cannot be used for officially recognised payment obligations.

What are crypto exchanges?

  • Online Trading Platforms: Allow users to buy, sell, hold crypto.
  • Wide Accessibility: Millions of Indians use both domestic and offshore exchanges.
  • India’s Absence of Recognition: Exchanges operate as digital intermediaries without formal regulatory status.

How Crypto Scams Proliferate in India

What mechanisms drive frauds?

  1. Pump-and-Dump Rackets: Influencers artificially inflate coin prices before exiting.
  2. Social Media-Driven Scams: Fraudsters lure users through WhatsApp/Telegram channels promising unrealistic returns.
  3. Disappearing Exchanges: Operators collect deposits and shut down overnight.
  4. Lack of Investor Awareness: Complex technology makes retail investors vulnerable.

Magnitude of India’s Crypto Adoption

How large is the user base?

  • 11 Million Global Crypto Holders: India hosts one of the world’s largest user bases.
  • 7 Million Indian Users (approx. 7%): Indicating wide penetration despite lack of backing.
  • ₹45,000 Crore Transaction Volume: Public adoption remains high regardless of regulatory uncertainty.
  • Young Demography: Primarily 18-35 age group investing through mobile apps.

Why Does RBI Oppose Private Crypto Assets?

What risks concern the central bank?

  1. Threat to Monetary Stability: Crypto bypasses sovereign currency systems, undermining control.
  2. Capital Flight Risks: Easy cross-border transferability allows funds to move outside the formal system.
  3. Volatility Concerns: Extreme price swings harm financial stability and investor protection.
  4. IMF FSR Context: RBI flags that widespread crypto usage could weaken monetary transmission and destabilise macroeconomic foundations.

Why Crypto Investigations Are a Minefield in India

What obstructs law-enforcement agencies?

  1. Disclosing Data
    1. Opaquely Stored User Data: Off-shore exchanges hide ownership/trade history.
    2. No Mandatory Registration: Agencies struggle to compel disclosure.
    3. Jurisdictional Challenges: Crypto platforms operate globally.
  2. Wallet Complexities
    1. Self-Custody Wallets: Google/MetaMask wallets controlled solely by users; agencies cannot freeze.
    2. Unregulated Cross-Border Flows: Enable illegal transfers with no paper trail.
  3. Seizing Digital Assets
    1. Technical Restrictions: Investigators require passphrases; non-cooperation prevents seizure.
    2. Custodial Limitations: No authorised secure government platform for holding crypto.
    3. High-Risk Volatility: Digital assets fluctuate, affecting value during investigations.
  4. Legal Blocks
    1. No Comprehensive Law: India lacks a crypto-specific statute.
    2. Ambiguity for Officers: Enforcement provisions unclear; actions challenged in court.
    3. Regulatory Vacuum: Agencies rely on IT Act, PMLA,insufficient for decentralised tech.
  5. Technical Snag
    1. Privacy Coins (e.g., Monero): High anonymity and advanced obfuscation algorithms.
    2. Untraceable Transactions: Blockchain mixers complicate forensic trails.

Should Individuals Invest in Crypto?

What risks do investors face?

  1. High Market Volatility: No asset backing; price fluctuations extreme.
  2. Unregulated Exchanges: Shutdowns lead to permanent loss of funds.
  3. Cyberattacks and Hacks: Wallets vulnerable to phishing and malware attacks.
  4. RBI and Global Position: Institutions including the IMF, RBI, European regulators warn of structural risks.

CONCLUSION

India’s crypto sector is expanding rapidly without an accompanying regulatory architecture. While blockchain offers transformative potential, the risks of fraud, volatility, and money-laundering remain high. Strengthening legal frameworks, mandating registration of exchanges, and improving cross-border cooperation will be essential before mainstreaming digital assets. Balancing innovation with stability remains the core policy challenge.

PYQ Relevance

[UPSC 2021] Discuss how emerging technologies and globalisation contribute to money laundering. Elaborate measures to tackle the problem of money laundering both at national and international levels.

Linkage: This PYQ fits because the article shows how crypto and global digital platforms enable anonymous cross-border laundering. It also matches the article’s focus on legal gaps and enforcement challenges in tackling such flows.

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