💥UPSC 2026, 2027 UAP Mentorship September Batch
Talk to Mentor

Type: Explained

These Newscards correspond to the explained section of various newspapers. They become immensely important for both prelims and mains and special attention needs to be paid to them

Bills/Act/LawsDOMREthicsExplainedHistorical SitesIOCRop-ed snapPIBPlaces in newsPrelims OnlySC JudgementsSchemesSpeciesStatesworld map

Internal Security Architecture Shortcomings – Key Forces, NIA, IB, CCTNS, etc.

Gorkhaland statehood, Government names ex-DY NSA as interlocutor

Explained | Polity | Mains Paper 2: Indian Constitution - historical underpinnings, evolution, features, amendments, significant provisions and basic structure

Introduction

India’s federal architecture is unique: it allows the creation of new states to accommodate cultural, linguistic, administrative, or developmental aspirations under Article 3 of the Constitution. Yet, every statehood movement also reflects deeper struggles over identity, representation, and development.

The Gorkhaland issue, revived by the Centre’s recent move to appoint an interlocutor, is one of the oldest and most persistent among these. While it directly concerns the Darjeeling hills and adjoining areas of West Bengal, it mirrors similar aspirations voiced across India, from Vidarbha to Bodoland, Harit Pradesh, and Kukiland.

The Gorkhaland Appointment: Why is this news significant?

The Centre’s decision to name ex-Dy NSA Pankaj Kumar Singh as interlocutor for Gorkha talks is a politically charged step:

  1. First formal engagement in years: It revives official talks after a long hiatus, moving beyond ad hoc arrangements like the Gorkhaland Territorial Administration (GTA).
  2. High-level signalling: The appointment of a senior security expert signals that the government sees the issue as sensitive, with implications for internal security and electoral politics.
  3. Identity at stake: It concerns recognition of the Gorkha community’s distinct identity, and a permanent political solution to decades of protests and autonomy struggles.
  4. Pre-election dimension: With West Bengal Assembly elections approaching, the move is seen as an attempt to politically engage the hill electorate, which has historically swung between national and regional parties.
  5. Potential precedent: Success in structured dialogue may offer a model for addressing other regional aspirations through negotiation instead of agitation.

Understanding the Gorkhaland Issue

Historical Context

  1. Origins: The demand for Gorkhaland dates back to 1907, when the Hillmen’s Association first sought a separate administrative unit for the Nepali-speaking people of Darjeeling under British rule.
  2. Post-Independence Phase: With linguistic reorganisation (1950s), Nepali-speaking Gorkhas felt their identity was inadequately represented in Bengali-dominated West Bengal.
  3. 1980s Uprising: The movement, led by Subhash Ghising’s Gorkha National Liberation Front (GNLF), turned violent; it led to the creation of the Darjeeling Gorkha Hill Council (DGHC) in 1988 as a compromise.
  4. Second Wave: In 2007, Bimal Gurung formed the Gorkha Janmukti Morcha (GJM), renewing the demand; this led to the Gorkhaland Territorial Administration (GTA) in 2011, but unrest persisted.
  5. Present Phase: The latest talks under an interlocutor aim to find a “permanent political solution” and recognition of 11 sub-tribes as Scheduled Tribes.

Key Demands

  1. Separate Gorkhaland State: Carved out of Darjeeling and parts of Kalimpong, to ensure administrative autonomy and cultural recognition.
  2. Scheduled Tribe Status: For 11 Gorkha sub-tribes to ensure constitutional protections and socio-economic inclusion.
  3. Constitutional Recognition: Safeguards for the political identity and rights of the Gorkha people under the Indian Constitution.

Statehood Demands in India: The Bigger Picture

India has witnessed over 30 major statehood demands since Independence. While the Constitution empowers Parliament to reorganize states under Article 3, these movements have tested the balance between administrative efficiency, cultural autonomy, and political representation.

Why Do Statehood Demands Arise?

  • Cultural & Linguistic Identity:
      1. Key reason: Desire for recognition of unique language, ethnicity, or cultural practices.
      2. Examples: Gorkhaland (Nepali-speaking identity), Bodoland (Bodo tribes), Vidarbha (Marathi dialect and identity).
  • Developmental Disparities:
      1. Economic neglect and poor resource distribution often drive demands.
      2. Example: Telangana’s movement was anchored in perceived neglect by Andhra’s political elite.
  • Administrative Efficiency:
      1. Smaller states are believed to ensure better governance and resource management.
      2. Example: Creation of Chhattisgarh and Uttarakhand in 2000.
  • Political Representation & Power-sharing:
      1. Regional elites demand greater political space or autonomy to reflect local aspirations.
  • Ethnic Security and Integration:
    1. Fear of cultural assimilation or discrimination by dominant groups drives ethnic-based mobilisation (e.g., Bodoland, Kukiland, Karbi Anglong).
Year Movement Outcome
1953 Andhra State (Potti Sriramulu movement) First linguistic state formed
1960 Maharashtra & Gujarat Bombay Reorganisation Act
1972 Meghalaya, Manipur, Tripura New northeastern states created
1987 Mizoram & Arunachal Pradesh Granted full statehood
2000 Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, Uttarakhand Created for administrative and developmental reasons
2014 Telangana Result of sustained agitation
Ongoing Gorkhaland, Bodoland, Vidarbha, Bundelkhand Unresolved, periodic agitations

Constitutional Mechanism for Creating New States

Article 3 empowers Parliament to form new states by altering the boundaries or names of existing ones.

Procedure:

  1. Process: Bill introduced in Parliament → Referred to State Legislature for views (not consent) Passed by simple majority.
  2. Centre’s Discretion: State opinion is advisory, not binding — ensuring national flexibility but sometimes triggering discontent.
  3. Examples:
    • Telangana was created despite Andhra Pradesh’s legislature opposing it.
    • Jharkhand was carved out of Bihar through a parliamentary process.

Challenges and Implications of Statehood Movements

  1. Political Fragmentation: Multiplying small states may weaken national coherence and increase Centre-State friction.
  2. Administrative Burden: Creating new bureaucratic structures increases fiscal costs.
  3. Resource Distribution Issues: Conflicts over rivers, minerals, and forest resources (e.g., Telangana-Andhra).
  4. Ethnic Competition: One community’s recognition can fuel new demands from others.
  5. Positive Outcomes: Improved local governance, targeted development, and better representation when well-implemented (e.g., Chhattisgarh’s success in rural health and PDS).

Lessons from Gorkhaland and Other Movements

  1. Need for Institutional Dialogue: Interlocutors and commissions reduce the risk of violent agitation by creating formal channels for negotiation.
  2. Multi-stakeholder Approach: Engagement should include Centre, State, local bodies, and civil society, not just political parties.
  3. Development-Based Solutions: Autonomy and identity must align with socio-economic development for long-term peace.
  4. Model for Others: If successful, the Gorkhaland dialogue could serve as a precedent for resolving other autonomy demands peacefully.

Conclusion

The Gorkhaland issue is not merely a regional agitation; it is part of India’s broader story of balancing unity with diversity, integration with autonomy, and identity with development. The Centre’s interlocutor initiative provides a constitutional, consultative path forward, one that aligns with India’s ethos of resolving internal aspirations democratically.

As India continues to evolve, the challenge will be to ensure that new demands for statehood or autonomy are addressed through dialogue, data, and development, not through division or delay.

PYQ Relevance

[UPSC 2013] Creation of a large number of smaller States would bring in effective governance at the State level. Discuss.

Linkage: This PYQ links directly with Gorkhaland and other statehood demands, testing ideas of better governance and federal balance. The article helps students with examples, chronology, and constitutional context to write precise GS II answers.

Get an IAS/IPS ranker as your 1: 1 personal mentor for UPSC 2024

Attend Now

Air Pollution

Rising carbon dioxide levels

Explained | Enviro & Biodiversity | Mains Paper 3: Conservation, Environmental Pollution & Degradation, Eia

Introduction

The atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide (CO₂), the most significant greenhouse gas responsible for climate change, has increased by a record amount between 2023 and 2024, according to the World Meteorological Organization (WMO). The global average CO₂ concentration reached 423.9 parts per million (ppm) in 2024, 3.5 ppm higher than in 2023, representing the steepest one-year increase since records began.

This unprecedented rise coincides with 2024 being the hottest year on record, with average global temperatures 1.55°C higher than pre-industrial levels, breaching the 1.5°C limit scientists consider critical to prevent irreversible impacts.

Why This Is a Big Deal

This spike is unprecedented in modern climate history. Never before have CO₂ levels risen so sharply in a single year. It not only breaks the trend of relative stability observed over the last decade but also exposes the collapse of the global climate response despite the Paris Agreement. The rate of increase (3.5 ppm) is more than four times the average annual increase recorded between 2011 and 2020.

What makes this even more concerning is that both human-induced emissions (from fossil fuels, deforestation, and industrial activity) and natural feedback loops (like reduced ocean absorption and forest diebacks) are now amplifying each other, creating a self-perpetuating climate crisis.

What Is Driving the Surge in CO₂ Concentrations?

  1. Record-breaking increase: Global average CO₂ near Earth’s surface reached 423.9 ppm in 2024, marking a 3.5 ppm rise, the largest annual jump ever.
  2. Failure of climate frameworks: Despite international efforts under the Paris Agreement, emissions continue to climb, reflecting inadequate implementation and weak compliance.
  3. Global warming feedback: Higher temperatures reduce oceans’ capacity to absorb CO₂ and increase droughts and wildfires, releasing more carbon into the atmosphere.
  4. Burning of fossil fuels: Continued dependence on coal, oil, and gas remains the primary driver, responsible for more than 90% of anthropogenic CO₂ emissions.

How Are Natural Sinks Losing Their Absorptive Power?

  1. Reduced ocean absorption: Warmer oceans have absorbed less CO₂ in 2024 due to decreased solubility of gases in higher temperatures.
  2. Forest fires and droughts: A spike in wildfires and prolonged dry spells reduced the CO₂-absorbing capacity of trees and grasslands.
  3. Feedback loops: The decline of natural sinks worsens CO₂ imbalance, which in turn leads to even greater heat trapping and further degradation of these ecosystems.

How Do Other Greenhouse Gases (GHGs) Compare?

  1. Methane (CH₄): Second-most potent GHG, rose by 8 parts per billion in 2024 to reach 1,924 ppb, slightly below last decade’s average but still historically high.
  2. Nitrous oxide (N₂O): Increased by 1 ppb to 338 ppb in 2024, contributing to long-term warming effects due to its 270-year lifespan.
  3. Relative potency: While CH₄ and N₂O are more heat-trapping per molecule, CO₂ dominates because of its sheer volume and persistence in the atmosphere for thousands of years.

Why Is This Rise Unprecedented?

  1. Historical contrast: From the 1960s to 2010, CO₂ levels rose by 0.8 ppm per year; between 2011–2020, it increased by 2.4 ppm annually, far below the 2023–24 jump of 3.5 ppm.
  2. Crossing planetary limits: This rise pushed Earth past the 1.5°C warming threshold, previously considered a safe boundary.
  3. Interlinked causes: WMO attributes this to a mix of human emissions and natural CO₂ variability, indicating global climate systems are destabilizing.

Challenges for Global Climate Action

  1. WMO warning: The new data underscores the difficulty in curbing GHG accumulation in the atmosphere.
  2. Failure of control mechanisms: Despite decades of negotiations, anthropogenic activities continue unchecked.
  3. Feedback intensification: Natural processes, once climate stabilizers, are now acting as amplifiers of warming.
  4. Paris Agreement setback: The emission reduction targets for 2030 are unlikely to be met, while global temperatures already breached the 1.5°C mark.

Conclusion

The record-breaking surge in CO₂ levels between 2023 and 2024 is not just a statistical anomaly, it’s a planetary red alert. The intertwining of human actions and natural feedback loops signifies that climate change has entered a runaway phase unless drastic global mitigation is undertaken. The failure to meet emission targets and the collapse of natural carbon sinks highlight that the climate crisis is no longer a distant threat, it’s a present emergency demanding immediate collective action.

PYQ Relevance

[UPSC 2022] Discuss global warming and mention its effects on the global climate. Explain the control measures to bring down the level of greenhouse gases which cause global warming, in the light of the Kyoto Protocol, 1997.

Linkage: The article is important as it highlights the sharpest-ever rise in global CO₂ levels, signalling a critical climate tipping point and the failure of existing global frameworks like the Kyoto and Paris Agreements to curb emissions. It links directly with the question by showing how unchecked greenhouse gases are intensifying global warming and threatening climate stability.

Get an IAS/IPS ranker as your 1: 1 personal mentor for UPSC 2024

Attend Now

Finance Commission – Issues related to devolution of resources

Restoring fiscal space for the states

Explained | Polity | Mains Paper 2: Federalism

Introduction

India’s fiscal federalism has long been guided by the principle of cooperative balance, where both the Centre and States share resources, responsibilities, and accountability. However, the post-GST era has altered this equilibrium. The recent merger of the GST compensation cess with regular tax marks a watershed moment, ending an era of fiscal cushioning for States and raising pressing questions about States’ financial independence.

With rising public aspirations, widening service delivery gaps, and increased welfare commitments, States are grappling with constrained fiscal space. The centralisation of taxation powers, growing dependence on Central transfers, and the limited flexibility to raise revenue are redefining India’s fiscal federalism.

Why in the News?

The abolition of the GST compensation cess, after five years of implementation, marks a turning point in India’s fiscal framework. For the first time since GST’s rollout in 2017, the compensation mechanism, which assured States 14% annual revenue growth, has ended.

This is significant because:

  • The cess previously cushioned States from revenue shortfalls during GST transition.
  • Its removal exposes the true fiscal capacity of States, revealing wide disparities in revenue generation.
  • The Centre’s growing use of cesses and surcharges, which are not shareable with States, has further squeezed State finances.
  • The resulting imbalance has rekindled the debate on “fiscal autonomy versus fiscal efficiency.”

Evolving Fiscal Architecture

How has GST altered India’s tax landscape?

  1. Shift from origin-based to destination-based taxation: GST replaced multiple State taxes with a unified structure, eroding the States’ control over indirect taxes.
  2. Shared tax base: Both Centre and States levy GST, but decision-making lies with the GST Council, where the Centre has a dominant role.
  3. Erosion of fiscal autonomy: States lost independent authority to adjust tax rates or design fiscal responses tailored to their economies.
  4. Cess and surcharge dominance: These have become a parallel fiscal instrument for the Centre, bypassing the divisible tax pool.

Changing Centre–State Financial Relations

How have constitutional mechanisms evolved over time?

  1. Articles 268–293 define the fiscal relationship between Centre and States.
  2. The Finance Commission (Article 280) determines devolution, but several States allege that the criteria penalise progressive, industrial States.
  3. With the abolition of the Planning Commission in 2014, only two main transfer channels remain, Finance Commission grants and Centrally Sponsored Schemes (CSS).
  4. Article 282 allows discretionary Central grants, often perceived as politically influenced, affecting opposition-ruled States disproportionately.

Declining Devolution and Fiscal Dependence

How serious is the resource imbalance between Centre and States?

  1. Despite recommendations of 42% devolution (14th Finance Commission), actual transfers as a share of gross tax revenue have declined.
  2. Cesses and surcharges, which are non-shareable, reached ₹3.86 lakh crore (RE 2024–25) and are projected at ₹4.23 lakh crore (BE 2025–26).
  3. Central transfers still account for 44% of States’ revenue receipts, ranging from 72% for Bihar to 20% for Haryana, highlighting the uneven dependency landscape.
  4. The Centre collects 67% of total tax revenue, while States handle over 52% of total expenditure, particularly in health, education, and agriculture.
  5. This structural mismatch constrains States’ fiscal flexibility and deepens intergovernmental friction.

Emerging Demands for Fiscal Reforms

What are States and experts proposing for fiscal autonomy?

  1. Restructuring tax-sharing principles: Revisiting Finance Commission formulas to reflect true expenditure needs and reward performance equitably.
  2. Personal Income Tax sharing: Proposal to share or allow States to “top up” the personal income tax base to reduce fiscal dependence.
  3. Learning from Canada: Canadian provinces collect 54% of taxes and spend 60%, offering a model of greater subnational flexibility.
  4. Transparent devolution: Merging cesses and surcharges into the divisible pool could enhance transparency and equity.
  5. Independent fiscal oversight: Establishing a permanent intergovernmental fiscal council for mediation and coordination.

The Way Forward: Towards Cooperative Fiscal Federalism

How can fiscal space be restored to States?

  1. Revisit GST architecture: Grant States limited powers to vary tax rates within a band for specific commodities or services.
  2. Rationalise CSS schemes: Allow greater flexibility for States to design locally suited welfare interventions.
  3. Enhance fiscal responsibility: Encourage States to improve tax compliance, widen base, and adopt technology-driven revenue administration.
  4. Periodic fiscal reviews: Institutionalise data-based monitoring to balance efficiency with equity.
  5. Political cooperation: Encourage a non-partisan GST Council model where fiscal debates remain guided by economic logic, not politics.

Conclusion

India’s growth story is fundamentally federal. The vitality of its States determines the resilience of its economy. As the GST compensation era ends and States’ expenditure responsibilities rise, restoring their fiscal autonomy is essential for sustainable growth. True cooperative federalism demands not just consultation but real power-sharing in fiscal decision-making. Empowering States fiscally is not a concession — it is a constitutional necessity for a balanced and vibrant India.

PYQ Relevance

[UPSC 2024] What changes has the Union Government recently introduced in the domain of Centre-State relations? Suggest measures to be adopted to build the trust between the Centre and the States and for strengthening federalism.

Linkage: The phasing out of the GST compensation cess and rising use of non-shareable cesses and surcharges reflect the Centre’s growing fiscal dominance, compelling States to seek reforms in tax devolution to rebuild trust and uphold true cooperative federalism.

Get an IAS/IPS ranker as your 1: 1 personal mentor for UPSC 2024

Attend Now

Empower ASI to do its job

Explained | Governance | Mains Paper 2: Governance, Transparency & Accountability, Citizens Charters

Introduction 

The government’s move to allow private oversight of protected monuments is a watershed moment. For decades, ASI has been the statutory guardian of India’s tangible past, born in the colonial era and burdened by bureaucracy, underfunding and a shrinking sense of mission. Simultaneously, private actors and civic organisations have shown how resources, managerial skill and community energy can revive museums and sites. The question is not whether to choose one side; it is how to combine ASI’s technical authority with the creativity, funds and operational capability that partnerships bring, without commodifying culture.

The Human Cost of Institutional Drift

The shrinking imagination of public stewardship

  1. Institutional fatigue: ASI carries a legacy of scholarship but suffers from low morale and an inward-looking culture that treats conservation as paperwork rather than cultural care.
  2. Loss of interpretive vision: When custodians stop telling stories, monuments become inert props rather than living places of memory and identity.
  3. Urban neglect: Historic neighbourhoods, bazaars and ritual spaces around monuments decay when site management ignores everyday people.

The emotional stakes for communities

  1. Cultural dislocation: For villagers, priests and artisans, monuments are part of life, losing access or ritual meaning severs social ties.
  2. Livelihoods at risk: When heritage is mismanaged, local guides, craftspeople and small vendors lose incomes tied to respectful tourism.

The Promise of Partnerships and PPPs

Partnerships as custodianship boosters

  1. Financial rescue: PPPs can create endowments and recurring funding streams for long-term maintenance, freeing conservation from short political cycles.
  2. Example: Museum restorations in Mumbai combined corporate funding, municipal support and conservation expertise to revive institutions.
  3. Operational professionalism: Private sector expertise in project management, visitor services and marketing improves site upkeep and interpretive programming.
  4. New experiences, same respect: Thoughtful PPPs design museum displays, lighting, interpretation centres and guided routes that invite learning, not spectacle.

PPPs and local empowerment

  1. Livelihood integration: PPP projects that hire local artisans and vendors create shared incentives for conservation.
  2. Example: Community-run craft stalls and guided-walk programs increase earnings and local ownership.
  3. Skill-building: Partnerships can fund training for conservators, guides, and site managers, expanding the conservation workforce.

When PPPs get it right: conditions of success

  1. ASI oversight: Technical conservation plans must be approved and monitored by ASI or accredited conservation experts.
  2. Community clauses: Contracts should guarantee access, rituals and a share of revenue for local stakeholders.
  3. Transparent accountability: Public dashboards, audited accounts and sunset clauses prevent permanent privatization.

The Risks of Commercialisation and How to Guard Against Them

Commodification and loss of sacredness

  1. Over-entertainment danger: Turning a temple or tomb into a stage for events can strip its sanctity and alienate devotees.
  2. Tourist-first trap: If revenue becomes the sole metric, conservation values degrade.
  3. Equity and access concerns
  4. Paywall problem: Higher fees and exclusive events can exclude local communities; safeguards must keep access affordable and meaningful.

Technical and ethical lapses

  1. Skill imbalance: Corporates without heritage expertise may favour cosmetic changes over reversible, scientifically sound conservation.
  2. Short-termism: Event-driven models can fund repairs but not create long-term technical capacity for conservation.

A Practical, Human-Centred Roadmap

Reinventing ASI as knowledge steward and regulator

  1. Autonomy with accountability: Grant ASI managerial freedom and stable budgets while insisting on transparency and citizen oversight.
  2. Specialist cadres: Create conservation architect and urban heritage cadres, fellowships and cross-disciplinary teams (historians, anthropologists, conservators).

Designing PPPs for people and preservation

  1. Model MoU essentials: ASI-approved conservation plan, community benefit clause, revenue-sharing mechanism, independent monitoring, exit/sunset clause.
  2. Performance metrics: Conservation integrity, community welfare indicators, visitor-impact thresholds, financial sustainability.
  3. Phased pilots: Start with clearly defined pilot projects (museums, small sites) before scaling to larger or sacred monuments.

Community as co-custodians

  1. Local governance: Empower panchayats, municipal trusts and temple committees in day-to-day stewardship with technical backup from ASI.
  2. Benefit linking: Ensure training, employment and revenue-sharing for local craftspeople and service providers.

Modern tools for timeless care

  1. Digital records: 3D scans, GIS mapping and condition-monitoring dashboards to track deterioration and plan interventions.
  2. Public access to data: Open reports and accessible interpretive material strengthen democratic stewardship.

Conclusion — A human promise, not a transaction

Heritage is ethical work: it asks us to keep memory alive while serving the living. The ASI must be renewed into a vibrant, expert body that sets standards and guarantees access. PPPs — when framed by clear agreements, community rights and technical oversight — can supply funds, skills and fresh ideas. The aim is not to monetise memory but to steward it: to ensure that stones continue to tell stories, and that those stories remain deeply, unmistakably, Indian.

PYQ Relevance

[UPSC 2024] Public charitable trusts have the potential to make India’s development more inclusive as they relate to certain vital public issues. Comment.

Linkage: This PYQ highlights how non-state actors and philanthropic trusts can complement government efforts in addressing public issues. It is linked to the article as PPPs and heritage trusts similarly expand conservation beyond ASI’s limited capacity, ensuring inclusive and sustainable preservation of cultural assets.

Get an IAS/IPS ranker as your 1: 1 personal mentor for UPSC 2024

Attend Now

The Crisis In The Middle East

The future of the IMEC

Explained | International Relations | Mains Paper 2: Bilateral, Regional and Global Groupings and agreements involving India

Introduction

In an era where connectivity defines power, the India–Middle East–Europe Economic Corridor (IMEC) emerged as a visionary project connecting India’s western ports with Europe via the Arabian Peninsula. Envisaged as a multi-modal corridor encompassing maritime, rail, energy, and digital infrastructure, IMEC sought to integrate economies across continents while promoting peace and prosperity in a historically volatile region.

However, the optimism that surrounded IMEC’s launch quickly met the harsh reality of geopolitics. The October 7 Hamas attacks and subsequent Israel–Gaza war exposed the fragility of West Asian stability, placing IMEC’s implementation in question. Yet, beyond the uncertainty lies an opportunity for India to reshape its connectivity vision, adapting routes and partnerships to new global dynamics.

Why in the News

The IMEC has resurfaced in policy discussions as its viability faces uncertainty amid the deteriorating West Asian security environment. The October 7 Hamas–Israel conflict disrupted regional optimism nurtured by the Abraham Accords and slowed progress on IMEC’s proposed transnational links. At the same time, climate-driven Arctic trade routes and Red Sea disruptions by the Houthis are redrawing global shipping patterns, forcing India and its partners to reconsider IMEC’s configuration. The issue is critical as the corridor represents both an economic and strategic counterweight to China’s Belt and Road Initiative (BRI).

The Strategic Vision Behind IMEC:

  1. Comprehensive Connectivity: IMEC aims to upgrade maritime routes between India and the Arabian Peninsula and establish high-speed rail links from UAE ports to Haifa, Israel, via Saudi Arabia and Jordan.
  2. Integration with Europe: From Haifa, goods would be shipped to Europe’s Mediterranean ports, ensuring faster, secure, and sustainable trade connectivity.
  3. Beyond Transport: The corridor also includes plans for a clean hydrogen pipeline, electricity cable, and high-speed undersea digital cable, linking energy and digital ecosystems across three continents.
  4. Strategic Objective: IMEC provides a non-Chinese, rules-based alternative to the Belt and Road Initiative (BRI), enhancing India’s strategic outreach and economic influence.

The Geopolitical Context of 2023:

  1. Favourable Climate: The Abraham Accords (2020) created optimism for regional peace, bringing Israel and several Arab states closer. This atmosphere facilitated multilateral cooperation frameworks such as I2U2 (India, Israel, UAE, U.S.), paving the way for IMEC.
  2. India’s Upward Trajectory: India’s improving ties with Saudi Arabia and the UAE, coupled with strong U.S. relations, allowed it to play a central role in IMEC’s conception.
  3. Global Endorsement: The corridor was launched at the G-20 Summit in Delhi, with support from the EU, France, Germany, Italy, and Saudi Arabia, underscoring India’s emergence as a trusted global partner.

The Security Setback and Regional Volatility

  1. Conflict Shock: Within weeks of IMEC’s announcement, the Hamas–Israel conflict erupted, reversing the post-Abraham optimism.
  2. Regional Fallout: Israel’s military operations strained ties with Arab countries, undermining cross-border infrastructure cooperation.
  3. Red Sea Disruptions: The Houthi attacks on cargo ships forced rerouting via the Cape of Good Hope, increasing transit time and cost.
  4. Lesson: The events underscore that geopolitical stability remains the cornerstone of connectivity, and corridors like IMEC must remain adaptable to shifting realities.

Europe’s Changing Maritime Interests

  1. Arctic Openings: Climate change has opened new northern sea routes, shortening Asia–Europe shipping times. Beneficiaries include Russia, the U.S., China, and northern European nations.
  2. Mediterranean Anxiety: Countries like Italy, dependent solely on the Mediterranean, fear economic marginalisation if Arctic routes dominate trade.
  3. Strategic Importance of IMEC: Hence, Mediterranean states see IMEC as a means to sustain their maritime relevance and diversify trade partnerships.
  4. India’s Role: For India, the Mediterranean remains vital, as Arctic routes offer no immediate logistical advantage.

Why IMEC Still Matters for India

  1. Economic Scale: With $136 billion in annual trade, the EU remains India’s largest trading partner, highlighting the need for resilient connectivity.
  2. Supply Chain Resilience: IMEC offers a secure, shorter route connecting India to Europe while reducing dependence on the Red Sea–Suez chokepoint.
  3. Strategic Leverage: Enhanced engagement with Arab economies can dilute Pakistan’s influence and integrate India deeper into West Asia’s economic architecture.
  4. Innovation Space: As a multi-member initiative, IMEC allows India to propose new routes via Saudi Arabia and Egypt, adapting to political flux.

Challenges and the Way Forward

  1. Security Dependencies: Ongoing instability in Gaza and Israel poses a persistent threat.
  2. Financial and Political Coordination: Multi-country infrastructure projects face coordination delays, regulatory inconsistencies, and funding constraints.
  3. Need for Parallel Efforts: India must also upgrade domestic ports and logistics infrastructure, including Sagarmala and Dedicated Freight Corridors, to complement IMEC.
  4. Diplomatic Continuity: Sustaining dialogue through I2U2 and G-20 cooperation can help preserve IMEC’s spirit even if its routes evolve.

Conclusion

The IMEC’s future will depend not merely on the pacification of West Asia but on the political agility and diplomatic imagination of its members. While the corridor’s physical routes may shift, its strategic essence remains intact, to build resilient, diversified, and sustainable connectivity between India and Europe. For India, IMEC is more than an infrastructure project; it is a statement of intent, to be at the centre of global supply chains and a stabilising power in a fractured world.

PYQ Relevance

[UPSC 2018] The China-Pakistan Economic Corridor (CPEC) is viewed as a cardinal subset of China’s larger ‘One Belt One Road’ initiative. Give a brief description of CPEC and enumerate the reasons why India has distanced itself from the same.

Linkage: While China’s CPEC runs through disputed territory, making India wary, the IMEC shows how India is building its own clean, safe, and cooperative route to connect with Europe. It’s India’s way of staying in the global connectivity game—on its own terms.

Get an IAS/IPS ranker as your 1: 1 personal mentor for UPSC 2024

Attend Now

Renewable Energy – Wind, Tidal, Geothermal, etc.

The critical factor in India’s clean energy ambition

Explained | Economics | Mains Paper 3: Infrastructure: Energy, Ports, Roads, Airports, Railways Etc.

Introduction

India’s ambition to achieve 500 GW of renewable energy by 2030 and net zero emissions by 2070 depends not just on sunlight and wind but on minerals buried beneath the earth’s surface. Lithium, cobalt, and REEs form the backbone of technologies driving the clean energy revolution. However, India imports almost all of these minerals, exposing its renewable future to external shocks. The article explores how India is gearing up to build a resilient supply chain, promote domestic mining, and move toward a circular economy, turning its green dreams into a self-reliant reality.

India’s Clean Energy Journey and the Mineral Imperative

  1. Critical minerals as enablers: They power EV batteries, solar panels, and wind turbines, the pillars of the green transition.
  2. Explosive market growth: India’s EV market is projected to grow at a 49% CAGR from 2023 to 2030, driven by the Electric Mobility Promotion Scheme (EMPS) 2024.
  3. Battery boom: The battery storage market, valued at $2.8 billion in 2023, is set to surge with renewable energy integration.
  4. Import dependency: India currently imports nearly 100% of lithium, cobalt, and nickel, and over 90% of REEs, creating severe strategic vulnerabilities.

Why Dependence is Dangerous: Global Supply Chain Vulnerabilities

  1. China’s dominance: Controls 60% of global REE production and 85% of processing capacity, giving it massive leverage.
  2. Geopolitical risks: Trade restrictions, conflicts, and supply disruptions can derail India’s energy transition plans.
  3. National security angle: Critical minerals are not just about clean energy,  they are strategic assets influencing defence, technology, and economic sovereignty.

India’s Domestic Potential: A Hidden Treasure Beneath the Soil

  1. New discoveries: The Geological Survey of India (GSI) identified 5.9 million tonnes of inferred lithium in Jammu & Kashmir in 2023, a major breakthrough.
  2. Policy push: The National Mineral Exploration Policy (NMEP), 2016, and amendments to the Mines and Minerals (Development and Regulation) Act, 2021, opened up exploration to private players.
  3. Auctions driving interest: In 2023 alone, 20 critical mineral blocks (lithium, graphite, REEs) were auctioned, attracting domestic and multinational bidders.
  4. Potential-rich states: Jammu & Kashmir, Rajasthan (lithium), Odisha, and Andhra Pradesh (REEs) have emerged as mineral hotspots.

From Discovery to Refinement: The Missing Link

  1. Production bottleneck: India contributes less than 1% of global REE production due to weak refining and processing infrastructure.
  2. Need for partnerships: Public-private collaborations can bring in advanced processing technologies and recycling systems.
  3. Government incentives: Subsidies, tax breaks, and R&D grants are critical to scale domestic lithium and cobalt pilot projects.

Investment and Policy Momentum: Building the Foundation

  1. Regulatory reforms: The Mines and Minerals (Amendment) Act, 2023 allows private exploration but the sector faces high costs and environmental concerns.
  2. Economic potential: Mining contributes only 2.5% to India’s GDP, compared to 13.6% in Australia — signalling untapped opportunity.
  3. National Critical Mineral Mission (NCMM): With an outlay of ₹34,300 crore, it aims to strengthen the value chain — from exploration to recycling.

Institutional efforts:

  1. NMDC diversifying through its Australian arm.
  2. IREL (India) Ltd. extracting REEs like neodymium, praseodymium, and dysprosium.
  3. KABIL (Khanij Bidesh India Ltd.), formed in 2019, tasked with overseas acquisitions of mineral assets.

Moving Towards a Circular Economy

  1. E-waste as opportunity: India produces 4 million metric tonnes of e-waste annually, yet only 10% is formally recycled.
  2. Recycling policies: The Battery Waste Management Rules (2022) and E-Waste Management Rules (2022) aim to improve recovery of critical minerals.
  3. Challenges: Weak enforcement, poor infrastructure, and lack of awareness hinder progress.
  4. Way forward: Public-private recycling hubs can boost technology access, cut costs, and reduce environmental footprint, paving the way for a circular economy.

Conclusion

Critical minerals are the backbone of India’s clean energy transformation. Securing them is not just about green growth, but about economic independence and strategic security. India’s policy thrust through the National Critical Mineral Mission, domestic auctions, and recycling reforms signal intent, but execution remains key. A coherent strategy involving private investment, state backing, and global partnerships can ensure India does not just consume green technology, it creates it. The success of this mission will determine whether India emerges as a leader in the global clean energy race or remains dependent on others for its green dreams.

PYQ Relevance

[UPSC 2022] Do you think India will meet 50 percent of its energy needs from renewable energy by 2030? Justify your answer. How will the shift of subsidies from fossil fuels to renewables help achieve the above objective?

Linkage: India’s ability to meet 50% of its energy needs from renewables by 2030 hinges on securing critical minerals like lithium and REEs that power solar, wind, and EV technologies. A shift of subsidies from fossil fuels to renewables will accelerate domestic mining, recycling, and innovation—building the self-reliant green infrastructure essential for achieving this target.

Get an IAS/IPS ranker as your 1: 1 personal mentor for UPSC 2024

Attend Now

Nobel and other Prizes

How innovation drives economic growth

Explained | Economics | Mains Paper 3: Issues relating growth and development, employment

Introduction

The 2025 Sveriges Riksbank Prize in Economic Sciences was awarded to Joel Mokyr, Philippe Aghion, and Peter Howitt for “explaining innovation-driven economic growth.” Their research collectively answers one of the most fundamental economic puzzles — how nations sustain growth over centuries, not decades.

Why in the News

The Nobel Committee’s decision is significant because it celebrates innovation as the engine of sustained prosperity at a time when economies face stagnation despite technological abundance. It also marks a historical synthesis, combining Mokyr’s economic history with Aghion and Howitt’s modern growth models, to offer a unified vision of why the last two centuries broke free from millennia of stagnation. This award underscores that knowledge creation and openness to change are as critical to a nation’s future as natural resources or fiscal policy.

Understanding the Foundations of Innovation-Driven Growth

What did Joel Mokyr’s research reveal about sustained growth?

  1. Useful Knowledge: Mokyr argued that long-term growth depends on a constant flow of useful knowledge, divided into propositional (theoretical understanding) and prescriptive (practical implementation) forms.
  2. Before Industrial Revolution: Innovators understood why things worked (propositional) but lacked the technical ability to make them work (prescriptive).
  3. Scientific Revolution Impact: The 16th–17th centuries brought controlled experiments and reproducibility — transforming knowledge from abstract to applicable.
  4. Policy Implication: Nations must ensure technical education and skill development, as ideas alone cannot yield growth without implementation.

How did Mokyr link innovation to social openness?

  1. Openness to Change: Innovation often disrupts existing systems and creates losers; societies resistant to change stifle progress.
  2. Historical Example: Britain’s sustained growth stemmed from skilled artisans and engineers who translated scientific ideas into industrial applications.
  3. Policy Lesson: Governments must create inclusive ecosystems that accept change, retrain workers, and redistribute gains from innovation.

What is the Theory of Creative Destruction?

  1. Conceptual Core: Originally introduced by Schumpeter, “creative destruction” describes how innovation replaces older technologies and firms, creating both winners and losers.
  2. Aghion & Howitt’s Contribution: They formalized this process mathematically, showing how technological progress leads to sustained long-term growth.
  3. Dynamic Equilibrium: Innovation raises productivity but simultaneously displaces outdated industries — a perpetual cycle that fuels development.

How much should a country invest in Research and Development (R&D)?

  1. Balancing Act: Aghion and Howitt’s model shows two opposing trends:
    1. Trend 1 — Underinvestment: Since society benefits from outdated technologies even after firms lose profits, R&D should be subsidized to ensure social spillovers.
    2. Trend 2 — Overinvestment: When incremental innovations capture disproportionate profits, R&D may be excessive and distort competition.
  2. Optimal Level: There is no universal ideal investment, but the model provides tools to identify an economy-specific optimum that maximizes welfare without creating monopolistic inefficiencies.

Why does this Nobel matter for developing economies like India?

  1. Knowledge Ecosystem: The laureates’ findings emphasise that growth requires not just innovation, but translation — turning ideas into scalable realities through skills, entrepreneurship, and openness.
  2. India’s Imperative: Investments in R&D (currently ~0.7% of GDP), vocational skilling, and ease of doing business are crucial to realize the demographic dividend.
  3. Policy Relevance: The Economic Survey and NITI Aayog’s “Innovation Index” already underline similar principles — this Nobel reinforces India’s need to build a “knowledge economy.”

Conclusion

The 2025 Nobel Prize in Economic Sciences reaffirms that innovation, knowledge, and societal openness are the real engines of prosperity. Economic success is no longer a product of mere capital or labor, but of the synergy between imagination and execution. For India and other developing nations, the message is clear: sustained growth depends on nurturing human capital, research ecosystems, and tolerance for disruption. As Mokyr’s and Aghion–Howitt’s work shows, societies that embrace change, skill their people, and invest in ideas will lead the next chapter of human progress.

PYQ Relevance

[UPSC 2015] What are the areas of prohibitive labour that can be sustainably managed by robots? Discuss the initiatives that can propel the research in premier research institutes for substantive and gainful innovation.

Linkage: This PYQ aligns with the 2025 Nobel Prize in Economic Sciences as both emphasize how technological innovation transforms labour structures—echoing Aghion and Howitt’s theory of creative destruction, where automation replaces old forms of work while driving new productivity.

Get an IAS/IPS ranker as your 1: 1 personal mentor for UPSC 2024

Attend Now

Foreign Policy Watch: India-Afghanistan

Complacity not diplomacy-India’s engagement with Taliban

Explained | International Relations | Mains Paper 2: India & Its Neighborhood - Relations

Introduction

The exclusion of women journalists from Taliban press conferences in New Delhi was not an accident, it was symbolic of a deeper issue: legitimizing a regime whose ideology is built on the deliberate erasure of women’s existence. As Afghan women face persecution, violence, and disappearance from every public sphere, the silence of democratic nations like India risks validating gender apartheid.

Why is this issue in the news?

The controversy erupted when India hosted two Taliban press conferences in New Delhi, where female journalists were initially excluded. The event coincided with a People’s Tribunal on the Women of Afghanistan in Madrid, where survivors testified to the Taliban’s gender-based persecution, recognized as a crime against humanity. The contrast between India’s engagement and the global condemnation of Taliban policies underscores a moral and diplomatic crisis.

How has the Taliban institutionalized the erasure of women?

  1. Systematic exclusion: Since their 2021 return, the Taliban banned women from most public-sector jobs, secondary schools, and universities.
  2. Legalized oppression: The 2024 Propagation of Virtue and Prevention of Vice Law formally declared women’s voices “forbidden” in public.
  3. Economic silencing: A 2025 Afghanistan Media Support Organisation survey found that 93% of women journalists lost their jobs, with more than 42% leaving journalism altogether.
  4. Violence and fear: Women activists are detained, beaten, and their husbands tortured, part of a deliberate campaign to erase their visibility and livelihood.

Why is India’s stance seen as complicit rather than diplomatic?

  1. Normalization of misogyny: Hosting Taliban officials while Afghan women pleaded for recognition signals tacit acceptance of their regime.
  2. Moral inconsistency: While democracies like Spain and Canada host tribunals condemning Taliban atrocities, India’s diplomatic outreach stands in stark contrast.
  3. Diplomatic short-sightedness: By engaging the Taliban without human rights conditionalities, India risks legitimizing gender apartheid as a form of governance.

What does this reveal about the global response to women’s rights?

  1. Erosion of feminist diplomacy: Nations increasingly prioritize geopolitical pragmatism over gender justice.
  2. Media complicity: Even in New Delhi, the Taliban’s media interaction mirrored their exclusionary ethos, showing that patriarchal silencing transcends borders.
  3. Selective outrage: While Western nations condemn the Taliban, many still negotiate covertly for strategic or security reasons, diluting international accountability.

What lessons does this hold for India’s foreign policy and democracy?

  1. Moral leadership deficit: India’s silence undermines its self-image as the voice of the Global South and defender of democratic rights.
  2. Gender and diplomacy linkage: True diplomacy must integrate gender-sensitive ethics, ensuring no engagement legitimizes systemic violence.
  3. Internal reflection: A democracy’s foreign policy mirrors its domestic respect for women’s agency. India’s global credibility depends on aligning words with action.

Conclusion 

India’s engagement with the Taliban marks a dangerous shift from moral diplomacy to moral compromise. As Afghan women’s rights are being erased, India’s silence echoes complicity, not neutrality. True diplomacy must speak truth to power, not share its platform. Democracies cannot afford to normalize gender apartheid; silence here is not strategy, it is surrender.

PYQ Relevance

[UPSC 2013] The proposed withdrawal of the International Security Assistance Force (ISAF) from Afghanistan in 2014 is fraught with major security implications for the countries of the region. Examine in light of the fact that India is faced with a plethora of challenges and needs to safeguard its own strategic interests.

Linkage: India’s current engagement with the Taliban reflects the security vacuum created after the ISAF withdrawal, forcing New Delhi to balance strategic interests with moral responsibility. As the article shows, this has turned India’s Afghan policy from cautious realism into a test of its ethical diplomacy and regional credibility.

Get an IAS/IPS ranker as your 1: 1 personal mentor for UPSC 2024

Attend Now

Foreign Policy Watch: India-Afghanistan

With new Great Game, India must engage with the Taliban and Kabul

Explained | International Relations | Mains Paper 2: India & Its Neighborhood - Relations

Introduction

Afghanistan’s Foreign Minister Amir Khan Muttaqi arrived in New Delhi on an official visit, his first since the Taliban’s return to power in August 2021.

The visit represents a major recalibration in India’s Afghanistan policy, as New Delhi cautiously engages the Taliban regime without formal recognition. India’s approach blends strategic pragmatism and regional security concerns, focusing on maintaining influence in Afghanistan’s evolving geopolitical environment while avoiding premature diplomatic endorsement.

India-Taliban Ties: A Quick Recap

  1. India never formally recognized the Taliban regime prior to or after 2021.
  2. Initial contacts date back to the late 1990s (e.g., during the IC-814 hijacking), but India’s engagement remained limited due to Pakistan’s dominance over the Taliban.
  3. Post-2021, India has maintained pragmatic engagement of humanitarian aid, infrastructure projects, and limited diplomatic outreach without providing de jure recognition.

India’s Post-2021 Approach- Diplomatic Balancing and Western Response:

  1. India adopted a “cautious engagement” policy: restoring a technical mission in Kabul, resuming aid delivery, and holding diplomatic contacts.
  2. In 2025, India announced plans to reopen its embassy in Kabul, initially with a Chargé d’affaires, avoiding formal recognition.
  3. India’s silence on human rights and women’s issues during diplomatic talks reflects strategic restraint, balancing ideological concerns with geopolitical necessity.
  4. The Western response is ambivalent. India’s engagement is scrutinized to ensure it does not inadvertently legitimize the Taliban or dilute India’s democratic credentials.

Taliban and Its Geopolitical Realignments (2024–2025):

  1. China: First major power to exchange ambassadors with the Taliban (2024); deepening economic, mining, and infrastructure ties.
  2. Russia: Moving to delist Taliban as a terrorist group; promoting counterterror cooperation.
  3. Iran: Accepts Taliban rule pragmatically, balancing internal crises with regional influence.
  4. Pakistan: Relations strained — Taliban criticism of Pakistani interference; cross-border tensions with TTP.
  5. United States: Under Trump 2.0, US policy is transactionally disengaged; leaves India more space to engage diplomatically.

India’s Strategic Objectives in Engaging the Taliban:

  1. Maintain influence in Afghanistan to protect long-term investments (infrastructure, education, healthcare).
  2. Prevent Afghan territory from being used for anti-India terrorism.
  3. Counter Pakistan–China influence by remaining a relevant actor in Afghan affairs.
  4. Enable connectivity and trade, via Chabahar port and regional transit routes.
  5. Promote soft power through development cooperation, scholarships, and cultural engagement.

Challenges and Diplomatic Constraints:

  1. Non-recognition dilemma: Engagement without recognition may be seen as de facto endorsement by critics.
  2. Human rights dissonance: Taliban’s restrictions on women’s rights conflict with India’s democratic values.
  3. Visa and mobility barriers: Lack of operational consular services hampers people-to-people ties and educational exchanges.
  4. Aid delivery limitations: Security, monitoring, and distribution bottlenecks constrain effective humanitarian impact.
  5. Geopolitical competition: Pakistan and China retain deeper leverage in Afghan affairs; India must navigate their influence.

Way Forward:

  1. Engagement without endorsement: Maintain diplomatic contact while tying cooperation to counterterror assurances.
  2. Humanitarian focus: Channel aid for women and children through UN/trusted NGOs to avoid legitimizing Taliban governance.
  3. Regional coalition building: Leverage multilateral forums (SAARC, SCO, QUAD) to strengthen India’s Afghan policy.
  4. Expand economic roles: Prioritize mining, power, and infrastructure projects to anchor Indian presence.
  5. Broaden diplomatic contacts: Engage Afghan civil society, minorities, and regional stakeholders for balanced outreach.

PYQ Relevance:

[UPSC 2013] The proposed withdrawal of International Security Assistance Force (ISAF) from Afghanistan in 2014 is fraught with major security implications for the countries of the region. Examine in light of the fact that India is faced with a plethora of challenges and needs to safeguard its own strategic interests.

Linkage: The instability in Kabul, coupled with the influence of external state and non-state actors, directly impacts India’s internal security landscape, especially concerning terrorism, border security challenges, and the potential linkage between organized crime and drug trafficking. Therefore, questions may assess India’s strategic autonomy, humanitarian diplomacy, connectivity projects (like Chabahar), and counter-terrorism strategies, requiring candidates to demonstrate applied knowledge linking foreign policy decisions with internal stability.

 

Get an IAS/IPS ranker as your 1: 1 personal mentor for UPSC 2024

Attend Now

India’s long history of resistance to economic domination

Explained | Economics | Mains Paper 3: issues relating to planning, mobilization of resources

Why in the News?

Trade negotiations between India and the United States remain stalled after President Trump’s administration doubled tariffs on Indian goods to 50% and imposed an additional 25% duty on Russian oil imports by India.

Introduction

External Affairs Minister S. Jaishankar emphasised that while understanding with the US, “the world’s largest market” is essential, India’s economic sovereignty and red lines must be respected.

This impasse reflects the global shift from free trade to protectionism, echoing earlier eras when India resisted externally imposed economic dominance, first under colonial exploitation, and later through planned economic reconstruction after independence.

Colonial Economic Exploitation and India’s Resistance:

  1. Transformation of Economy: The British colonial system dismantled India’s self-sufficient agrarian and artisanal base, converting the country into a supplier of raw materials and a market for British-manufactured goods.
  2. Drain Theory and Fiscal Exploitation: Dadabhai Naoroji, in Poverty and Un-British Rule in India (1901), argued that India’s wealth was drained to Britain, financing its prosperity: “The British Indian Empire is formed and maintained entirely by Indian money and mainly by Indian blood.”
  3. Phases of Colonial Capitalism:
    • Mercantile Capitalism (EIC Era): Extraction through monopoly trade and taxation.
    • Industrial Capitalism (19th Century): India reduced to an exporter of raw cotton and importer of textiles.
    • Finance Capitalism (Early 20th Century): British private capital dominated infrastructure, plantations, and banking, reinforcing dependency.
  4. Economic Consequences: The structure produced de-industrialisation, agrarian stagnation, excessive taxation, and recurring famines, resulting in widespread impoverishment.

Intellectual Critiques of the Colonial Economy:

  1. R. C. Dutt – Industrial Destruction: In The Economic History of India (1901–02), he demonstrated how colonial policies deliberately destroyed indigenous industries to protect British manufacturers.
  2. M. G. Ranade – Economic Dependency: Criticised colonial economic dependence and advocated industrial regeneration through Indian entrepreneurship.
  3. R. Palme Dutt – Stages of Imperialism: In India To-day (1940), identified three stages of capitalist domination , mercantile, industrial, and finance , highlighting the evolution of imperial control.
  4. G. V. Joshi , an Economist, aptly described railway expenditure as an “Indian subsidy to British industry.”

Economic Reconstruction After Independence:

  1. Inherited Structural Weakness: At independence in 1947, India faced an agrarian, impoverished, and unequal economy drained of capital and industrial base.
  2. Ideological Synthesis: Rejecting Cold War binaries, India adopted a non-aligned mixed economy, blending socialist planning with capitalist pragmatism to ensure self-reliance and equity.
  3. Intellectual Precursors to Planning:
    • Visvesvaraya Plan (1934) – advocated industrialisation and state coordination.
    • National Planning Committee (1938) – set the foundation for state-directed development.
    • Bombay Plan (1944) – proposed large-scale industrialisation with public–private cooperation.
    • Gandhian and People’s Plans (1944–45) – emphasised decentralisation and rural self-sufficiency.
  4. First and Second Five-Year Plans:
    • First Plan (1951–56): Focused on agriculture, irrigation, and rural reconstruction.
    • Second Plan (1956–61): Based on P. C. Mahalanobis model, prioritising heavy industries, capital goods, and import substitution.

Planned Economy and Centralisation of Authority:

  1. Institutional Creation: The Planning Commission (1950), chaired by the Prime Minister, institutionalised centralised planning and target allocation.
  2. Fiscal Centralisation: The Finance Commission (Article 280), though constitutionally mandated for fiscal transfers, became secondary to plan-based resource allocation.
  3. Limited Federal Consultation: The National Development Council (1952) was created to involve states but lacked independent financial powers.
  4. Command Economy Features: India’s planning structure mirrored Soviet-style central control, aiming for rapid industrialisation, public sector expansion, and poverty eradication, yet it consolidated central dominance in economic governance.

Transition to Federal Economic Governance:

  1. Liberalisation Era (1991): The balance-of-payments crisis triggered wide-ranging reforms , ending the Licence–Permit–Quota Raj, deregulating industries, reducing tariffs, and inviting foreign investment.
  2. Market Orientation: The 1991 reforms replaced the state-led model with market-driven growth and integration into the global economy.
  3. Institutional Transformation:
    • Abolition of the Planning Commission (2014) reflected a shift from central command to federal cooperation.
    • Creation of NITI Aayog (2015) introduced cooperative and competitive federalism, emphasising state innovation and evidence-based policymaking.
  4. Fiscal Federal Tensions: The Goods and Services Tax (GST) exemplifies fiscal unity but has also constrained state autonomy, fuelling debates on vertical imbalance and fiscal equity.

India–US Trade Divergences in the Contemporary Context:

  1. Tariff Dispute Dynamics: The Trump tariff regime, justified on grounds of national security and domestic job protection, contradicted WTO’s comparative advantage principle, undermining global free-trade norms.
  2. India’s Strategic Response: Rooted in historical awareness, India’s trade policy seeks to balance self-reliance with pragmatic global engagement, defending domestic interests while avoiding isolationism.
  3. Philosophical Continuity: Jaishankar’s remark, “If trade becomes tariffs, where is competitiveness?”, encapsulates India’s enduring critique of externally imposed asymmetry, echoing nationalist economic thought since the colonial period.

Legacy of India’s Economic Resistance:

  1. Continuum of Policy Evolution: From colonial subjugation through planned reconstruction to liberal federalism, India’s economic trajectory reflects a consistent assertion of sovereignty and self-determination.
  2. Recurrent Themes: The pursuit of self-reliance, equitable growth, and resistance to external control runs through every policy phase from Naoroji’s drain theory to NITI Aayog’s cooperative model.
  3. Contemporary Relevance: The present India–US trade friction is not merely a tactical disagreement but a symbolic reaffirmation of India’s historical resolve to resist economic subordination and preserve strategic autonomy.

Way Forward:

  1. Strategic Engagement: Pursue trade negotiations with the US grounded in reciprocity, not submission.
  2. Institutional Resilience: Strengthen WTO-aligned frameworks for dispute resolution to safeguard multilateralism.
  3. Domestic Competitiveness: Expand manufacturing and exports through PLI schemes and innovation-driven incentives.
  4. Federal Balance: Reinforce fiscal autonomy of states to sustain broad-based economic growth.
  5. Economic Diplomacy: Integrate trade with technology partnerships, digital cooperation, and sustainable supply chains to mitigate external shocks.

PYQ Relevance:

[UPSC 2014] Examine critically the various facets of economic policies of the British in India from mid-eighteenth century till independence.

Linkage: This topic is critical because India’s historical experience of economic domination, marked by policies such as the Drain of Wealth and de-industrialisation during the colonial era, profoundly shapes its present-day foreign policy and economic decision-making.

 

Get an IAS/IPS ranker as your 1: 1 personal mentor for UPSC 2024

Attend Now

Women empowerment issues – Jobs,Reservation and education

Are Women deciding Assembly Elections?

Explained | Indian Society | Mains Paper 1: Role Of Women & Women Organization

Introduction

Ahead of the 2025 Bihar elections, parties are intensifying women-focused welfare schemes involving cash transfers. Similar strategies in Madhya Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Maharashtra, and West Bengal mark a national trend of targeting women voters through direct benefits.

Also the gender gap in voter turnout has narrowed significantly, with female participation matching or surpassing male turnout in several states, prompting political recognition of women as a distinct electoral constituency.

Women as a Political Category:

  1. Shift in Political Focus: Women have emerged as a distinct political category, prompting parties to design targeted welfare schemes like Ladli Behna Yojana, Urimai Thogai, and Lakshmir Bhandar aimed exclusively at female voters.
  2. Economic Empowerment through Welfare: Direct cash transfers have provided limited but visible economic agency, allowing women some control over finances within households traditionally dominated by men.
  3. Beneficiary Framing: The portrayal of women primarily as labharthis (beneficiaries) reinforces dependency on state-led welfare rather than promoting them as independent political actors.
  4. Symbolic Inclusion vs. Structural Change: Women’s growing electoral visibility has not necessarily translated into greater representation or leadership, keeping them largely outside decision-making hierarchies.

How have Political Parties harnessed the Gender Gap in Voter Turnout?

  1. Rise in Female Turnout: Over the last two decades, the gender gap in voter participation has steadily narrowed, with female turnout surpassing male turnout in several states, notably in Bihar and Odisha.
  2. Targeted Welfare Mobilisation: Political parties have strategically used welfare schemes and direct benefit transfers to consolidate women as a reliable voter base, focusing on cash assistance, LPG subsidies, and maternal benefits.
  3. Micro-Targeting: Manifestos and election campaigns increasingly feature women-focused promises, indicating recognition of their collective electoral strength.
  4. Narrative of Care Politics: Political rhetoric frames women as symbols of social welfare and household well-being, enabling parties to blend economic populism with gender outreach.

Significance of Women’s Voting Behaviour:

  1. Indicator of Political Maturity: The steady rise in women’s participation marks a structural shift in India’s democratic engagement, highlighting growing awareness of rights and entitlements.
  2. Independent Electoral Agency: Increasing evidence shows that women are voting independently of male family influence, prioritising welfare delivery, safety, education, and dignity.
  3. Policy Feedback Mechanism: Women’s responses to welfare schemes serve as a direct feedback loop influencing governance priorities and re-election strategies.
  4. Catalyst for Inclusive Politics: The evolving behaviour of women voters has encouraged parties to incorporate gender equity into mainstream political discourse, beyond token representation.

Issues of Gendered Voter Turnout:

  1. Documentation Barriers: Women face systemic exclusion from electoral rolls due to inadequate documentation, name changes after marriage, and migration-related bureaucratic lapses.
  2. Procedural Exclusion: Administrative exercises like Special Intensive Revision (SIR) have disproportionately omitted women, reflecting institutional insensitivity to gendered realities.
  3. Intersectional Marginalisation: Women’s political inclusion remains fragmented by caste, class, and religion, preventing the emergence of a cohesive gender-based voting bloc.
  4. Symbolic Empowerment: While parties celebrate women as voters and beneficiaries, practical empowerment remains limited, with persistent underrepresentation in legislatures and party leaderships.

Way Forward:

  1. Institutional Strengthening: Ensure gender-sensitive voter registration and simplify documentation norms to eliminate procedural exclusions.
  2. Beyond Welfare Politics: Transition from cash-based welfare populism to policies promoting education, employment, and political representation.
  3. Data-Driven Governance: Use disaggregated gender data to assess welfare effectiveness and refine electoral outreach grounded in socio-economic realities.
  4. Leadership and Representation: Expand women’s participation in party structures, local governance, and Parliament, ensuring parity in decision-making roles.
  5. Civic and Political Literacy: Invest in sustained grassroots voter education, enabling women to act as autonomous political citizens rather than electoral dependents.

Get an IAS/IPS ranker as your 1: 1 personal mentor for UPSC 2024

Attend Now

Does India have a cough syrup problem? 

Explained | Ethics | Mains Paper 4: Ethics

Introduction:

India’s pharmaceutical industry, long known as the “pharmacy of the world,” is again under scrutiny after toxic cough syrups were linked to child deaths in Madhya Pradesh and Rajasthan. Laboratory tests revealed dangerously high levels of diethylene glycol (DEG), an industrial chemical used in antifreeze, in syrups. The incident has triggered state bans, factory inspections, and renewed debate over the safety and accountability of India’s drug manufacturing system.

This follows earlier international tragedies in The Gambia, Uzbekistan, and Iraq, all involving India-made syrups.

Pattern of Recurring Cough Syrup Tragedies:

India has repeatedly faced incidents of DEG contamination in pharmaceuticals over the past century, reflecting systemic failure rather than isolated error.

  1. Historical incidents: Major poisoning events were reported in Chennai (1973), Bihar (1986), Gurugram (2020), Jammu (2019), and internationally in The Gambia (2022) and Uzbekistan (2022), leading to hundreds of deaths, most of them children.
  2. Common pattern: In each case, toxic solvents were substituted for pharmaceutical-grade compounds to cut costs, exposing the absence of strict supplier verification and testing.
  3. Regulatory aftermath: Investigations typically result in temporary bans and arrests but rarely in structural reform, allowing recurrence.
  4. Root cause: Weak coordination between central and state regulators, underfunded laboratories, and an enforcement system that reacts after fatalities rather than preventing them.

Toxic Component: Diethylene Glycol (DEG)

  1. Nature: A clear, sweet-tasting industrial solvent used in brake fluids, antifreeze, and plastics manufacturing.
  2. Why it appears in medicines: It is sometimes misused as a low-cost substitute for propylene glycol or glycerine in pharmaceutical syrups.
  3. Toxicity: Even small doses can cause severe abdominal pain, vomiting, metabolic acidosis, kidney failure, and death.
  4. Permissible limit: Only 0.1% is allowed in drugs; recent tests found over 46%, indicating gross manufacturing negligence.
  5. Historical precedent: Global awareness of DEG poisoning dates back to the 1937 U.S. “Elixir Sulfanilamide” disaster, which killed over 100 people and led to the creation of the U.S. FDA’s modern drug laws.

How are Medicines regulated in India?

  • Legal framework: Governed primarily by the Drugs and Cosmetics Act, 1940, and the Drugs and Cosmetics Rules, 1945.
  • Authority structure:
    • The Central Drugs Standard Control Organisation (CDSCO) under the Ministry of Health regulates imports, new drugs, and quality standards.
    • State Drug Control Authorities license manufacturing units and monitor local sales.
  • Implementation challenge:
    • Fragmented responsibilities lead to uneven enforcement and duplication of work.
    • While CDSCO issues guidelines, states often lack testing infrastructure or manpower to ensure compliance.
    • Public health being a state subject further complicates central supervision.
  • Testing requirements: Manufacturers must verify both raw materials and finished formulations, but this is rarely enforced or independently audited.

Regulatory and Structural Gaps:

  1. Weak coordination: No integrated digital system links state and central regulators to track licenses, test results, or violations.
  2. Inspection failures: Many small and medium-sized drug firms operate without periodic inspection or third-party audits.
  3. Resource deficit: State drug labs often face staff shortages, outdated testing equipment, and minimal budgets.
  4. Penalties too lenient: Adulteration and misbranding attract limited imprisonment or fines, offering little deterrence.
  5. Lack of global alignment: India’s domestic quality standards often diverge from those used by WHO or international regulators, creating dual regimes for export and domestic markets.

How such incidences impact India’s global credibility?

  1. International scrutiny: Following deaths in The Gambia and Uzbekistan, the World Health Organization (WHO) issued global alerts on India-manufactured syrups.
  2. Export restrictions: Several importing countries now demand independent quality certificates before allowing entry of Indian pharmaceuticals.
  3. Erosion of trust: India’s image as a low-cost, high-quality medicine supplier is undermined by repeated safety lapses.
  4. Diplomatic and economic cost: Quality scandals threaten a $25 billion export industry that supplies over 50% of global vaccine demand and a major share of generic drugs to Africa, Latin America, and Southeast Asia.

Way Forward:

  1. Centralised surveillance: Create a national digital platform integrating manufacturing, testing, and licensing data across states.
  2. Independent quality audits: Mandate third-party verification of raw materials, excipients, and solvents used in formulations.
  3. Stronger penalties: Introduce criminal liability for executives in cases of fatal contamination.
  4. Laboratory strengthening: Upgrade all state drug testing labs with modern equipment and accredited quality management systems.
  5. Export accountability: Require WHO-GMP certification for all export-bound and domestic drug batches alike.

PYQ Relevance:

[UPSC 2024] The case study focuses on a senior scientist, Dr. Srinivasan, working on a new drug, facing pressure to expedite trials and resort to unethical shortcuts, such as manipulating data to exclude negative outcomes and selectively reporting positive results.

The questions posed specifically asked the aspirant to:

• Examine options and consequences in light of the ethical questions involved.

• Discuss how data ethics and drug ethics can save humanity at large in such a scenario.

Linkage: The core issue involves the provision of quality healthcare and social services. The crisis highlights the vulnerability of populations, both domestically and internationally, to unsafe drug manufacturing practices. Questions can focus on  the mechanisms, laws, and institutions designed for the protection and betterment of vulnerable sections (like consumers of essential medicines).

 

Get an IAS/IPS ranker as your 1: 1 personal mentor for UPSC 2024

Attend Now

Pulses Production – Subramanian Committee, Eco Survey, etc.

Why is India seeking Self-sufficiency in Pulses?

Explained | Agriculture | Mains Paper 3: Agriculture and related issues

Why in the News?

India, though the world’s largest producer and consumer of pulses, continues to face chronic supply-demand imbalance, threatening food security and farm incomes.

Introduction  

  • The Union Cabinet (1 October 2025) approved the ₹11,440 crore “Mission for Atmanirbharta in Pulses”, a 6-year programme (FY26–FY31) to achieve self-sufficiency in pulse production.
  • The initiative responds to surging imports of $5.5 billion in FY25, the highest ever, amid stagnating domestic yields and acreage.
  • India, though the world’s largest producer and consumer of pulses, continues to facea  chronic supply-demand imbalance, threatening food security and farm incomes.

Value Addition: Pulses and their Production in India

  • Overview: Pulses are edible seeds of leguminous plants (family Fabaceae), cultivated for dry grains such as gram, tur, urad, masoor, and moong.
  • Nutritional Role: Rich in protein, fiber, micronutrients, and amino acids; low in fat and vital for nutritional security.
  • Agro-Climatic Range: Grown in both kharif and rabi seasons, requiring 20–27°C temperature and 25–60 cm rainfall.
  • Production Share: India produces ~25 million tonnes, accounting for 25% of global output, yet consumes 27%, making it the largest producer, consumer, and importer.
  • Crop Composition: As per FY2024, Gram (~40%), Tur/Arhar (15–20%), Moong/Urad (8–10%) dominate; pulses occupy 20% of grain area but only 7–10% of total foodgrain output.
  • Regional Spread: Major producers are- Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Rajasthan, UP, Karnataka.
  • Crop Share: Pulses occupy 20 % of grain area but yield only 7–10 % of output; gram 40 %, tur 15–20 %, moong/urad 8–10 %.

Why Farmers shifted away from Pulses?

  1. Price Disparity: Market prices often 14–28% below MSP, due to cheap imports (e.g., yellow peas from Canada at ₹3,000/quintal vs MSP ₹5,875).
  2. Import Competition: Duty-free imports from Canada, Australia, Mozambique, Myanmar suppress domestic demand.
  3. Policy Bias: Procurement, subsidies, and irrigation facilities favour rice and wheat, not pulses.
  4. Low Productivity: Pulses mostly grown on rain-fed, marginal lands, highly vulnerable to droughts, erratic monsoons, and poor irrigation.
  5. Market Risk: Weak procurement and delayed payments reduce confidence in government price support.
  6. Limited R&D: Poor availability of improved seed varieties and inadequate extension support for pest management and soil health.

Key Structural Challenges:

  1. MSP and Procurement Gaps: Inconsistent purchase operations discourage adoption of pulses over cereals.
  2. Climatic Vulnerability: Rain-fed dependence leads to high risk from El Niño, floods, or dry spells.
  3. Low Yields: National average at 740 kg/ha, below global mean of 949 kg/ha and far below Canada/USA (1,800+ kg/ha).
  4. Small Landholdings: Over 85% small and marginal farmers lack capital for irrigation and mechanisation.
  5. Soil and Pest Constraints: Nutrient deficiency, salinity, and frequent pest attacks hinder productivity.
  6. Institutional Weakness: Fragmented R&D ecosystem and weak integration between seed research, extension, and procurement systems.

Import Trends and Dependence:

  • Import Bill Growth: From $1.6 billion (FY21) to $5.5 billion (FY25) i.e a 3.4× surge.
  • Sources: Australia and Canada (peas), Myanmar, Tanzania, Mozambique (tur/arhar).
  • Volume: 7.3 million tonnes imported in 2024-25 surpassing the 2016-17 record.
  • Drivers: Stagnant domestic output (~25 Mt for five years) and rising urban consumption.
  • Top Importers: Canada, Russia, Australia, Mozambique, Tanzania, Myanmar, USA.

Economic and Social Dimensions:

  • Production Rise: From 19.2 Mt (FY14) to 24.4 Mt (FY24), yet consumption still exceeds supply.
  • Consumption Growth: Rising incomes and protein awareness push demand upward.
  • Trade Imbalance: India remains both largest producer (25 %) and largest importer (14 %) of global pulses.

Benefits of Pulses Cultivation:

  1. Environmental Sustainability: Pulses require less water and lower chemical inputs than cereals.
  2. Soil Fertility: Through biological nitrogen fixation, they enrich soil nitrogen, improving yield for subsequent crops.
  3. Reduced Fertilizer Use: Lower dependence on synthetic urea reduces subsidy burden and emissions.
  4. Soil Structure and Water Retention: Root systems enhance porosity, carbon content, and microbial biodiversity.
  5. Pest and Disease Management: Crop rotation with pulses suppresses soil-borne pathogens and reduces pesticide dependency.
  6. Carbon Sequestration: Residue incorporation increases soil organic carbon, mitigating greenhouse gas emissions.
  7. Economic Efficiency: Arvind Subramanian Committee (2016) estimated a ₹13,000/ha higher social benefit for Tur vis-à-vis rice cultivation due to water and emission savings.

Way Forward:

  1. Seed Innovation: Intensify research through ICAR–IIPR and utilise India’s 70,000 germplasm accessions for high-yielding, climate-resilient strains.
  2. Area Expansion: Promote rice-fallow pulse rotation in eastern India and intercropping systems in semi-arid regions.
  3. Assured Procurement: Scale up NAFED and NCCF-led MSP operations, ensuring timely payments.
  4. Infrastructure Support: Strengthen warehousing, milling, and processing hubs near production clusters.
  5. Import Rationalisation: Impose variable tariffs to protect domestic farmers from global price volatility.
  6. Sustainability Integration: Incentivise pulse cultivation under carbon farming and sustainable agriculture missions.

PYQ Relevance:

[UPSC 2017] Mention the advantages of the cultivation of pulse because of which the year 2016 was declared as the International Year of Pulses by the United Nations.

[UPSC 2020] With reference to pulse production in India, consider the following statements:

1. Black gram can be cultivated as both kharif and rabi crop.

2. Green gram alone accounts for nearly half of pulse production.

3. In the last three decades, while the production of kharif pulses has increased, the production of rabi pulses has decreased.

Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

(a) 1 only * (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 2 only (d) 1, 2 and 3

 

Linkage: Pulses imports often strain the Balance of Payments (BoP) and affect food inflation (a topic tested in 2024 Mains). Achieving self-sufficiency saves foreign exchange and helps manage domestic price volatility.

 

Get an IAS/IPS ranker as your 1: 1 personal mentor for UPSC 2024

Attend Now

Labour, Jobs and Employment – Harmonization of labour laws, gender gap, unemployment, etc.

Are workers’ rights being eroded?

Explained | Economics | Mains Paper 3: Effects Of Liberalization On The Economy, Changes In Industrial Policy and their effects on Industrial Growth

Introduction / Context

  • Recent Disasters: In 2025, three major industrial accidents — the Sigachi Industries chemical blast in Telangana (June 30), the Gokulesh Fireworks explosion in Sivakasi (July 1), and the Ennore Thermal Power Station collapse in Chennai (September 30) — killed nearly 60 workers within three months.
  • Scale of the Problem: According to the British Safety Council, one in four fatal workplace accidents globally occurs in India, though actual figures are higher due to underreporting in informal sectors.
  • Structural Failure: These tragedies expose a systemic breakdown in safety enforcement, where profit maximisation overrides worker protection.

Why Workplace Accidents Occur

  1. Preventable Failures: Most industrial accidents occur due to negligence in hazard prevention such as poor equipment design, absence of alarms, and lack of maintenance.
  2. Telangana Case: The chemical reactor was operated at twice its safe limit, safety alarms failed, and untrained contract workers were deployed without records or protection.
  3. ILO Findings: The International Labour Organization (ILO) attributes most accidents to cost-cutting by managements, not random chance or individual mistakes.
  4. Human Error Myth: Employers blame workers for “human error”, but systemic issues like excessive work hours, fatigue, and exploitative conditions are the root causes.
  5. Lack of Safety Oversight: The absence of mandatory inspections and safety officers allows hazardous practices to continue unchecked.

Evolution of Workplace Safety Laws in India

  1. Colonial Roots: The first Factories Act of 1881 was enacted under British rule to regulate working hours and conditions in textile mills.
  2. Post-Independence Framework: The Factories Act of 1948 became the foundation of India’s occupational safety regime, covering licensing, rest periods, and machine maintenance.
  3. Bhopal Legacy: The 1987 Amendment followed the Bhopal Gas Tragedy, introducing stricter safety clauses but failing in enforcement due to bribery and falsified records.
  4. Compensation Mechanisms: The Workmen’s Compensation Act (1923) and Employees’ State Insurance Act (1948) provide for injury and income loss but remain financially inadequate.
  5. Lack of Criminal Accountability: Employers rarely face criminal charges for fatal negligence; compensation is often paid through government relief funds, not company liability.

Post-Liberalisation Deregulation and Impact

  1. Shift in Policy: Since the 1990s, India’s industrial policy has prioritised labour flexibility over worker protection.
  2. Self-Certification: States like Maharashtra (2015) allowed industries to self-certify compliance, effectively dismantling inspection-based oversight.
  3. Ease of Doing Business: Safety rules are now portrayed as regulatory hurdles, diluting mandatory standards for inspection and reporting.
  4. Contract Labour Expansion: Informal and outsourced workforces dominate hazardous sectors, operating without registration or legal protection.
  5. Erosion of State Capacity: Labour departments have been underfunded and depowered, reducing preventive enforcement to mere paperwork.

The Occupational Safety, Health and Working Conditions (OSHWC) Code, 2020

  1. Purpose: Consolidates 13 older laws including the Factories Act (1948), Mines Act (1952), and Contract Labour Act (1970) into one unified framework.
  2. Scope: Applies to all workplaces with 10 or more workers and covers mines, docks, and factories.
  3. Employer Duties: Mandates risk-free work environments, medical check-ups, and welfare amenities, with provisions for National and State Safety Boards.
  4. Penalties: Prescribes monetary penalties for violations and limited punishment for accidents causing death.
  5. Criticism: The Code converts safety from a statutory right to administrative discretion, weakening enforceability and inspection mechanisms.

Other Key Labour Codes:

  1. Code on Wages (2019): Ensures minimum wages, equal pay for equal work, and timely payment, reducing wage-related exploitation.
  2. Industrial Relations Code (2020): Governs strikes, layoffs, and retrenchments, focusing on maintaining employer–employee harmony under managerial control.
  3. Social Security Code (2020): Extends healthcare, pension, and insurance benefits to gig and platform workers, integrating fragmented welfare laws into one structure.

Current Trends and Emerging Risks

  1. Extended Working Hours: Post-pandemic, States have increased daily limits and reduced rest periods, heightening fatigue-related risks.
  2. Case Example: Karnataka (2023) made longer shifts permanent, undermining rest and recovery norms critical to accident prevention.
  3. Informalisation: Over 90% of India’s workforce operates informally, with no safety records or accident insurance, leaving families uncompensated.
  4. Weakened Enforcement: Inspections replaced by self-reporting allow companies to evade accountability for safety violations.
  5. Outcome: India remains among the world’s most dangerous industrial economies, with preventable deaths treated as operational costs.

Institutional and Governance Failures:

  1. Policy Shift: The State’s role has shifted from enforcer to facilitator, prioritising investment over worker welfare.
  2. Diluted Inspections: Labour departments, understaffed and politically pressured, no longer conduct surprise or independent audits.
  3. Token Punishment: Accident inquiries result in minor fines or temporary closures, not criminal prosecutions.
  4. Moral Blindness: Treating workplace deaths as “inevitable” reflects a moral and administrative collapse in valuing human life.

Way Forward: Restoring Safety as a Fundamental Right

  1. Safety as Right: Workplace safety must be reinstated as a non-negotiable constitutional right, not a regulatory privilege.
  2. Reinforce Inspection: Mandatory and surprise inspections must replace self-certification to ensure compliance.
  3. Criminal Liability: Employers responsible for preventable deaths must face criminal prosecution, not ex gratia settlements.
  4. Economic Logic: Studies confirm that safe workplaces increase productivity and profitability, contradicting industry claims of cost burdens.
  5. Moral Imperative: Until the State enforces accountability, transparency, and legal deterrence, India’s workers will remain collateral casualties of deregulated growth.

 

[UPSC 2024] Discuss the merits and demerits of the four ‘Labour Codes’ in the context of labour market reforms in India. What has been the progress so far in this regard?

Linkage: The topic of the erosion of workers’ rights is highly important for the upcoming UPSC Mains, particularly because it connects statutory, economic, and social issues, making it a favorite for analytical questions

 

Get an IAS/IPS ranker as your 1: 1 personal mentor for UPSC 2024

Attend Now

Foreign Policy Watch: India – EU

In a multi-polar West, India’s opportunity

Explained | International Relations | Mains Paper 2: Bilateral, Regional and Global Groupings and agreements involving India

Introduction

British PM Keir Starmer’s visit to Mumbai, the new EFTA trade pact, and ongoing EU-India trade talks in Brussels reflect Europe’s growing weight in India’s foreign policy. After years of limited engagement, Europe is emerging as a central partner in Delhi’s strategic calculus, just as the continent itself begins to assert geopolitical autonomy beyond its traditional dependence on the United States.

This marks a structural transformation in world politics, the emergence of a “multipolar West”, where Europe, North America, and Asia’s democratic powers pursue convergent but independent strategic agendas.

Historical Background: From Western Unity to Strategic Pluralism:

  • Post-War Western Unity: After World War II, the “West” became synonymous with political unity under US leadership, reinforced through NATO and Cold War alliances against the Soviet bloc.
  • Unipolar Moment after USSR Collapse: The collapse of the USSR in 1991 strengthened this unity, briefly creating a unipolar world centred on US dominance and Western liberal values.
  • Emergence of New Power Centres: As Russia reasserted its power and China rose to global prominence, the old Western consensus began to fracture.
  • India’s Advocacy for Multipolarity: Emerging powers like India called for a multipolar world — initially to balance US hegemony, but increasingly to acknowledge growing diversity within the West itself.

Shifting Dynamics: The Rise of a Multipolar West

  • Erosion of Transatlantic Dependence: Donald Trump’s “America First” policy disrupted long-standing alliances, forcing Europe and Asia to reconsider their strategic dependence on Washington.
  • Deepening Intra-Western Differences: Differences within the West have widened over Russia, China, trade policy, digital sovereignty, and technological standards.
  • Transactional Nature of US Power: European capitals now recognise that the US may increasingly act as a transactional power — pursuing self-interest rather than collective leadership.
  • Europe’s Strategic Reorientation: In response, Europe is embracing strategic autonomy to reduce vulnerability to shifting US politics and develop independent capacities in defence, technology, and industrial production.

Europe’s Quest for Sovereignty and Strategic Autonomy:

  • Leadership from Paris and Berlin: Leaders like Emmanuel Macron (France) and Olaf Scholz (Germany) are spearheading efforts to build a self-reliant Europe capable of defending its own interests.
  • Institutional Assertion of Autonomy: In her 2025 State of the Union address, European Commission President Ursula von der Leyen declared that Europe must “stand on its own feet, economically, technologically, and militarily.”
  • Defence and Security Cooperation: The EU is expanding defence collaboration through joint industrial initiatives and deeper coordination with partners such as the UK, Japan, South Korea, and Canada.
  • Persistent Internal Divides: Despite enduring divides between East and West over Russia, and North and South over fiscal policy Europe’s trajectory is unmistakably toward a more unified and assertive role within a plural Western order.

India’s Engagement with Europe’s Strategic Evolution:

  • EU–India Partnership Framework: The EU’s Joint Communication on India (September 2025) positions Delhi as a key partner in Europe’s Indo-Pacific and economic diversification strategy.
  • Priority Areas of Cooperation:
    • Trade and Technology: Collaboration in semiconductors, clean energy, and digital infrastructure.
    • Connectivity: Engagement through the Global Gateway initiative, aligning with India’s infrastructure ambitions.
    • Defence and Security: Cooperation on maritime domain awareness and joint naval presence in the Indian Ocean.
    • Political Dialogue: Recognition of differences on Russia, but convergence on multilateralism and democratic resilience.
  • Shift Beyond China-Centric Policy: Europe is moving beyond its earlier China-centric worldview, placing India at the centre of its Indo-Pacific engagement and supply-chain diversification efforts.

Implications of a Multipolar West for India

  • Expanded Diplomatic Flexibility: A loosely knit Western order provides India with greater strategic freedom to engage multiple Western poles — the US, EU, and UK — without rigid alignment.
  • Opportunity for Issue-Based Coalitions: The new order enables collaboration on shared priorities like climate action, digital governance, and critical technologies.
  • Risks of Fragmentation: However, a fragmented West may weaken collective responses to authoritarian aggression and reduce coherence in global governance.
  • Balancing Opportunity and Stability: India must simultaneously exploit Western pluralism and safeguard against the erosion of strategic stability that could undermine democratic solidarity.

Way Forward

  • Evolving Maturity in Foreign Policy: India’s diplomacy now shows increasing sophistication — evident in renewed engagement with Europe, balanced ties with the US, Russia, and China, and pragmatic participation in both Western and non-Western coalitions such as the Quad, BRICS, and IPEF.
  • Domestic Readiness as a Constraint: Despite external agility, institutional inertia, slow structural reforms, and uneven economic modernisation continue to limit India’s ability to leverage emerging global openings.
  • Aligning Internal and External Transformation: To fully benefit from a multipolar West, India must synchronise domestic transformation with external ambitions, ensuring that internal capacity and policy agility match the demands of an evolving global order.
[UPSC 2024] The West is fostering India as an alternative to reduce dependence on China’s supply chain and as a strategic ally to counter China’s political and economic dominance.’ Explain this statement with examples.

 

Linkage: “Multipolar World” theme involves focusing heavily on India’s strategic responses to new global and regional alliances (e.g., QUAD, AUKUS, I2U2), the shifting economic dominance of powers like China, and the resulting geopolitical instability.

 

Get an IAS/IPS ranker as your 1: 1 personal mentor for UPSC 2024

Attend Now

Issues related to Economic growth

Why Indian capital needs to invest domestically?

Explained | Economics | Mains Paper 3: Indian Economy

Introduction:

India faces a critical policy challenge — balancing the long-term gains of global trade with the short-term risks of unemployment, stagnant wages, and inequality among vulnerable populations. The existing economic system prioritises private capital accumulation over mass welfare, requiring a realignment of capitalism toward inclusivity and public interest.

Amid global trade disruptions, tariff wars, and falling external demand, Indian capital must reinvent itself, collaborate closely with the government, and anchor domestic economic stability through investment, innovation, and equitable growth.

Evolution of Indian Capital and the Need for Reorientation:

  • Protected Growth Era: Historically, Indian capital thrived under state protection before liberalisation, leveraging tariff barriers and inward-looking policies to earn supernormal profits in closed domestic markets.
  • Global Expansion Phase: Liberalisation in the 1990s enabled Indian firms to expand globally, acquiring foreign assets and establishing international linkages. This evolution created a few industrial conglomerates that dominate key sectors.
  • Shift Toward Public-Interest Capitalism: With global trade slowing and protectionism rising, these firms must now redefine their role — from being beneficiaries of state incentives to partners in public-interest growth.
  • Reinvention of Capitalism: Capitalism, as history shows, can adapt and evolve. The moment demands an inclusive capitalism that balances private profit with national development goals.

Global Trade, Demand, and Economic Vulnerabilities

  • Determinants of Demand Expansion: Economic history identifies three drivers of mass-market expansion, creation of a wage-labour class, productivity gains from industrial production, and rising personal incomes leading to higher demand.
  • Neglect of Aggregate Demand: Growth of aggregate demand is vital for sustaining production and profits, yet most policy frameworks underestimate its role, assuming supply automatically creates demand.
  • Domestic vs. External Demand: In a globalised economy, demand comprises domestic and external components. While early industrial policies relied on internal markets, the post-reform phase emphasised exports.
  • Vulnerability to Global Shocks: Today’s volatile global trade marked by tariffs and supply-chain distortions, has weakened external demand. Thus, strengthening domestic consumption through higher wages, internal investment, and industrial diversification is the pragmatic path forward.

The Role of Domestic Capital in Stimulating Growth

  1. Reviving Private Investment

    • Stagnation in Private Capex: Despite record corporate profits, private investment has stagnated, with the state driving capital formation through public infrastructure and fiscal stimulus.
    • Rise in Public Investment: Public capex surged from ₹3.4 lakh crore (FY20) to ₹10.2 lakh crore (FY25) — a CAGR of 25%, primarily in railways, roads, and communications.
    • Outward vs. Inward Investment: Private capex remains subdued even as outward FDI by Indian firms has grown 12.6% annually (2019–2024), indicating stronger foreign than domestic investment appetite.
    • Strategic Redirection Needed: A strategic reversal is required — redirecting capital toward domestic expansion, capacity building, and industrial diversification.

  1. Ensuring Moderate Wage Growth

    • Profit–Wage Imbalance: The Economic Survey 2024–25 highlighted a growing imbalance — corporate profits at a 15-year high versus stagnant real wages.
    • Falling Real Incomes: Rating agencies project real wage growth to fall from 7% (FY25) to 6.5% (FY26), weakening purchasing power and domestic demand.
    • Labour Market Precarity: Contractualization and weakened collective bargaining in formal sectors have reduced labour’s share of income, intensifying inequality.
    • Need for Wage-Linked Growth: Sustainable growth requires balanced profit–wage dynamics, linking productivity with equitable income distribution to expand internal demand.

  1. Expanding R&D and Innovation:

    • Low R&D Spending: India’s gross expenditure on R&D (GERD) stands at 0.64% of GDP, far below that of the U.S., China, Japan, and South Korea, where private enterprise funds over 70% of total R&D.
    • Weak Private Contribution: In India, the private sector contributes only 36%, with concentration in a few industries, pharmaceuticals, IT, defence, and biotechnology.
    • Innovation as a Structural Imperative: To ensure long-term competitiveness, Indian firms must increase basic and applied research spending, moving beyond short-term, profit-driven innovation cycles.

Way Forward: Aligning Private Capital with Public Purpose

  • Need for Coordination: The global economic uncertainty necessitates coordinated policy–business action to safeguard growth.
  • Government’s Supportive Role: The government has built a supportive framework through fiscal incentives, simplified regulation, infrastructure development, and credit facilitation. Yet, without active private participation, momentum will stall.
  • Reorientation of Corporate Priorities: Indian capital must realign its priorities:
    • National Responsibility: Treat national economic stability as a collective responsibility, not merely a policy backdrop.
    • Domestic Reinvestment: Reinvest profits domestically to generate employment and strengthen demand.
    • Wage-Led Expansion: Commit to wage-led growth, ensuring equitable income distribution.
    • R&D Commitment: Integrate R&D-driven innovation as a structural pillar of industrial policy.
  • Conclusion: A partnership model — where the state provides the framework and domestic capital drives inclusive, innovation-led expansion — can secure both growth resilience and social legitimacy in the post-globalisation era.

PYQ Relevance:

[UPSC 2023] Do you agree that Indian capitalism needs re-orientation towards inclusive and sustainable growth?

 

Linkage: The issue aligns with GS-III themes: Indian Economy and issues relating to growth, inclusive development, investment models, and effects of liberalisation on the economy.

It also fits Essay Paper topics like “Capitalism without conscience is a peril to society” or “Economic self-reliance and global interdependence must coexist.”

The debate concerns how Indian private capital can become a stakeholder in inclusive growth amid protectionism, global trade uncertainty, and sluggish domestic demand.

 

Get an IAS/IPS ranker as your 1: 1 personal mentor for UPSC 2024

Attend Now

The Crisis In The Middle East

Why Trump’s proposed stabilization force in Gaza will not find things easy

Explained | International Relations | Mains Paper 2: Effect Of Policies & Politics Of World On India'S Interests

Introduction

With the Gaza conflict entering its third year, US President Donald Trump’s “Comprehensive Plan to End the Gaza Conflict” , a 20-point roadmap, has reignited global discussion on Palestine’s future. While both Israel and Hamas have agreed to an immediate ceasefire and prisoner exchange, the second, more ambitious part, a long-term peace framework and deployment of an International Stabilisation Force (ISF), faces deep geopolitical and operational challenges. The ISF, envisioned as a temporary yet long-term internal security mechanism under a “Board of Peace” chaired by Trump, is supposed to oversee “terror-free areas” handed over from Israel’s Defence Forces (IDF). But historical evidence from Afghanistan, Lebanon, and Iraq shows why such an effort may fail before it even begins.

What is the International Stabilisation Force (ISF)?

  1. Temporary but long-term mechanism: The ISF is designed to act as a “temporary” yet enduring internal security arrangement, forming part of a larger apolitical Palestinian committee.
  2. Trump’s oversight: It would be supervised by a “Board of Peace” chaired by Trump, tasked with ensuring security transition in Gaza.
  3. Mandate confusion: The ISF’s deployment is proposed “immediately” after Israeli Defence Forces withdraw from designated “terror-free zones.”
  4. Not UN-mandated: Unlike traditional UN peacekeeping forces, the ISF would lack international legitimacy and neutrality, as it is not under the UN Security Council’s (UNSC) authorisation.

Why is the ISF Not Comparable to UN Peacekeeping?

  1. Absence of neutrality: International peacekeeping has always required UN-mandated neutrality; the ISF, dominated by US and allied interests, lacks this legitimacy.
  2. Hostility in the region: Due to Arab hostility towards the US and Israel’s disregard for UN mandates, any non-UN force would face rejection from regional actors.
  3. UN precedent: Since 2004, UNSC resolutions have repeatedly called for peacekeeping only under UN authority, especially within occupied Palestinian territories until a two-state solution is achieved.
  4. Contradiction with global norms: Past experiences, from NATO’s ISAF in Afghanistan to multinational forces in Lebanon, show that non-UN interventions invite political opposition and legitimacy crises.

Why is Implementation Difficult in Palestine?

  1. Israel’s selective compliance: Israel has historically undermined UN peacekeeping mandates (e.g., UNIFIL in Lebanon) and is unlikely to cooperate fully with an externally led force.
  2. Hamas’ rejection of disarmament: Hamas has refused to disarm without Israel’s full withdrawal, a non-negotiable precondition.
  3. Political vacuum: There are no strong Palestinian institutions capable of ensuring political control and governance in post-conflict Gaza.
  4. UNSC resolutions ignored: While resolutions call for a two-state solution and prohibit occupation, Israel’s actions, including settlements and security zones, contravene these commitments.
  5. Lack of Arab consensus: Arab states remain divided on participation in any force seen as legitimising Israeli occupation.

What Lessons Do Historical Precedents Offer?

  1. Afghanistan (2001–2021): The NATO-led ISAF mission initially succeeded in stabilising Kabul but failed to create self-sustaining security institutions; the Taliban returned to power in 2021.
  2. Lebanon (1982–2000): The Multinational Force (MNF), dominated by the US and UK, withdrew amid heavy local opposition and attacks, transferring responsibility to the UN’s UNIFIL.
  3. Iraq (post-2003): The absence of a UN framework led to severe legitimacy deficits, insurgency, and long-term instability.
  4. These precedents underscore that external interventions without inclusive local ownership often end in strategic failure.

What Are the Broader Challenges in Trump’s Plan?

  1. Contradictory goals: Trump’s plan envisions Israel’s partial withdrawal but simultaneously retains security control, an inherent contradiction.
  2. Palestinian exclusion: The proposal does not recognise any Palestinian political institutions or grant them meaningful authority.
  3. Legal limitations: Without UNSC authorisation, the ISF would lack the legal basis to operate or enforce peace.
  4. Regional optics: Arab and Islamic states would perceive this as another Western attempt to militarise peace under the guise of “stabilisation.”

Conclusion

Trump’s proposed International Stabilisation Force may appear bold on paper, but it suffers from a crisis of legitimacy, political trust, and historical amnesia. Without a UN mandate, regional consensus, or Palestinian participation, the plan risks deepening divisions rather than healing them. As history shows, no external force can impose peace where sovereignty and justice remain unresolved.

PYQ Relevance

[UPSC 2024] ‘Terrorism has become a significant threat to global peace and security.’ Evaluate the effectiveness of the United Nations Security Council’s Counter Terrorism Committee (CTC) and its associated bodies in addressing and mitigating this threat at the international level.

Linkage: Trump’s proposed International Stabilisation Force (ISF), lacking a UN mandate, underscores the limits of ad-hoc coalitions in tackling terrorism, contrasting with the UNSC-CTC’s institutional approach to coordinated, legitimate counter-terrorism efforts. It highlights the need for UN-backed, multilateral mechanisms over unilateral interventions for sustainable global peace.

Get an IAS/IPS ranker as your 1: 1 personal mentor for UPSC 2024

Attend Now

Nobel and other Prizes

The Nobel laurates’ work has redefined the immune system itself

Explained | Science Tech | Mains Paper 3: Awareness in various sc and tech fields

Introduction

For decades, the immune system was viewed as a binary apparatus either attacking foreign invaders or remaining silent toward the body’s own cells. This year’s Nobel laureates, Mary Brunkow, Fred Ramsdell, and Shimon Sakaguchi, dismantled that simplistic view by uncovering the critical role of regulatory T-cells (Tregs) and the FOXP3 gene in maintaining self-tolerance. Their findings fundamentally redefined how scientists perceive immune regulation and opened the path for precision immunotherapy — one of modern medicine’s most promising frontiers.

The Science of Self-Tolerance: Why It’s in the News

The Nobel Committee’s recognition of research on regulatory T-cells (Tregs) and FOXP3 marks a watershed moment in immunology. For the first time, the prize acknowledges discoveries that explain how the immune system prevents itself from attacking the body. The work explains why autoimmune disorders like Type 1 diabetes, rheumatoid arthritis, and lupus occur when this “self-check” mechanism fails. It also connects molecular immunology to emerging therapies for cancer and transplantation. This is a landmark shift from viewing immunity as mere “defence” to seeing it as a balance of activation and restraint, a concept that has redefined global biomedical research.

nobel

How the Nobel-winning Discovery Unfolded

  1. Early Understanding: In the 1990s, immunologists believed that self-reactive T-cells were deleted during their maturation. However, this could not explain why some autoreactive T-cells still existed in healthy people.
  2. Sakaguchi’s Breakthrough (1995): Identified a subset of CD4⁺ T-cells whose removal in mice led to multiple autoimmune disorders. Restoring them prevented disease — proving they act as regulators of immune overreaction.
  3. Discovery of FOXP3 Gene: Brunkow and Ramsdell, working in an industry lab (Celltech Chiroscience), traced severe autoimmune disease in male “scurfy” mice to a gene mutation on the X chromosome. They named it FOXP3.
  4. Human Correlation: Soon, mutations in FOXP3 were linked to lethal autoimmune syndromes in boys, confirming its pivotal role in human immune regulation.

How These Discoveries Transformed Immunology

  • Redefining the Immune System: The immune system is now seen not as an on/off mechanism but as a dynamic ecosystem that balances activation (attack) with restraint (tolerance).
  • New Therapeutic Frontiers:
    1. Autoimmune Diseases: Efforts are underway to expand or stabilise Tregs to curb harmful immune activation without broad immunosuppression.
    2. Transplant Medicine: Infusion of engineered Tregs improves graft acceptance and reduces rejection rates.
    3. Cancer Research: Selective depletion or reprogramming of tumour-associated Tregs enhances anti-tumour immunity without triggering autoimmunity.

From Lab to Life: The Translational Challenge

  1. Incremental Progress: Immunologists warn against overestimating breakthroughs. The immune system has multiple overlapping control layers, making clinical translation slow.
  2. High Cost Barrier: Cell-based therapies remain expensive, leading to inequitable access between high- and low-income populations.
  3. Ethical and Policy Dilemmas: Who gets access first? How do we regulate genetic manipulation or Treg engineering? These questions highlight the intersection of science, ethics, and public policy.

Private Sector and Scientific Innovation

  1. Industrial Discovery: The fact that Brunkow and Ramsdell made their discoveries in an industry setting (Celltech Chiroscience) underscores the potential of private-sector-led innovation in fundamental science.
  2. Public–Private Synergy: It reinforces how collaborations between academic research and biotech industry can accelerate discovery and application, a model India can emulate in its biotechnology policy framework.

Broader Implications for India and Global Health

  1. Indian Relevance: India’s growing burden of autoimmune diseases (such as lupus, celiac, and thyroiditis) highlights the need for indigenous immunogenetic research.
  2. Policy Perspective: Translating such research into affordable therapies aligns with National Biotechnology Development Strategy and Ayushman Bharat’s preventive healthcare goals.
  3. Global Impact: These discoveries open a new era of personalised immunotherapy, integrating molecular biology, bioethics, and equitable access.

Conclusion

The 2025 Nobel Prize reminds the world that progress in science often lies not in creating new weapons against disease but in understanding balance, the balance within nature and within ourselves. The discovery of Tregs and FOXP3 has rewritten textbooks, inspired therapies, and expanded our conception of what “self” and “immunity” truly mean. For policymakers and scientists alike, it represents the future, a fusion of molecular precision, ethical responsibility, and social justice.

PYQ Relevance

[UPSC 2021] The Nobel Prize in Physics of 2014 was jointly awarded to Akasaki, Amano and Nakamura for the invention of Blue LEDs in the 1990s. How has this invention impacted the everyday life of human beings?

Linkage: Both the 2014 Nobel for Blue LEDs and the 2025 Nobel for Treg–FOXP3 discovery represent paradigm shifts where scientific breakthroughs moved from lab theory to real-world transformation — the former revolutionised energy efficiency, while the latter is redefining human health and immune regulation.

Get an IAS/IPS ranker as your 1: 1 personal mentor for UPSC 2024

Attend Now

Disasters and Disaster Management – Sendai Framework, Floods, Cyclones, etc.

India’s direction for disaster resilience

Explained | Enviro & Biodiversity | Mains Paper 3: Disaster Management

Introduction

India’s approach to disaster management has entered a new phase, one that focuses not only on response and recovery but equally on risk reduction, preparedness, and resilience. With climate change intensifying heat waves, floods, and landslides, the country’s policy architecture, led by the Ministry of Home Affairs (MHA) and the National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA), has embraced a multi-hazard, multi-stakeholder, and science-backed model. The guiding compass remains the Prime Minister’s Ten-Point Agenda on Disaster Risk Reduction (2016), now reinforced by major financial and institutional reforms.

Why in the News

For the first time, India’s disaster management strategy has been fully integrated into public finance planning, through the 15th Finance Commission’s ₹2.28 lakh crore allocation for disaster risk reduction over five years. This is a paradigm shift: from ad hoc post-disaster relief to structured, science-driven, and nature-based risk mitigation. With new funding for fire safety, glacial risk monitoring, and bioengineering-led landslide prevention, the government’s efforts represent a bold move towards building a climate-resilient India. The initiative is also significant because it establishes clear budget-to-project chains, accountability mechanisms, and cross-institutional linkages, something missing in previous regimes.

India’s Evolving Disaster Management Framework

  1. Multi-hazard nation: India faces diverse risks, floods, droughts, landslides, heat waves, cyclones, necessitating a multi-faceted approach.
  2. Shift in focus: Earlier systems were relief-centric; now, they integrate prevention, mitigation, capacity building, and sustainable reconstruction.
  3. Institutional leadership: The MHA and NDMA lead both pre- and post-disaster phases, ensuring coordination across States and institutions.
  4. Guiding vision: The Prime Minister’s Ten-Point Agenda (2016) promotes risk-informed investments, community participation, and technology integration.

How the 15th Finance Commission Redefined Disaster Financing

  • Historic allocation: ₹2.28 lakh crore ($30 billion) allocated over five years, a landmark in linking public finance with disaster resilience.
  • Segmented approach:
    • Preparedness and Capacity Building – 10%
    • Mitigation – 20%
    • Response – 40%
    • Reconstruction – 30%
  • End of debt dependency: Earlier, post-disaster reconstruction relied on multilateral loans; now, domestic fiscal mechanisms fill that gap.
  • Five priority reforms:
    1. Evaluate multi-hazard risks and prioritize them.
    2. Integrate scientific mitigation models into fiscal systems.
    3. Avoid duplication with other schemes.
    4. Enhance Centre-State and institutional synergy.
    5. Ensure light-touch regulation for flexibility and speed.

Investing in Pre-Disaster Preparedness and Capacity Building

  1. Fire safety modernization: ₹5,000 crore earmarked for upgrading urban and rural fire infrastructure.
  2. Community-based volunteers: Apda Mitra and Yuva Apda Mitra programs train 2.5 lakh volunteers to act as first responders.
  3. Strengthening institutions:
    1. National Institute of Disaster Management (NIDM) given a central role with geo-spatial training labs and action-based research.
    2. 36 streams of disaster management courses were introduced to mainstream DRR down to the panchayat level.
  4. Outcome: Shift from theoretical to practical, localised risk management.

Nature-Based Solutions and Climate Adaptation

  1. ₹10,000 crore mitigation projects across States emphasize nature-based, long-term solutions.
  2. Bioengineering for landslides: Stabilizing slopes in Himalayan regions using vegetation and soil binding.
  3. Urban flood control: Revitalizing water bodies and green spaces to restore natural drainage.
  4. Glacial lake monitoring: Remote sensing and automated stations for real-time surveillance.
  5. Forest fire prevention: Creating break lines, rejuvenating water bodies, and fuel evacuation corridors.
  6. Brahmaputra beels rejuvenation: Ecological restoration to mitigate monsoon flooding.
  7. Precursor success: National Cyclone Mitigation Programme (2011–22): ₹5,000 crore initiative, drastically reduced coastal vulnerability through shelters, embankments, and early warnings.

Building Technological and Institutional Resilience

  1. Advanced early warning systems: Multi-hazard platforms with seven-day lead time for cyclones.
  2. Common Alerting Protocol: Delivers region-specific alerts in local languages via multi-media.
  3. Human resource development:
    • Training at NIDM, NDRF Academy, and National Fire Service College for hundreds of officers annually.
    • Mock drills, school safety programmes, and local awareness drives improve community response.
    • Network of 327 universities: Build research and innovation pipelines for disaster science and policy.

India’s Global Leadership in Disaster Resilience

  1. Coalition for Disaster Resilient Infrastructure (CDRI): India-led global initiative for climate-resilient infrastructure systems.
  2. Active participation: G-20, SCO, BIMSTEC, and IORA platforms for sharing best practices.
  3. Knowledge exchange: India’s experience in nature-based DRR and community-driven risk management now shaping global policy dialogues.

Conclusion

India’s journey from disaster relief to disaster resilience marks a tectonic policy evolution. With fiscal integration, scientific innovation, and community participation, the nation is shifting from reactive recovery to proactive risk management. The emerging focus on nature-based, sustainable, and locally-driven mitigation reflects India’s understanding that resilience is not built after a disaster, it is cultivated every day, across every sector.

PYQ Relevance

[UPSC 2024] What is disaster resilience? How is it determined? Describe various elements of a resilience framework. Also mention the global targets of Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction (2015-2030).

Linkage: This PYQ is directly linked as the article highlights India’s evolving resilience framework under NDMA and the 15th Finance Commission, reflecting Sendai-aligned efforts to mainstream disaster risk reduction into national policy and finance.

Get an IAS/IPS ranker as your 1: 1 personal mentor for UPSC 2024

Attend Now

Alternative Dispute Resolution Mechanism – NCA, Lok Adalats, etc.

Why is ADR crucial for India’s courts?

Explained | Polity | Mains Paper 2: Executive & Judiciary

Introduction

India’s courts are gasping under the weight of delays. According to the National Judicial Data Grid (NJDG), there are 4.57 crore pending cases, with nearly 63 lakh in High Courts and over 80,000 in the Supreme Court. For many citizens, justice delayed has become justice denied. Against this backdrop, the government’s renewed commitment to strengthen Alternative Dispute Resolution (ADR) marks an important turning point. ADR, rooted in India’s traditional dispute resolution practices, represents not just a procedural alternative, but a philosophical one. It shifts justice from confrontation to consensus, from hierarchy to harmony.

Why is ADR in the News?

The Minister of Law and Justice, Arjun Ram Meghwal, recently emphasized that India’s legal reforms must draw from its civilisational roots, particularly the doctrine of Panch Parmeshwar, the age-old village system of resolving disputes through collective wisdom. This announcement is significant for three reasons:

  1. Civilisational continuity: For the first time in recent years, legal reform is being explicitly linked to indigenous justice philosophy.
  2. Crisis in pendency: With cases exceeding 4.5 crore and vacancy rates of 33% in High Courts and 21% in district courts, India’s formal judicial system is overburdened beyond capacity.
  3. Demand for inclusion: ADR offers an alternative that is faster, cheaper, and socially inclusive, especially for marginalised groups who find formal litigation intimidating.

In essence, ADR is not just reform, it is rescue.

What is Alternative Dispute Resolution (ADR) and How Does It Work?

  1. Definition: ADR refers to mechanisms outside formal courts that help parties resolve disputes through mutual understanding, mediation, arbitration, conciliation, or Lok Adalats.
  2. Objective: To provide speedy, affordable, and amicable resolution while reducing judicial burden.
  3. Legal Framework:
    1. Article 39A of the Constitution mandates equal justice and free legal aid.
    2. Section 89 of the Code of Civil Procedure (CPC), 1908 formally recognizes ADR processes.
    3. Arbitration and Conciliation Act, 1996 (amended in 2021) gives statutory backing to arbitration agreements and conciliation processes.
  4. Time-bound resolution: The Arbitration Act, 2021 fixes a maximum 180-day period for dispute resolution — a stark contrast to the years spent in litigation.
    1. Exit Clause: If a party is dissatisfied, they can opt out after two sessions of mediation.
  5. Pre-litigation mediation: Encouraged for civil and commercial disputes, helping prevent new cases from entering the judicial pipeline.
  6. Example: Many commercial entities now resolve contractual disputes through institutional arbitration centres such as the Delhi International Arbitration Centre (DIAC), saving both time and cost.

How Do Lok Adalats Strengthen Access to Justice?

  1. Legal Basis: Lok Adalats are governed by the Legal Services Authorities Act, 1987, deriving strength from Article 39A.
  2. Types of Lok Adalats:
    • Permanent Lok Adalats (Section 22-B)
    • National Lok Adalats (held periodically)
    • E-Lok Adalats (virtual platforms launched post-COVID-19).
    • First Lok Adalat: Held in Gujarat in 1999 — symbolizing people’s justice at minimal cost.
  4. Finality of Decisions: Awards are final and binding, with no provision for appeal, ensuring swift closure.
  5. Safeguards: If dissatisfied, parties can still approach formal courts, preserving fairness.
  6. Impact: Lok Adalats have successfully resolved lakhs of cases annually, especially in motor accident and bank recovery disputes.

Why is Strengthening ADR a Necessity, Not a Choice?

  1. Judicial Overload: Judges in Uttar Pradesh, Himachal Pradesh, and Kerala handle over 4,000 cases each, severely limiting judicial attention.
  2. Delay and Disillusionment: A large portion of cases have been pending for over 10 years, eroding public faith in formal justice.
  3. Vacancies and Infrastructure Gaps: With 33% High Court and 21% district court vacancies, the backlog is worsening.
  4. Societal Benefits: As former CJI D.Y. Chandrachud noted, mediation is a tool for social change, aligning community norms with constitutional values through open dialogue.
  5. Cultural Relevance: ADR resonates with India’s traditional ethos, the village panchayat system was historically based on consensus, not contest.
  6. ADR thus not only decongests courts but humanises justice, making it conversational rather than confrontational.

Which States Have the Highest Backlog and Why It Matters

  1. Data from the India Justice Report 2025:
    • Andhra Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, and Bihar have the highest backlog.
    • High Court pendency: Nearly 63 lakh cases.
    • District courts: The majority of the 4.57 crore pending cases.
  2. Vacancy crisis: Shortage of judges and staff deepens the delays.
  3. State ranking mechanism: The India Justice Report evaluates states on justice delivery, infrastructure, and human resources, revealing wide inter-State disparities.
  4. Call for reform: Strengthening ADR is crucial to ensure per capita justice delivery, especially in states lagging behind in judicial capacity.

Conclusion

ADR is not merely an alternative, it is an evolution of justice delivery in India. Rooted in India’s cultural traditions yet aligned with global best practices, ADR offers a pragmatic pathway to tackle pendency and ensure timely justice. Strengthening awareness, institutional capacity, and legal infrastructure around ADR will be key to transforming India from a litigating society into a resolving society — where justice is swift, simple, and shared.

PYQ Relevance

[UPSC 2015] What are the major changes brought in the Arbitration and Conciliation Act, 1996 through the recent Ordinance promulgated by the President? How far will it improve India’s dispute resolution mechanism? Discuss.

Linkage: The 2015 Ordinance streamlined arbitration by fixing strict timelines and limiting court interference, strengthening India’s move toward faster, credible, and globally competitive dispute resolution, aligning with the core goals of ADR reform.

Get an IAS/IPS ranker as your 1: 1 personal mentor for UPSC 2024

Attend Now

JOIN THE COMMUNITY

Join us across Social Media platforms.