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Type: Explained

These Newscards correspond to the explained section of various newspapers. They become immensely important for both prelims and mains and special attention needs to be paid to them

Bills/Act/LawsDOMREthicsExplainedHistorical SitesIOCRop-ed snapPIBPlaces in newsPrelims OnlySC JudgementsSchemesSpeciesStatesworld map

Women empowerment issues – Jobs,Reservation and education

Are Women deciding Assembly Elections?

Explained | Indian Society | Mains Paper 1: Role Of Women & Women Organization

Introduction

Ahead of the 2025 Bihar elections, parties are intensifying women-focused welfare schemes involving cash transfers. Similar strategies in Madhya Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Maharashtra, and West Bengal mark a national trend of targeting women voters through direct benefits.

Also the gender gap in voter turnout has narrowed significantly, with female participation matching or surpassing male turnout in several states, prompting political recognition of women as a distinct electoral constituency.

Women as a Political Category:

  1. Shift in Political Focus: Women have emerged as a distinct political category, prompting parties to design targeted welfare schemes like Ladli Behna Yojana, Urimai Thogai, and Lakshmir Bhandar aimed exclusively at female voters.
  2. Economic Empowerment through Welfare: Direct cash transfers have provided limited but visible economic agency, allowing women some control over finances within households traditionally dominated by men.
  3. Beneficiary Framing: The portrayal of women primarily as labharthis (beneficiaries) reinforces dependency on state-led welfare rather than promoting them as independent political actors.
  4. Symbolic Inclusion vs. Structural Change: Women’s growing electoral visibility has not necessarily translated into greater representation or leadership, keeping them largely outside decision-making hierarchies.

How have Political Parties harnessed the Gender Gap in Voter Turnout?

  1. Rise in Female Turnout: Over the last two decades, the gender gap in voter participation has steadily narrowed, with female turnout surpassing male turnout in several states, notably in Bihar and Odisha.
  2. Targeted Welfare Mobilisation: Political parties have strategically used welfare schemes and direct benefit transfers to consolidate women as a reliable voter base, focusing on cash assistance, LPG subsidies, and maternal benefits.
  3. Micro-Targeting: Manifestos and election campaigns increasingly feature women-focused promises, indicating recognition of their collective electoral strength.
  4. Narrative of Care Politics: Political rhetoric frames women as symbols of social welfare and household well-being, enabling parties to blend economic populism with gender outreach.

Significance of Women’s Voting Behaviour:

  1. Indicator of Political Maturity: The steady rise in women’s participation marks a structural shift in India’s democratic engagement, highlighting growing awareness of rights and entitlements.
  2. Independent Electoral Agency: Increasing evidence shows that women are voting independently of male family influence, prioritising welfare delivery, safety, education, and dignity.
  3. Policy Feedback Mechanism: Women’s responses to welfare schemes serve as a direct feedback loop influencing governance priorities and re-election strategies.
  4. Catalyst for Inclusive Politics: The evolving behaviour of women voters has encouraged parties to incorporate gender equity into mainstream political discourse, beyond token representation.

Issues of Gendered Voter Turnout:

  1. Documentation Barriers: Women face systemic exclusion from electoral rolls due to inadequate documentation, name changes after marriage, and migration-related bureaucratic lapses.
  2. Procedural Exclusion: Administrative exercises like Special Intensive Revision (SIR) have disproportionately omitted women, reflecting institutional insensitivity to gendered realities.
  3. Intersectional Marginalisation: Women’s political inclusion remains fragmented by caste, class, and religion, preventing the emergence of a cohesive gender-based voting bloc.
  4. Symbolic Empowerment: While parties celebrate women as voters and beneficiaries, practical empowerment remains limited, with persistent underrepresentation in legislatures and party leaderships.

Way Forward:

  1. Institutional Strengthening: Ensure gender-sensitive voter registration and simplify documentation norms to eliminate procedural exclusions.
  2. Beyond Welfare Politics: Transition from cash-based welfare populism to policies promoting education, employment, and political representation.
  3. Data-Driven Governance: Use disaggregated gender data to assess welfare effectiveness and refine electoral outreach grounded in socio-economic realities.
  4. Leadership and Representation: Expand women’s participation in party structures, local governance, and Parliament, ensuring parity in decision-making roles.
  5. Civic and Political Literacy: Invest in sustained grassroots voter education, enabling women to act as autonomous political citizens rather than electoral dependents.

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Does India have a cough syrup problem? 

Explained | Ethics | Mains Paper 4: Ethics

Introduction:

India’s pharmaceutical industry, long known as the “pharmacy of the world,” is again under scrutiny after toxic cough syrups were linked to child deaths in Madhya Pradesh and Rajasthan. Laboratory tests revealed dangerously high levels of diethylene glycol (DEG), an industrial chemical used in antifreeze, in syrups. The incident has triggered state bans, factory inspections, and renewed debate over the safety and accountability of India’s drug manufacturing system.

This follows earlier international tragedies in The Gambia, Uzbekistan, and Iraq, all involving India-made syrups.

Pattern of Recurring Cough Syrup Tragedies:

India has repeatedly faced incidents of DEG contamination in pharmaceuticals over the past century, reflecting systemic failure rather than isolated error.

  1. Historical incidents: Major poisoning events were reported in Chennai (1973), Bihar (1986), Gurugram (2020), Jammu (2019), and internationally in The Gambia (2022) and Uzbekistan (2022), leading to hundreds of deaths, most of them children.
  2. Common pattern: In each case, toxic solvents were substituted for pharmaceutical-grade compounds to cut costs, exposing the absence of strict supplier verification and testing.
  3. Regulatory aftermath: Investigations typically result in temporary bans and arrests but rarely in structural reform, allowing recurrence.
  4. Root cause: Weak coordination between central and state regulators, underfunded laboratories, and an enforcement system that reacts after fatalities rather than preventing them.

Toxic Component: Diethylene Glycol (DEG)

  1. Nature: A clear, sweet-tasting industrial solvent used in brake fluids, antifreeze, and plastics manufacturing.
  2. Why it appears in medicines: It is sometimes misused as a low-cost substitute for propylene glycol or glycerine in pharmaceutical syrups.
  3. Toxicity: Even small doses can cause severe abdominal pain, vomiting, metabolic acidosis, kidney failure, and death.
  4. Permissible limit: Only 0.1% is allowed in drugs; recent tests found over 46%, indicating gross manufacturing negligence.
  5. Historical precedent: Global awareness of DEG poisoning dates back to the 1937 U.S. “Elixir Sulfanilamide” disaster, which killed over 100 people and led to the creation of the U.S. FDA’s modern drug laws.

How are Medicines regulated in India?

  • Legal framework: Governed primarily by the Drugs and Cosmetics Act, 1940, and the Drugs and Cosmetics Rules, 1945.
  • Authority structure:
    • The Central Drugs Standard Control Organisation (CDSCO) under the Ministry of Health regulates imports, new drugs, and quality standards.
    • State Drug Control Authorities license manufacturing units and monitor local sales.
  • Implementation challenge:
    • Fragmented responsibilities lead to uneven enforcement and duplication of work.
    • While CDSCO issues guidelines, states often lack testing infrastructure or manpower to ensure compliance.
    • Public health being a state subject further complicates central supervision.
  • Testing requirements: Manufacturers must verify both raw materials and finished formulations, but this is rarely enforced or independently audited.

Regulatory and Structural Gaps:

  1. Weak coordination: No integrated digital system links state and central regulators to track licenses, test results, or violations.
  2. Inspection failures: Many small and medium-sized drug firms operate without periodic inspection or third-party audits.
  3. Resource deficit: State drug labs often face staff shortages, outdated testing equipment, and minimal budgets.
  4. Penalties too lenient: Adulteration and misbranding attract limited imprisonment or fines, offering little deterrence.
  5. Lack of global alignment: India’s domestic quality standards often diverge from those used by WHO or international regulators, creating dual regimes for export and domestic markets.

How such incidences impact India’s global credibility?

  1. International scrutiny: Following deaths in The Gambia and Uzbekistan, the World Health Organization (WHO) issued global alerts on India-manufactured syrups.
  2. Export restrictions: Several importing countries now demand independent quality certificates before allowing entry of Indian pharmaceuticals.
  3. Erosion of trust: India’s image as a low-cost, high-quality medicine supplier is undermined by repeated safety lapses.
  4. Diplomatic and economic cost: Quality scandals threaten a $25 billion export industry that supplies over 50% of global vaccine demand and a major share of generic drugs to Africa, Latin America, and Southeast Asia.

Way Forward:

  1. Centralised surveillance: Create a national digital platform integrating manufacturing, testing, and licensing data across states.
  2. Independent quality audits: Mandate third-party verification of raw materials, excipients, and solvents used in formulations.
  3. Stronger penalties: Introduce criminal liability for executives in cases of fatal contamination.
  4. Laboratory strengthening: Upgrade all state drug testing labs with modern equipment and accredited quality management systems.
  5. Export accountability: Require WHO-GMP certification for all export-bound and domestic drug batches alike.

PYQ Relevance:

[UPSC 2024] The case study focuses on a senior scientist, Dr. Srinivasan, working on a new drug, facing pressure to expedite trials and resort to unethical shortcuts, such as manipulating data to exclude negative outcomes and selectively reporting positive results.

The questions posed specifically asked the aspirant to:

• Examine options and consequences in light of the ethical questions involved.

• Discuss how data ethics and drug ethics can save humanity at large in such a scenario.

Linkage: The core issue involves the provision of quality healthcare and social services. The crisis highlights the vulnerability of populations, both domestically and internationally, to unsafe drug manufacturing practices. Questions can focus on  the mechanisms, laws, and institutions designed for the protection and betterment of vulnerable sections (like consumers of essential medicines).

 

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Pulses Production – Subramanian Committee, Eco Survey, etc.

Why is India seeking Self-sufficiency in Pulses?

Explained | Agriculture | Mains Paper 3: Agriculture and related issues

Why in the News?

India, though the world’s largest producer and consumer of pulses, continues to face chronic supply-demand imbalance, threatening food security and farm incomes.

Introduction  

  • The Union Cabinet (1 October 2025) approved the ₹11,440 crore “Mission for Atmanirbharta in Pulses”, a 6-year programme (FY26–FY31) to achieve self-sufficiency in pulse production.
  • The initiative responds to surging imports of $5.5 billion in FY25, the highest ever, amid stagnating domestic yields and acreage.
  • India, though the world’s largest producer and consumer of pulses, continues to facea  chronic supply-demand imbalance, threatening food security and farm incomes.

Value Addition: Pulses and their Production in India

  • Overview: Pulses are edible seeds of leguminous plants (family Fabaceae), cultivated for dry grains such as gram, tur, urad, masoor, and moong.
  • Nutritional Role: Rich in protein, fiber, micronutrients, and amino acids; low in fat and vital for nutritional security.
  • Agro-Climatic Range: Grown in both kharif and rabi seasons, requiring 20–27°C temperature and 25–60 cm rainfall.
  • Production Share: India produces ~25 million tonnes, accounting for 25% of global output, yet consumes 27%, making it the largest producer, consumer, and importer.
  • Crop Composition: As per FY2024, Gram (~40%), Tur/Arhar (15–20%), Moong/Urad (8–10%) dominate; pulses occupy 20% of grain area but only 7–10% of total foodgrain output.
  • Regional Spread: Major producers are- Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Rajasthan, UP, Karnataka.
  • Crop Share: Pulses occupy 20 % of grain area but yield only 7–10 % of output; gram 40 %, tur 15–20 %, moong/urad 8–10 %.

Why Farmers shifted away from Pulses?

  1. Price Disparity: Market prices often 14–28% below MSP, due to cheap imports (e.g., yellow peas from Canada at ₹3,000/quintal vs MSP ₹5,875).
  2. Import Competition: Duty-free imports from Canada, Australia, Mozambique, Myanmar suppress domestic demand.
  3. Policy Bias: Procurement, subsidies, and irrigation facilities favour rice and wheat, not pulses.
  4. Low Productivity: Pulses mostly grown on rain-fed, marginal lands, highly vulnerable to droughts, erratic monsoons, and poor irrigation.
  5. Market Risk: Weak procurement and delayed payments reduce confidence in government price support.
  6. Limited R&D: Poor availability of improved seed varieties and inadequate extension support for pest management and soil health.

Key Structural Challenges:

  1. MSP and Procurement Gaps: Inconsistent purchase operations discourage adoption of pulses over cereals.
  2. Climatic Vulnerability: Rain-fed dependence leads to high risk from El Niño, floods, or dry spells.
  3. Low Yields: National average at 740 kg/ha, below global mean of 949 kg/ha and far below Canada/USA (1,800+ kg/ha).
  4. Small Landholdings: Over 85% small and marginal farmers lack capital for irrigation and mechanisation.
  5. Soil and Pest Constraints: Nutrient deficiency, salinity, and frequent pest attacks hinder productivity.
  6. Institutional Weakness: Fragmented R&D ecosystem and weak integration between seed research, extension, and procurement systems.

Import Trends and Dependence:

  • Import Bill Growth: From $1.6 billion (FY21) to $5.5 billion (FY25) i.e a 3.4× surge.
  • Sources: Australia and Canada (peas), Myanmar, Tanzania, Mozambique (tur/arhar).
  • Volume: 7.3 million tonnes imported in 2024-25 surpassing the 2016-17 record.
  • Drivers: Stagnant domestic output (~25 Mt for five years) and rising urban consumption.
  • Top Importers: Canada, Russia, Australia, Mozambique, Tanzania, Myanmar, USA.

Economic and Social Dimensions:

  • Production Rise: From 19.2 Mt (FY14) to 24.4 Mt (FY24), yet consumption still exceeds supply.
  • Consumption Growth: Rising incomes and protein awareness push demand upward.
  • Trade Imbalance: India remains both largest producer (25 %) and largest importer (14 %) of global pulses.

Benefits of Pulses Cultivation:

  1. Environmental Sustainability: Pulses require less water and lower chemical inputs than cereals.
  2. Soil Fertility: Through biological nitrogen fixation, they enrich soil nitrogen, improving yield for subsequent crops.
  3. Reduced Fertilizer Use: Lower dependence on synthetic urea reduces subsidy burden and emissions.
  4. Soil Structure and Water Retention: Root systems enhance porosity, carbon content, and microbial biodiversity.
  5. Pest and Disease Management: Crop rotation with pulses suppresses soil-borne pathogens and reduces pesticide dependency.
  6. Carbon Sequestration: Residue incorporation increases soil organic carbon, mitigating greenhouse gas emissions.
  7. Economic Efficiency: Arvind Subramanian Committee (2016) estimated a ₹13,000/ha higher social benefit for Tur vis-à-vis rice cultivation due to water and emission savings.

Way Forward:

  1. Seed Innovation: Intensify research through ICAR–IIPR and utilise India’s 70,000 germplasm accessions for high-yielding, climate-resilient strains.
  2. Area Expansion: Promote rice-fallow pulse rotation in eastern India and intercropping systems in semi-arid regions.
  3. Assured Procurement: Scale up NAFED and NCCF-led MSP operations, ensuring timely payments.
  4. Infrastructure Support: Strengthen warehousing, milling, and processing hubs near production clusters.
  5. Import Rationalisation: Impose variable tariffs to protect domestic farmers from global price volatility.
  6. Sustainability Integration: Incentivise pulse cultivation under carbon farming and sustainable agriculture missions.

PYQ Relevance:

[UPSC 2017] Mention the advantages of the cultivation of pulse because of which the year 2016 was declared as the International Year of Pulses by the United Nations.

[UPSC 2020] With reference to pulse production in India, consider the following statements:

1. Black gram can be cultivated as both kharif and rabi crop.

2. Green gram alone accounts for nearly half of pulse production.

3. In the last three decades, while the production of kharif pulses has increased, the production of rabi pulses has decreased.

Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

(a) 1 only * (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 2 only (d) 1, 2 and 3

 

Linkage: Pulses imports often strain the Balance of Payments (BoP) and affect food inflation (a topic tested in 2024 Mains). Achieving self-sufficiency saves foreign exchange and helps manage domestic price volatility.

 

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Labour, Jobs and Employment – Harmonization of labour laws, gender gap, unemployment, etc.

Are workers’ rights being eroded?

Explained | Economics | Mains Paper 3: Effects Of Liberalization On The Economy, Changes In Industrial Policy and their effects on Industrial Growth

Introduction / Context

  • Recent Disasters: In 2025, three major industrial accidents — the Sigachi Industries chemical blast in Telangana (June 30), the Gokulesh Fireworks explosion in Sivakasi (July 1), and the Ennore Thermal Power Station collapse in Chennai (September 30) — killed nearly 60 workers within three months.
  • Scale of the Problem: According to the British Safety Council, one in four fatal workplace accidents globally occurs in India, though actual figures are higher due to underreporting in informal sectors.
  • Structural Failure: These tragedies expose a systemic breakdown in safety enforcement, where profit maximisation overrides worker protection.

Why Workplace Accidents Occur

  1. Preventable Failures: Most industrial accidents occur due to negligence in hazard prevention such as poor equipment design, absence of alarms, and lack of maintenance.
  2. Telangana Case: The chemical reactor was operated at twice its safe limit, safety alarms failed, and untrained contract workers were deployed without records or protection.
  3. ILO Findings: The International Labour Organization (ILO) attributes most accidents to cost-cutting by managements, not random chance or individual mistakes.
  4. Human Error Myth: Employers blame workers for “human error”, but systemic issues like excessive work hours, fatigue, and exploitative conditions are the root causes.
  5. Lack of Safety Oversight: The absence of mandatory inspections and safety officers allows hazardous practices to continue unchecked.

Evolution of Workplace Safety Laws in India

  1. Colonial Roots: The first Factories Act of 1881 was enacted under British rule to regulate working hours and conditions in textile mills.
  2. Post-Independence Framework: The Factories Act of 1948 became the foundation of India’s occupational safety regime, covering licensing, rest periods, and machine maintenance.
  3. Bhopal Legacy: The 1987 Amendment followed the Bhopal Gas Tragedy, introducing stricter safety clauses but failing in enforcement due to bribery and falsified records.
  4. Compensation Mechanisms: The Workmen’s Compensation Act (1923) and Employees’ State Insurance Act (1948) provide for injury and income loss but remain financially inadequate.
  5. Lack of Criminal Accountability: Employers rarely face criminal charges for fatal negligence; compensation is often paid through government relief funds, not company liability.

Post-Liberalisation Deregulation and Impact

  1. Shift in Policy: Since the 1990s, India’s industrial policy has prioritised labour flexibility over worker protection.
  2. Self-Certification: States like Maharashtra (2015) allowed industries to self-certify compliance, effectively dismantling inspection-based oversight.
  3. Ease of Doing Business: Safety rules are now portrayed as regulatory hurdles, diluting mandatory standards for inspection and reporting.
  4. Contract Labour Expansion: Informal and outsourced workforces dominate hazardous sectors, operating without registration or legal protection.
  5. Erosion of State Capacity: Labour departments have been underfunded and depowered, reducing preventive enforcement to mere paperwork.

The Occupational Safety, Health and Working Conditions (OSHWC) Code, 2020

  1. Purpose: Consolidates 13 older laws including the Factories Act (1948), Mines Act (1952), and Contract Labour Act (1970) into one unified framework.
  2. Scope: Applies to all workplaces with 10 or more workers and covers mines, docks, and factories.
  3. Employer Duties: Mandates risk-free work environments, medical check-ups, and welfare amenities, with provisions for National and State Safety Boards.
  4. Penalties: Prescribes monetary penalties for violations and limited punishment for accidents causing death.
  5. Criticism: The Code converts safety from a statutory right to administrative discretion, weakening enforceability and inspection mechanisms.

Other Key Labour Codes:

  1. Code on Wages (2019): Ensures minimum wages, equal pay for equal work, and timely payment, reducing wage-related exploitation.
  2. Industrial Relations Code (2020): Governs strikes, layoffs, and retrenchments, focusing on maintaining employer–employee harmony under managerial control.
  3. Social Security Code (2020): Extends healthcare, pension, and insurance benefits to gig and platform workers, integrating fragmented welfare laws into one structure.

Current Trends and Emerging Risks

  1. Extended Working Hours: Post-pandemic, States have increased daily limits and reduced rest periods, heightening fatigue-related risks.
  2. Case Example: Karnataka (2023) made longer shifts permanent, undermining rest and recovery norms critical to accident prevention.
  3. Informalisation: Over 90% of India’s workforce operates informally, with no safety records or accident insurance, leaving families uncompensated.
  4. Weakened Enforcement: Inspections replaced by self-reporting allow companies to evade accountability for safety violations.
  5. Outcome: India remains among the world’s most dangerous industrial economies, with preventable deaths treated as operational costs.

Institutional and Governance Failures:

  1. Policy Shift: The State’s role has shifted from enforcer to facilitator, prioritising investment over worker welfare.
  2. Diluted Inspections: Labour departments, understaffed and politically pressured, no longer conduct surprise or independent audits.
  3. Token Punishment: Accident inquiries result in minor fines or temporary closures, not criminal prosecutions.
  4. Moral Blindness: Treating workplace deaths as “inevitable” reflects a moral and administrative collapse in valuing human life.

Way Forward: Restoring Safety as a Fundamental Right

  1. Safety as Right: Workplace safety must be reinstated as a non-negotiable constitutional right, not a regulatory privilege.
  2. Reinforce Inspection: Mandatory and surprise inspections must replace self-certification to ensure compliance.
  3. Criminal Liability: Employers responsible for preventable deaths must face criminal prosecution, not ex gratia settlements.
  4. Economic Logic: Studies confirm that safe workplaces increase productivity and profitability, contradicting industry claims of cost burdens.
  5. Moral Imperative: Until the State enforces accountability, transparency, and legal deterrence, India’s workers will remain collateral casualties of deregulated growth.

 

[UPSC 2024] Discuss the merits and demerits of the four ‘Labour Codes’ in the context of labour market reforms in India. What has been the progress so far in this regard?

Linkage: The topic of the erosion of workers’ rights is highly important for the upcoming UPSC Mains, particularly because it connects statutory, economic, and social issues, making it a favorite for analytical questions

 

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Foreign Policy Watch: India – EU

In a multi-polar West, India’s opportunity

Explained | International Relations | Mains Paper 2: Bilateral, Regional and Global Groupings and agreements involving India

Introduction

British PM Keir Starmer’s visit to Mumbai, the new EFTA trade pact, and ongoing EU-India trade talks in Brussels reflect Europe’s growing weight in India’s foreign policy. After years of limited engagement, Europe is emerging as a central partner in Delhi’s strategic calculus, just as the continent itself begins to assert geopolitical autonomy beyond its traditional dependence on the United States.

This marks a structural transformation in world politics, the emergence of a “multipolar West”, where Europe, North America, and Asia’s democratic powers pursue convergent but independent strategic agendas.

Historical Background: From Western Unity to Strategic Pluralism:

  • Post-War Western Unity: After World War II, the “West” became synonymous with political unity under US leadership, reinforced through NATO and Cold War alliances against the Soviet bloc.
  • Unipolar Moment after USSR Collapse: The collapse of the USSR in 1991 strengthened this unity, briefly creating a unipolar world centred on US dominance and Western liberal values.
  • Emergence of New Power Centres: As Russia reasserted its power and China rose to global prominence, the old Western consensus began to fracture.
  • India’s Advocacy for Multipolarity: Emerging powers like India called for a multipolar world — initially to balance US hegemony, but increasingly to acknowledge growing diversity within the West itself.

Shifting Dynamics: The Rise of a Multipolar West

  • Erosion of Transatlantic Dependence: Donald Trump’s “America First” policy disrupted long-standing alliances, forcing Europe and Asia to reconsider their strategic dependence on Washington.
  • Deepening Intra-Western Differences: Differences within the West have widened over Russia, China, trade policy, digital sovereignty, and technological standards.
  • Transactional Nature of US Power: European capitals now recognise that the US may increasingly act as a transactional power — pursuing self-interest rather than collective leadership.
  • Europe’s Strategic Reorientation: In response, Europe is embracing strategic autonomy to reduce vulnerability to shifting US politics and develop independent capacities in defence, technology, and industrial production.

Europe’s Quest for Sovereignty and Strategic Autonomy:

  • Leadership from Paris and Berlin: Leaders like Emmanuel Macron (France) and Olaf Scholz (Germany) are spearheading efforts to build a self-reliant Europe capable of defending its own interests.
  • Institutional Assertion of Autonomy: In her 2025 State of the Union address, European Commission President Ursula von der Leyen declared that Europe must “stand on its own feet, economically, technologically, and militarily.”
  • Defence and Security Cooperation: The EU is expanding defence collaboration through joint industrial initiatives and deeper coordination with partners such as the UK, Japan, South Korea, and Canada.
  • Persistent Internal Divides: Despite enduring divides between East and West over Russia, and North and South over fiscal policy Europe’s trajectory is unmistakably toward a more unified and assertive role within a plural Western order.

India’s Engagement with Europe’s Strategic Evolution:

  • EU–India Partnership Framework: The EU’s Joint Communication on India (September 2025) positions Delhi as a key partner in Europe’s Indo-Pacific and economic diversification strategy.
  • Priority Areas of Cooperation:
    • Trade and Technology: Collaboration in semiconductors, clean energy, and digital infrastructure.
    • Connectivity: Engagement through the Global Gateway initiative, aligning with India’s infrastructure ambitions.
    • Defence and Security: Cooperation on maritime domain awareness and joint naval presence in the Indian Ocean.
    • Political Dialogue: Recognition of differences on Russia, but convergence on multilateralism and democratic resilience.
  • Shift Beyond China-Centric Policy: Europe is moving beyond its earlier China-centric worldview, placing India at the centre of its Indo-Pacific engagement and supply-chain diversification efforts.

Implications of a Multipolar West for India

  • Expanded Diplomatic Flexibility: A loosely knit Western order provides India with greater strategic freedom to engage multiple Western poles — the US, EU, and UK — without rigid alignment.
  • Opportunity for Issue-Based Coalitions: The new order enables collaboration on shared priorities like climate action, digital governance, and critical technologies.
  • Risks of Fragmentation: However, a fragmented West may weaken collective responses to authoritarian aggression and reduce coherence in global governance.
  • Balancing Opportunity and Stability: India must simultaneously exploit Western pluralism and safeguard against the erosion of strategic stability that could undermine democratic solidarity.

Way Forward

  • Evolving Maturity in Foreign Policy: India’s diplomacy now shows increasing sophistication — evident in renewed engagement with Europe, balanced ties with the US, Russia, and China, and pragmatic participation in both Western and non-Western coalitions such as the Quad, BRICS, and IPEF.
  • Domestic Readiness as a Constraint: Despite external agility, institutional inertia, slow structural reforms, and uneven economic modernisation continue to limit India’s ability to leverage emerging global openings.
  • Aligning Internal and External Transformation: To fully benefit from a multipolar West, India must synchronise domestic transformation with external ambitions, ensuring that internal capacity and policy agility match the demands of an evolving global order.
[UPSC 2024] The West is fostering India as an alternative to reduce dependence on China’s supply chain and as a strategic ally to counter China’s political and economic dominance.’ Explain this statement with examples.

 

Linkage: “Multipolar World” theme involves focusing heavily on India’s strategic responses to new global and regional alliances (e.g., QUAD, AUKUS, I2U2), the shifting economic dominance of powers like China, and the resulting geopolitical instability.

 

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Issues related to Economic growth

Why Indian capital needs to invest domestically?

Explained | Economics | Mains Paper 3: Indian Economy

Introduction:

India faces a critical policy challenge — balancing the long-term gains of global trade with the short-term risks of unemployment, stagnant wages, and inequality among vulnerable populations. The existing economic system prioritises private capital accumulation over mass welfare, requiring a realignment of capitalism toward inclusivity and public interest.

Amid global trade disruptions, tariff wars, and falling external demand, Indian capital must reinvent itself, collaborate closely with the government, and anchor domestic economic stability through investment, innovation, and equitable growth.

Evolution of Indian Capital and the Need for Reorientation:

  • Protected Growth Era: Historically, Indian capital thrived under state protection before liberalisation, leveraging tariff barriers and inward-looking policies to earn supernormal profits in closed domestic markets.
  • Global Expansion Phase: Liberalisation in the 1990s enabled Indian firms to expand globally, acquiring foreign assets and establishing international linkages. This evolution created a few industrial conglomerates that dominate key sectors.
  • Shift Toward Public-Interest Capitalism: With global trade slowing and protectionism rising, these firms must now redefine their role — from being beneficiaries of state incentives to partners in public-interest growth.
  • Reinvention of Capitalism: Capitalism, as history shows, can adapt and evolve. The moment demands an inclusive capitalism that balances private profit with national development goals.

Global Trade, Demand, and Economic Vulnerabilities

  • Determinants of Demand Expansion: Economic history identifies three drivers of mass-market expansion, creation of a wage-labour class, productivity gains from industrial production, and rising personal incomes leading to higher demand.
  • Neglect of Aggregate Demand: Growth of aggregate demand is vital for sustaining production and profits, yet most policy frameworks underestimate its role, assuming supply automatically creates demand.
  • Domestic vs. External Demand: In a globalised economy, demand comprises domestic and external components. While early industrial policies relied on internal markets, the post-reform phase emphasised exports.
  • Vulnerability to Global Shocks: Today’s volatile global trade marked by tariffs and supply-chain distortions, has weakened external demand. Thus, strengthening domestic consumption through higher wages, internal investment, and industrial diversification is the pragmatic path forward.

The Role of Domestic Capital in Stimulating Growth

  1. Reviving Private Investment

    • Stagnation in Private Capex: Despite record corporate profits, private investment has stagnated, with the state driving capital formation through public infrastructure and fiscal stimulus.
    • Rise in Public Investment: Public capex surged from ₹3.4 lakh crore (FY20) to ₹10.2 lakh crore (FY25) — a CAGR of 25%, primarily in railways, roads, and communications.
    • Outward vs. Inward Investment: Private capex remains subdued even as outward FDI by Indian firms has grown 12.6% annually (2019–2024), indicating stronger foreign than domestic investment appetite.
    • Strategic Redirection Needed: A strategic reversal is required — redirecting capital toward domestic expansion, capacity building, and industrial diversification.

  1. Ensuring Moderate Wage Growth

    • Profit–Wage Imbalance: The Economic Survey 2024–25 highlighted a growing imbalance — corporate profits at a 15-year high versus stagnant real wages.
    • Falling Real Incomes: Rating agencies project real wage growth to fall from 7% (FY25) to 6.5% (FY26), weakening purchasing power and domestic demand.
    • Labour Market Precarity: Contractualization and weakened collective bargaining in formal sectors have reduced labour’s share of income, intensifying inequality.
    • Need for Wage-Linked Growth: Sustainable growth requires balanced profit–wage dynamics, linking productivity with equitable income distribution to expand internal demand.

  1. Expanding R&D and Innovation:

    • Low R&D Spending: India’s gross expenditure on R&D (GERD) stands at 0.64% of GDP, far below that of the U.S., China, Japan, and South Korea, where private enterprise funds over 70% of total R&D.
    • Weak Private Contribution: In India, the private sector contributes only 36%, with concentration in a few industries, pharmaceuticals, IT, defence, and biotechnology.
    • Innovation as a Structural Imperative: To ensure long-term competitiveness, Indian firms must increase basic and applied research spending, moving beyond short-term, profit-driven innovation cycles.

Way Forward: Aligning Private Capital with Public Purpose

  • Need for Coordination: The global economic uncertainty necessitates coordinated policy–business action to safeguard growth.
  • Government’s Supportive Role: The government has built a supportive framework through fiscal incentives, simplified regulation, infrastructure development, and credit facilitation. Yet, without active private participation, momentum will stall.
  • Reorientation of Corporate Priorities: Indian capital must realign its priorities:
    • National Responsibility: Treat national economic stability as a collective responsibility, not merely a policy backdrop.
    • Domestic Reinvestment: Reinvest profits domestically to generate employment and strengthen demand.
    • Wage-Led Expansion: Commit to wage-led growth, ensuring equitable income distribution.
    • R&D Commitment: Integrate R&D-driven innovation as a structural pillar of industrial policy.
  • Conclusion: A partnership model — where the state provides the framework and domestic capital drives inclusive, innovation-led expansion — can secure both growth resilience and social legitimacy in the post-globalisation era.

PYQ Relevance:

[UPSC 2023] Do you agree that Indian capitalism needs re-orientation towards inclusive and sustainable growth?

 

Linkage: The issue aligns with GS-III themes: Indian Economy and issues relating to growth, inclusive development, investment models, and effects of liberalisation on the economy.

It also fits Essay Paper topics like “Capitalism without conscience is a peril to society” or “Economic self-reliance and global interdependence must coexist.”

The debate concerns how Indian private capital can become a stakeholder in inclusive growth amid protectionism, global trade uncertainty, and sluggish domestic demand.

 

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The Crisis In The Middle East

Why Trump’s proposed stabilization force in Gaza will not find things easy

Explained | International Relations | Mains Paper 2: Effect Of Policies & Politics Of World On India'S Interests

Introduction

With the Gaza conflict entering its third year, US President Donald Trump’s “Comprehensive Plan to End the Gaza Conflict” , a 20-point roadmap, has reignited global discussion on Palestine’s future. While both Israel and Hamas have agreed to an immediate ceasefire and prisoner exchange, the second, more ambitious part, a long-term peace framework and deployment of an International Stabilisation Force (ISF), faces deep geopolitical and operational challenges. The ISF, envisioned as a temporary yet long-term internal security mechanism under a “Board of Peace” chaired by Trump, is supposed to oversee “terror-free areas” handed over from Israel’s Defence Forces (IDF). But historical evidence from Afghanistan, Lebanon, and Iraq shows why such an effort may fail before it even begins.

What is the International Stabilisation Force (ISF)?

  1. Temporary but long-term mechanism: The ISF is designed to act as a “temporary” yet enduring internal security arrangement, forming part of a larger apolitical Palestinian committee.
  2. Trump’s oversight: It would be supervised by a “Board of Peace” chaired by Trump, tasked with ensuring security transition in Gaza.
  3. Mandate confusion: The ISF’s deployment is proposed “immediately” after Israeli Defence Forces withdraw from designated “terror-free zones.”
  4. Not UN-mandated: Unlike traditional UN peacekeeping forces, the ISF would lack international legitimacy and neutrality, as it is not under the UN Security Council’s (UNSC) authorisation.

Why is the ISF Not Comparable to UN Peacekeeping?

  1. Absence of neutrality: International peacekeeping has always required UN-mandated neutrality; the ISF, dominated by US and allied interests, lacks this legitimacy.
  2. Hostility in the region: Due to Arab hostility towards the US and Israel’s disregard for UN mandates, any non-UN force would face rejection from regional actors.
  3. UN precedent: Since 2004, UNSC resolutions have repeatedly called for peacekeeping only under UN authority, especially within occupied Palestinian territories until a two-state solution is achieved.
  4. Contradiction with global norms: Past experiences, from NATO’s ISAF in Afghanistan to multinational forces in Lebanon, show that non-UN interventions invite political opposition and legitimacy crises.

Why is Implementation Difficult in Palestine?

  1. Israel’s selective compliance: Israel has historically undermined UN peacekeeping mandates (e.g., UNIFIL in Lebanon) and is unlikely to cooperate fully with an externally led force.
  2. Hamas’ rejection of disarmament: Hamas has refused to disarm without Israel’s full withdrawal, a non-negotiable precondition.
  3. Political vacuum: There are no strong Palestinian institutions capable of ensuring political control and governance in post-conflict Gaza.
  4. UNSC resolutions ignored: While resolutions call for a two-state solution and prohibit occupation, Israel’s actions, including settlements and security zones, contravene these commitments.
  5. Lack of Arab consensus: Arab states remain divided on participation in any force seen as legitimising Israeli occupation.

What Lessons Do Historical Precedents Offer?

  1. Afghanistan (2001–2021): The NATO-led ISAF mission initially succeeded in stabilising Kabul but failed to create self-sustaining security institutions; the Taliban returned to power in 2021.
  2. Lebanon (1982–2000): The Multinational Force (MNF), dominated by the US and UK, withdrew amid heavy local opposition and attacks, transferring responsibility to the UN’s UNIFIL.
  3. Iraq (post-2003): The absence of a UN framework led to severe legitimacy deficits, insurgency, and long-term instability.
  4. These precedents underscore that external interventions without inclusive local ownership often end in strategic failure.

What Are the Broader Challenges in Trump’s Plan?

  1. Contradictory goals: Trump’s plan envisions Israel’s partial withdrawal but simultaneously retains security control, an inherent contradiction.
  2. Palestinian exclusion: The proposal does not recognise any Palestinian political institutions or grant them meaningful authority.
  3. Legal limitations: Without UNSC authorisation, the ISF would lack the legal basis to operate or enforce peace.
  4. Regional optics: Arab and Islamic states would perceive this as another Western attempt to militarise peace under the guise of “stabilisation.”

Conclusion

Trump’s proposed International Stabilisation Force may appear bold on paper, but it suffers from a crisis of legitimacy, political trust, and historical amnesia. Without a UN mandate, regional consensus, or Palestinian participation, the plan risks deepening divisions rather than healing them. As history shows, no external force can impose peace where sovereignty and justice remain unresolved.

PYQ Relevance

[UPSC 2024] ‘Terrorism has become a significant threat to global peace and security.’ Evaluate the effectiveness of the United Nations Security Council’s Counter Terrorism Committee (CTC) and its associated bodies in addressing and mitigating this threat at the international level.

Linkage: Trump’s proposed International Stabilisation Force (ISF), lacking a UN mandate, underscores the limits of ad-hoc coalitions in tackling terrorism, contrasting with the UNSC-CTC’s institutional approach to coordinated, legitimate counter-terrorism efforts. It highlights the need for UN-backed, multilateral mechanisms over unilateral interventions for sustainable global peace.

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Nobel and other Prizes

The Nobel laurates’ work has redefined the immune system itself

Explained | Science Tech | Mains Paper 3: Awareness in various sc and tech fields

Introduction

For decades, the immune system was viewed as a binary apparatus either attacking foreign invaders or remaining silent toward the body’s own cells. This year’s Nobel laureates, Mary Brunkow, Fred Ramsdell, and Shimon Sakaguchi, dismantled that simplistic view by uncovering the critical role of regulatory T-cells (Tregs) and the FOXP3 gene in maintaining self-tolerance. Their findings fundamentally redefined how scientists perceive immune regulation and opened the path for precision immunotherapy — one of modern medicine’s most promising frontiers.

The Science of Self-Tolerance: Why It’s in the News

The Nobel Committee’s recognition of research on regulatory T-cells (Tregs) and FOXP3 marks a watershed moment in immunology. For the first time, the prize acknowledges discoveries that explain how the immune system prevents itself from attacking the body. The work explains why autoimmune disorders like Type 1 diabetes, rheumatoid arthritis, and lupus occur when this “self-check” mechanism fails. It also connects molecular immunology to emerging therapies for cancer and transplantation. This is a landmark shift from viewing immunity as mere “defence” to seeing it as a balance of activation and restraint, a concept that has redefined global biomedical research.

nobel

How the Nobel-winning Discovery Unfolded

  1. Early Understanding: In the 1990s, immunologists believed that self-reactive T-cells were deleted during their maturation. However, this could not explain why some autoreactive T-cells still existed in healthy people.
  2. Sakaguchi’s Breakthrough (1995): Identified a subset of CD4⁺ T-cells whose removal in mice led to multiple autoimmune disorders. Restoring them prevented disease — proving they act as regulators of immune overreaction.
  3. Discovery of FOXP3 Gene: Brunkow and Ramsdell, working in an industry lab (Celltech Chiroscience), traced severe autoimmune disease in male “scurfy” mice to a gene mutation on the X chromosome. They named it FOXP3.
  4. Human Correlation: Soon, mutations in FOXP3 were linked to lethal autoimmune syndromes in boys, confirming its pivotal role in human immune regulation.

How These Discoveries Transformed Immunology

  • Redefining the Immune System: The immune system is now seen not as an on/off mechanism but as a dynamic ecosystem that balances activation (attack) with restraint (tolerance).
  • New Therapeutic Frontiers:
    1. Autoimmune Diseases: Efforts are underway to expand or stabilise Tregs to curb harmful immune activation without broad immunosuppression.
    2. Transplant Medicine: Infusion of engineered Tregs improves graft acceptance and reduces rejection rates.
    3. Cancer Research: Selective depletion or reprogramming of tumour-associated Tregs enhances anti-tumour immunity without triggering autoimmunity.

From Lab to Life: The Translational Challenge

  1. Incremental Progress: Immunologists warn against overestimating breakthroughs. The immune system has multiple overlapping control layers, making clinical translation slow.
  2. High Cost Barrier: Cell-based therapies remain expensive, leading to inequitable access between high- and low-income populations.
  3. Ethical and Policy Dilemmas: Who gets access first? How do we regulate genetic manipulation or Treg engineering? These questions highlight the intersection of science, ethics, and public policy.

Private Sector and Scientific Innovation

  1. Industrial Discovery: The fact that Brunkow and Ramsdell made their discoveries in an industry setting (Celltech Chiroscience) underscores the potential of private-sector-led innovation in fundamental science.
  2. Public–Private Synergy: It reinforces how collaborations between academic research and biotech industry can accelerate discovery and application, a model India can emulate in its biotechnology policy framework.

Broader Implications for India and Global Health

  1. Indian Relevance: India’s growing burden of autoimmune diseases (such as lupus, celiac, and thyroiditis) highlights the need for indigenous immunogenetic research.
  2. Policy Perspective: Translating such research into affordable therapies aligns with National Biotechnology Development Strategy and Ayushman Bharat’s preventive healthcare goals.
  3. Global Impact: These discoveries open a new era of personalised immunotherapy, integrating molecular biology, bioethics, and equitable access.

Conclusion

The 2025 Nobel Prize reminds the world that progress in science often lies not in creating new weapons against disease but in understanding balance, the balance within nature and within ourselves. The discovery of Tregs and FOXP3 has rewritten textbooks, inspired therapies, and expanded our conception of what “self” and “immunity” truly mean. For policymakers and scientists alike, it represents the future, a fusion of molecular precision, ethical responsibility, and social justice.

PYQ Relevance

[UPSC 2021] The Nobel Prize in Physics of 2014 was jointly awarded to Akasaki, Amano and Nakamura for the invention of Blue LEDs in the 1990s. How has this invention impacted the everyday life of human beings?

Linkage: Both the 2014 Nobel for Blue LEDs and the 2025 Nobel for Treg–FOXP3 discovery represent paradigm shifts where scientific breakthroughs moved from lab theory to real-world transformation — the former revolutionised energy efficiency, while the latter is redefining human health and immune regulation.

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Disasters and Disaster Management – Sendai Framework, Floods, Cyclones, etc.

India’s direction for disaster resilience

Explained | Enviro & Biodiversity | Mains Paper 3: Disaster Management

Introduction

India’s approach to disaster management has entered a new phase, one that focuses not only on response and recovery but equally on risk reduction, preparedness, and resilience. With climate change intensifying heat waves, floods, and landslides, the country’s policy architecture, led by the Ministry of Home Affairs (MHA) and the National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA), has embraced a multi-hazard, multi-stakeholder, and science-backed model. The guiding compass remains the Prime Minister’s Ten-Point Agenda on Disaster Risk Reduction (2016), now reinforced by major financial and institutional reforms.

Why in the News

For the first time, India’s disaster management strategy has been fully integrated into public finance planning, through the 15th Finance Commission’s ₹2.28 lakh crore allocation for disaster risk reduction over five years. This is a paradigm shift: from ad hoc post-disaster relief to structured, science-driven, and nature-based risk mitigation. With new funding for fire safety, glacial risk monitoring, and bioengineering-led landslide prevention, the government’s efforts represent a bold move towards building a climate-resilient India. The initiative is also significant because it establishes clear budget-to-project chains, accountability mechanisms, and cross-institutional linkages, something missing in previous regimes.

India’s Evolving Disaster Management Framework

  1. Multi-hazard nation: India faces diverse risks, floods, droughts, landslides, heat waves, cyclones, necessitating a multi-faceted approach.
  2. Shift in focus: Earlier systems were relief-centric; now, they integrate prevention, mitigation, capacity building, and sustainable reconstruction.
  3. Institutional leadership: The MHA and NDMA lead both pre- and post-disaster phases, ensuring coordination across States and institutions.
  4. Guiding vision: The Prime Minister’s Ten-Point Agenda (2016) promotes risk-informed investments, community participation, and technology integration.

How the 15th Finance Commission Redefined Disaster Financing

  • Historic allocation: ₹2.28 lakh crore ($30 billion) allocated over five years, a landmark in linking public finance with disaster resilience.
  • Segmented approach:
    • Preparedness and Capacity Building – 10%
    • Mitigation – 20%
    • Response – 40%
    • Reconstruction – 30%
  • End of debt dependency: Earlier, post-disaster reconstruction relied on multilateral loans; now, domestic fiscal mechanisms fill that gap.
  • Five priority reforms:
    1. Evaluate multi-hazard risks and prioritize them.
    2. Integrate scientific mitigation models into fiscal systems.
    3. Avoid duplication with other schemes.
    4. Enhance Centre-State and institutional synergy.
    5. Ensure light-touch regulation for flexibility and speed.

Investing in Pre-Disaster Preparedness and Capacity Building

  1. Fire safety modernization: ₹5,000 crore earmarked for upgrading urban and rural fire infrastructure.
  2. Community-based volunteers: Apda Mitra and Yuva Apda Mitra programs train 2.5 lakh volunteers to act as first responders.
  3. Strengthening institutions:
    1. National Institute of Disaster Management (NIDM) given a central role with geo-spatial training labs and action-based research.
    2. 36 streams of disaster management courses were introduced to mainstream DRR down to the panchayat level.
  4. Outcome: Shift from theoretical to practical, localised risk management.

Nature-Based Solutions and Climate Adaptation

  1. ₹10,000 crore mitigation projects across States emphasize nature-based, long-term solutions.
  2. Bioengineering for landslides: Stabilizing slopes in Himalayan regions using vegetation and soil binding.
  3. Urban flood control: Revitalizing water bodies and green spaces to restore natural drainage.
  4. Glacial lake monitoring: Remote sensing and automated stations for real-time surveillance.
  5. Forest fire prevention: Creating break lines, rejuvenating water bodies, and fuel evacuation corridors.
  6. Brahmaputra beels rejuvenation: Ecological restoration to mitigate monsoon flooding.
  7. Precursor success: National Cyclone Mitigation Programme (2011–22): ₹5,000 crore initiative, drastically reduced coastal vulnerability through shelters, embankments, and early warnings.

Building Technological and Institutional Resilience

  1. Advanced early warning systems: Multi-hazard platforms with seven-day lead time for cyclones.
  2. Common Alerting Protocol: Delivers region-specific alerts in local languages via multi-media.
  3. Human resource development:
    • Training at NIDM, NDRF Academy, and National Fire Service College for hundreds of officers annually.
    • Mock drills, school safety programmes, and local awareness drives improve community response.
    • Network of 327 universities: Build research and innovation pipelines for disaster science and policy.

India’s Global Leadership in Disaster Resilience

  1. Coalition for Disaster Resilient Infrastructure (CDRI): India-led global initiative for climate-resilient infrastructure systems.
  2. Active participation: G-20, SCO, BIMSTEC, and IORA platforms for sharing best practices.
  3. Knowledge exchange: India’s experience in nature-based DRR and community-driven risk management now shaping global policy dialogues.

Conclusion

India’s journey from disaster relief to disaster resilience marks a tectonic policy evolution. With fiscal integration, scientific innovation, and community participation, the nation is shifting from reactive recovery to proactive risk management. The emerging focus on nature-based, sustainable, and locally-driven mitigation reflects India’s understanding that resilience is not built after a disaster, it is cultivated every day, across every sector.

PYQ Relevance

[UPSC 2024] What is disaster resilience? How is it determined? Describe various elements of a resilience framework. Also mention the global targets of Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction (2015-2030).

Linkage: This PYQ is directly linked as the article highlights India’s evolving resilience framework under NDMA and the 15th Finance Commission, reflecting Sendai-aligned efforts to mainstream disaster risk reduction into national policy and finance.

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Alternative Dispute Resolution Mechanism – NCA, Lok Adalats, etc.

Why is ADR crucial for India’s courts?

Explained | Polity | Mains Paper 2: Executive & Judiciary

Introduction

India’s courts are gasping under the weight of delays. According to the National Judicial Data Grid (NJDG), there are 4.57 crore pending cases, with nearly 63 lakh in High Courts and over 80,000 in the Supreme Court. For many citizens, justice delayed has become justice denied. Against this backdrop, the government’s renewed commitment to strengthen Alternative Dispute Resolution (ADR) marks an important turning point. ADR, rooted in India’s traditional dispute resolution practices, represents not just a procedural alternative, but a philosophical one. It shifts justice from confrontation to consensus, from hierarchy to harmony.

Why is ADR in the News?

The Minister of Law and Justice, Arjun Ram Meghwal, recently emphasized that India’s legal reforms must draw from its civilisational roots, particularly the doctrine of Panch Parmeshwar, the age-old village system of resolving disputes through collective wisdom. This announcement is significant for three reasons:

  1. Civilisational continuity: For the first time in recent years, legal reform is being explicitly linked to indigenous justice philosophy.
  2. Crisis in pendency: With cases exceeding 4.5 crore and vacancy rates of 33% in High Courts and 21% in district courts, India’s formal judicial system is overburdened beyond capacity.
  3. Demand for inclusion: ADR offers an alternative that is faster, cheaper, and socially inclusive, especially for marginalised groups who find formal litigation intimidating.

In essence, ADR is not just reform, it is rescue.

What is Alternative Dispute Resolution (ADR) and How Does It Work?

  1. Definition: ADR refers to mechanisms outside formal courts that help parties resolve disputes through mutual understanding, mediation, arbitration, conciliation, or Lok Adalats.
  2. Objective: To provide speedy, affordable, and amicable resolution while reducing judicial burden.
  3. Legal Framework:
    1. Article 39A of the Constitution mandates equal justice and free legal aid.
    2. Section 89 of the Code of Civil Procedure (CPC), 1908 formally recognizes ADR processes.
    3. Arbitration and Conciliation Act, 1996 (amended in 2021) gives statutory backing to arbitration agreements and conciliation processes.
  4. Time-bound resolution: The Arbitration Act, 2021 fixes a maximum 180-day period for dispute resolution — a stark contrast to the years spent in litigation.
    1. Exit Clause: If a party is dissatisfied, they can opt out after two sessions of mediation.
  5. Pre-litigation mediation: Encouraged for civil and commercial disputes, helping prevent new cases from entering the judicial pipeline.
  6. Example: Many commercial entities now resolve contractual disputes through institutional arbitration centres such as the Delhi International Arbitration Centre (DIAC), saving both time and cost.

How Do Lok Adalats Strengthen Access to Justice?

  1. Legal Basis: Lok Adalats are governed by the Legal Services Authorities Act, 1987, deriving strength from Article 39A.
  2. Types of Lok Adalats:
    • Permanent Lok Adalats (Section 22-B)
    • National Lok Adalats (held periodically)
    • E-Lok Adalats (virtual platforms launched post-COVID-19).
    • First Lok Adalat: Held in Gujarat in 1999 — symbolizing people’s justice at minimal cost.
  4. Finality of Decisions: Awards are final and binding, with no provision for appeal, ensuring swift closure.
  5. Safeguards: If dissatisfied, parties can still approach formal courts, preserving fairness.
  6. Impact: Lok Adalats have successfully resolved lakhs of cases annually, especially in motor accident and bank recovery disputes.

Why is Strengthening ADR a Necessity, Not a Choice?

  1. Judicial Overload: Judges in Uttar Pradesh, Himachal Pradesh, and Kerala handle over 4,000 cases each, severely limiting judicial attention.
  2. Delay and Disillusionment: A large portion of cases have been pending for over 10 years, eroding public faith in formal justice.
  3. Vacancies and Infrastructure Gaps: With 33% High Court and 21% district court vacancies, the backlog is worsening.
  4. Societal Benefits: As former CJI D.Y. Chandrachud noted, mediation is a tool for social change, aligning community norms with constitutional values through open dialogue.
  5. Cultural Relevance: ADR resonates with India’s traditional ethos, the village panchayat system was historically based on consensus, not contest.
  6. ADR thus not only decongests courts but humanises justice, making it conversational rather than confrontational.

Which States Have the Highest Backlog and Why It Matters

  1. Data from the India Justice Report 2025:
    • Andhra Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, and Bihar have the highest backlog.
    • High Court pendency: Nearly 63 lakh cases.
    • District courts: The majority of the 4.57 crore pending cases.
  2. Vacancy crisis: Shortage of judges and staff deepens the delays.
  3. State ranking mechanism: The India Justice Report evaluates states on justice delivery, infrastructure, and human resources, revealing wide inter-State disparities.
  4. Call for reform: Strengthening ADR is crucial to ensure per capita justice delivery, especially in states lagging behind in judicial capacity.

Conclusion

ADR is not merely an alternative, it is an evolution of justice delivery in India. Rooted in India’s cultural traditions yet aligned with global best practices, ADR offers a pragmatic pathway to tackle pendency and ensure timely justice. Strengthening awareness, institutional capacity, and legal infrastructure around ADR will be key to transforming India from a litigating society into a resolving society — where justice is swift, simple, and shared.

PYQ Relevance

[UPSC 2015] What are the major changes brought in the Arbitration and Conciliation Act, 1996 through the recent Ordinance promulgated by the President? How far will it improve India’s dispute resolution mechanism? Discuss.

Linkage: The 2015 Ordinance streamlined arbitration by fixing strict timelines and limiting court interference, strengthening India’s move toward faster, credible, and globally competitive dispute resolution, aligning with the core goals of ADR reform.

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Climate Change Impact on India and World – International Reports, Key Observations, etc.

India’s clean energy rise needs climate finance expansion

Explained | Enviro & Biodiversity | Mains Paper 3: Conservation, Environmental Pollution & Degradation, Eia

Introduction

India’s clean energy story has entered a defining phase. With 24.5 GW of solar capacity added in 2024, India now stands as the third-largest solar power contributor in the world, after China and the U.S. This achievement reflects not only technological progress but also the country’s growing global leadership in renewable energy. Yet, behind this success lies a serious constraint, the widening climate finance gap, estimated at over $2.5 trillion by 2030. Without adequate and innovative financing, India’s clean energy momentum risks slowing down, threatening its ability to stay on course for its 1.5°C-aligned climate targets.

Why in the News

India added 24.5 GW of solar capacity in 2024, emerging as the third largest contributor globally, after China and the U.S., a historic leap for a developing country. Recognised in the UN Secretary-General’s 2025 Climate Report alongside Brazil and China, India has shown that clean energy growth can power both employment (over 1 million jobs) and GDP (5% contribution). However, the optimism hides a crisis: a climate finance gap exceeding $2.5 trillion by 2030, threatening to stall India’s 1.5°C-aligned pathway. The stakes are massive — India’s global credibility, energy security, and development model now depend on how swiftly it can scale climate finance.

The Economic Momentum of India’s Clean Energy Transition

  1. 24.5 GW solar addition (2024): Makes India the third-largest solar contributor globally, marking a defining milestone in renewable energy leadership.
  2. Global recognition: The UN 2025 Climate Report identifies India as a leading developing nation in scaling solar and wind energy.
  3. Employment boost: Renewable energy employed over 1 million people in 2023, with off-grid solar alone employing 80,000 (2021).
  4. GDP contribution: Renewables added 5% to India’s GDP growth, underscoring its macroeconomic importance.
  5. International Solar Alliance (ISA): India’s leadership in creating ISA has positioned it as a norm-setter in global clean energy diplomacy.

Where Lies the Climate Finance Gap?

Massive funding shortfall:

  1. $1.5 trillion required (IRENA) by 2030 for a 1.5°C pathway.
  2. $2.5 trillion+ estimated by the Ministry of Finance for national targets — double the earlier projections.
  3. Finance distribution gaps: Needed for battery storage, green hydrogen, grid strengthening, sustainable agriculture, and transport transition.

Green bonds surge:

  1. Cumulative GSS+ debt issuance: $55.9 billion (2024), up 186% since 2021.
  2. Green bonds: Account for 83% of total sustainable issuance.
  3. Private sector dominance: 84% of green bond issuance.
  4. Key concern: MSMEs and agri-tech innovators face barriers in accessing concessional finance and risk-sharing tools.

How Can India Unlock Climate Finance?

  1. Public finance as catalyst: National and State governments must use budget allocations and fiscal incentives to de-risk green investments.
  2. Blended finance models:
    • Credit enhancement tools (partial guarantees, subordinated debt) to improve risk-return profiles.
    • Performance or loan guarantees to unlock finance for Tier II & III cities.
  3. Domestic institutional capital:
    • Mobilising funds from EPFO, LIC, pension and insurance funds for green portfolios.
    • Requires regulatory reforms, ESG frameworks, and green project pipelines.

Policy Innovations and Carbon Market Potential

  • Carbon Credit Trading Scheme: Offers a new finance stream, provided it remains transparent, regulated, and equitable.
  • Adaptation and Loss & Damage Financing: Focus must extend beyond mitigation to resilience building.
  • Tech-driven climate finance: 
    • Use of Blockchain for finance tracking.
    • AI-based risk assessment for green portfolios.
    • Tailored blended finance suited to India’s socio-economic landscape.

Private Sector and Sovereign Initiatives in Climate Finance

  1. Sovereign Green Bonds: Successful issuance has crowded-in private capital for green projects.
  2. SEBI-regulated Social Bonds: Directed funds to education, healthcare, and climate action.
  3. Solar Park Scheme: Competitive auctions have encouraged private investment in large-scale solar infrastructure.

Conclusion

India’s clean energy transition stands at a defining crossroad — its success no longer depends on technology or intent, but on finance. The renewable boom has demonstrated economic and employment dividends, but without a parallel rise in climate finance mechanisms, it risks plateauing. To sustain momentum, India must blend innovation, public-private synergy, and institutional capital. The clean energy rise must now be matched by a climate finance revolution.

PYQ Relevance

[UPSC 2022] Do you think India will meet 50 percent of its energy needs from renewable energy by 2030? Justify your answer. How will the shift of subsidies from fossil fuels to renewables help achieve the above objective? Explain.

Linkage: The article complements the 2022 question by highlighting that India’s progress toward meeting 50% renewable energy by 2030 hinges on bridging its $2.5 trillion climate finance gap. It emphasizes that shifting fiscal support and private capital from fossil fuels to renewables is crucial to sustain this transition.

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Internal Security Trends and Incidents

A red sunset? Why Maoist movement is on the decline

Explained | Security Issues | Mains Paper 3: External State & Non-State Actors: Challenges To Internal Security.

Introduction

For nearly six decades, the Maoist insurgency has tested India’s state capacity, governance, and security architecture. Born from socio-economic inequalities and agrarian distress, it once posed a threat spanning the “Red Corridor” from Andhra Pradesh to Bihar. However, in 2025, India seems to be witnessing what could be a historical inflection point, a near end of the movement. The combination of relentless security operations, developmental outreach, and ideological erosion has pushed the insurgency to its lowest ebb in history, limited now to just 38 districts.

Why is this in the news?

For the first time in six decades, the Maoist movement has reached the brink of extinction. This sharp decline is a historic reversal from the early 2000s, when the insurgency had spread across nearly 180 districts, posing an existential challenge to internal peace.

The Union Home Ministry’s data for 2025 reveals:

  1. 270 Maoists killed, 680 arrested, and 1,225 surrendered.
  2. The insurgency is now confined to 38 districts, a dramatic fall from its 2005 peak.
  3. Top Maoist leaders, including Mallojula Venugopal Rao, have called for the “cessation of armed struggle”, signaling an ideological collapse within.
  4. This represents a turning point in India’s counter-insurgency history, where military, governance, and psychological strategies appear to have converged successfully.

What led to the decline of the Maoist movement?

  • Relentless Security Operations
    1. Persistent operations by security forces under the Union Ministry of Home Affairs and state police coordination have dismantled Maoist strongholds.
    2. Leaders such as Katta Ramachandra Reddy and Kalayari Reddy have been neutralized, causing organizational paralysis.
  • Curtailment of Resources: Maoists face acute shortages of arms, ammunition, and funding, with security blockades choking supply lines across Bastar-Dandakaranya region.
  • Collapse of Ideological Unity: 
    1. Internal ideological fractures deepened after the deaths of key leaders like Kishenji and Charu Majumdar.
    2. Letters by surviving leaders calling for surrender reflect a moral fatigue within the movement.
  • Tribal Alienation: Once rooted in tribal grievances, the Maoist narrative lost resonance as tribal communities began benefiting from welfare schemes, education, and employment programs.

Has this happened before? Understanding the cyclical pattern

  • Historical Fluctuations: The Maoist movement, born in Naxalbari (West Bengal, 1967), has seen cycles of rise and suppression.
    1. 1970s: Spread into Andhra Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, and Odisha.
    2. 1990s: Revival through the People’s War Group (PWG).
    3. 2000s: Peak insurgency affecting nearly 180 districts.
  • Distinctiveness of 2025 Phase: Unlike previous lulls, this decline is structural, not temporary—rooted in the erosion of ideology and grassroots support rather than mere state force.

Is the movement really over?

  1. Residual Threats Persist:
    1. Maoist influence lingers in border areas of Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, and Odisha.
    2. Their transition to smaller, mobile guerrilla units may prolong low-intensity violence.
  2. Surrender vs. Rehabilitation:
    1. While many cadres have surrendered, effective reintegration policies—jobs, skill-building, and psychological counseling—remain key to ensuring they don’t relapse into militancy.
  3. Need for Vigilance: Experts warn against complacency. Maoism thrives in governance vacuums—where corruption, displacement, or inequality persist, new movements could emerge.

What lessons does this offer for internal security and governance?

  1. Integrated Strategy Works: A mix of security action, development, and psychological outreach has proven effective—embodying the “Samadhan Doctrine” (Solution through Smart Leadership, Aggressive Strategy, Motivation, and Action).
  2. Development as Deterrence: Expanding roads, schools, and welfare programs in tribal areas helped dismantle Maoist influence.
  3. Institutional Coordination: Joint efforts by the Centre and States, under continuous review of MHA, have created sustained momentum.

Conclusion

The “Red Sunset” of the Maoist insurgency is not just a victory of arms but a triumph of governance and persistence. India’s approach, combining security precision with socio-economic inclusion, offers a replicable model for countering internal conflicts.

However, sustaining peace will depend on addressing root causes, land alienation, forest rights, and local governance deficits, lest another insurgency rises from the same soil.

PYQ Relevance

[UPSC 2022] Naxalism is a social, economic and development issues manifesting as a violent internal security threat. In this context, discuss the emerging issues and suggest a multilayered strategy to tackle the menace of Naxalism.

Linkage: The 2025 developments highlighted in “A Red Sunset” perfectly exemplify how the government’s multi-dimensional approach, combining security operations, socio-economic welfare, and ideological disengagement, has yielded tangible results. It reinforces the UPSC 2022 theme that Naxalism is not merely a law-and-order issue but a socio-economic one demanding a holistic, multilayered strategy.

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Waste Management – SWM Rules, EWM Rules, etc

Cost of convenience, health hazards a a side effect of using digital tools

Explained | Enviro & Biodiversity | Mains Paper 3: Conservation, Environmental Pollution & Degradation, Eia

Introduction

India’s embrace of the digital revolution has been rapid and transformative. From smartphones to smart homes, electronics have become integral to urban living. However, this transformation carries a dark underbelly: the mounting crisis of e-waste. In 2025, India generated 2.2 million tonnes of e-waste, becoming the third-largest generator globally, after China and the United States. Despite having a formal recycling capacity of over 2.2 million MT, more than half of India’s e-waste is still processed informally, exposing millions to toxic substances. The issue is not just environmental but also a public health catastrophe, disproportionately affecting the poor and marginalised.

Why is e-waste in the news?

India’s e-waste problem is no longer a distant warning but an immediate crisis. The country has seen a 150% surge in e-waste since 2017–18 (0.71 MT to 2.2 MT in 2025), with projections of doubling by 2030. Cities like Seelampur (Delhi), Moradabad (UP), and Bhiwandi (Maharashtra) have emerged as hotspots of informal recycling, where toxic fumes and crude dismantling methods poison both workers and residents. Despite 322 formal recycling units, informal handlers dominate the sector, creating one of the sharpest contrasts between policy design and ground reality.

The Escalating Burden of E-Waste

  1. Third-largest generator: India stands only behind China and the U.S., producing 2.2 MT of e-waste in 2025.
  2. Rapid growth: A 150% surge in seven years, expected to double by 2030.
  3. Urban hotspots: Over 60% of e-waste originates from just 65 cities; major hubs include Seelampur, Mustafabad, Moradabad, and Bhiwandi.

Why informal recycling is a ticking time bomb

  1. Crude methods: Manual dismantling, open burning, and acid leaching without protective equipment.
  2. Toxic substances: Release of over 1,000 hazardous chemicals, including heavy metals (lead, cadmium, mercury, chromium), POPs (dioxins, furans), and fine particulate matter (PM₂.₅ and PM₁₀).
  3. Alarming air quality: PM₂.₅ levels in Seelampur exceed 300 µg/m³ — over 12 times higher than WHO’s safe limit of 25 µg/m³.

How does e-waste impact human health?

  1. Respiratory illnesses: Workers show 76–80% prevalence of chronic bronchitis, asthma, persistent coughing (MDPI Applied Sciences, 2025).
  2. Neurological damage: Lead exposure linked to cognitive impairment, reduced IQ, attention deficits. WHO warns millions of children are at risk.
  3. Skin & ocular disorders: Rashes, burns, dermatitis; in Guiyu (China), exposure linked to miscarriages and preterm births.
  4. Genetic and systemic effects: DNA damage, oxidative stress, altered immune functions; children show higher vulnerability.
  5. Syndemic environment: E-waste risks compound poverty, malnutrition, and unsafe housing, worsening outcomes for urban poor.

Policy response: Progress and gaps

  1. E-Waste (Management) Rules, 2022: Strengthened Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR), mandatory registration, incentives for formalisation.
  2. Weak enforcement: As of 2023–24, only 43% of e-waste was officially processed.
  3. Legal hurdles: Capping of EPR credit prices led to legal disputes with manufacturers.
  4. Gap: Informal handlers still dominate, undermining scientific recycling capacity.

The Way Forward

  1. Formalise the informal: Integrate kabadiwalas through skill certification, PPE provision, healthcare, social security.
  2. Strengthen enforcement: Empower Pollution Control Boards, mandate digital tracking & audits.
  3. Expand medical surveillance: Health camps and long-term studies, especially on children in hotspots.
  4. Foster innovation: Promote local recycling technologies, decentralised treatment hubs.
  5. Raise awareness: Mass campaigns and school-level education on e-waste.

Conclusion

India’s digital empowerment cannot come at the cost of environmental collapse and human suffering. The e-waste crisis is not only a question of waste management but also of justice and public health. Unless India formalises its informal sector, strengthens enforcement, invests in technology, and raises awareness, the cost of convenience will continue to erode both ecosystems and human dignity.

PYQ Relevance

[UPSC 2018] What are the impediments in disposing the huge quantities of discarded solid wastes which are continuously being generated? How do we remove safely the toxic wastes that have been accumulating in our habitable environment?

Linkage: The article on e-waste directly links to this PYQ as it highlights impediments like dominance of informal recycling, weak enforcement of E-Waste Rules, and lack of awareness, while also suggesting safe disposal measures such as formalisation, digital tracking, PPE use, decentralised hubs, and scientific recycling methods.

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US policy wise : Visa, Free Trade and WTO

Can diaspora please stand up

Explained | International Relations | Mains Paper 2: Indian Diaspora

Introduction

The Indian-American diaspora is often hailed as one of the most successful immigrant groups in the United States, with the highest median household income among all ethnicities, six Fortune 500 CEOs, governors, Congress members, and leaders in federal agencies like the CDC and FBI. However, recent U.S. policy shifts, such as increased tariffs on Indian goods, restrictions on H-1B visas, and sanctions affecting India’s strategic infrastructure, have highlighted the limits of diaspora influence. Despite its success, the community faces a pressing question: will it remain silent, or rise to defend India’s interests when challenged abroad?

Why is this in the news?

In recent months, the Trump administration unleashed a series of punitive measures: slapping 50% tariffs on Indian goods, imposing a $100,000 fee on H-1B visa applications (of which Indians receive 70%), restricting student visas, and sanctioning India’s strategic infrastructure projects like the Chabahar port. These measures directly affect Indian professionals, businesses, and students in the U.S. Surprisingly, the celebrated Indian-American diaspora has responded with muted or absent voices, raising serious concerns about the costs of silence. This marks a sharp contrast: while India has celebrated its diaspora as “soft power champions,” their political engagement on issues of consequence appears weak.

What makes the Indian-American diaspora so influential?

  1. High economic success: Highest median household income among ethnic groups, concentration of CEOs, professionals, and leaders in U.S. politics and administration.
  2. Symbol of integration: From Bollywood films to biryani, diaspora blends nostalgia with modern influence.
  3. Strategic assets: Strong presence in STEM, academia, corporate America, and policymaking.

Why is the diaspora silent on anti-India measures?

  1. Fear of backlash: Second-generation Indian-Americans feel their American identity questioned if they oppose U.S. policy too strongly.
  2. Fragmentation: Divided by region, religion, political orientation; no unified lobbying voice.
  3. Political caution: Many supported Trump for pro-business stance or Hindu nationalist sentiment but hesitated to confront his administration.
  4. Practical concerns: Rising costs for H-1B visas, employment restrictions on STEM graduates, yet little public opposition.

What are the consequences of this silence?

  1. Weakening of India’s strategic position: If diaspora fails to defend against hostile U.S. measures, it undermines India’s global partnerships.
  2. Loss of moral voice: Diaspora loses legitimacy as defenders of India’s interests.
  3. Encouragement of further punitive actions: Silence signals complicity, emboldening further sanctions and restrictions.
  4. Cultural reductionism: Diaspora risks being seen as only symbolic carriers of Bollywood, biryani, and Bharatanatyam rather than political actors.

What should be the role of the diaspora?

  1. Bridge-builder: Act as advocates for India when U.S. policies hurt strategic ties.
  2. Political engagement: Use lobbying capacity, financial resources, and media influence to defend India’s interests.
  3. Principled advocacy: Support India not just through nostalgia or identity politics but through substantive action.
  4. Moral responsibility: As beneficiaries of U.S. democracy, they must speak truth to power, not remain bystanders.

Conclusion

The Indian-American diaspora stands at a crossroads: to remain silent and symbolic or to act as a true strategic partner for India. Its wealth, numbers, and influence offer immense potential to shape narratives in Washington, but silence risks rendering it irrelevant. For India, the diaspora must be more than a cultural soft-power asset, it must become a political and moral force that safeguards India’s interests globally.

PYQ Relevance

[UPSC 2020] Indian diaspora has a decisive role to play in the politics and economy of America and European Countries. Comment with examples.

Linkage: The article highlights how the Indian-American diaspora, despite its economic and political clout, has remained largely silent on hostile U.S. measures like tariffs and H-1B restrictions. This directly links to the PYQ as it shows both the potential role of diaspora in shaping politics and economy abroad, and the limits of its current influence when it fails to actively advocate for India.

Value Addition

Size and Spread

  1. Largest diaspora in the world – 18 million (UN DESA, 2021).
  2. Major hubs – USA (4.8 mn), UAE (3.5 mn), Saudi Arabia (2.5 mn), UK (1.6 mn), Canada (1.7 mn), Australia (0.7 mn).

Economic Role

  1. Remittances – India received $125 billion in 2023 (World Bank), highest globally.
  2. Investment channels – NRI deposits (over $141 billion in Indian banks).
  3. Entrepreneurship – Indian-Americans own ~80,000 businesses in the US, employing ~200,000 people.

Diplomatic and Strategic Role

  1. Lobbying in the US – India Caucus in US Congress, among the largest country caucuses.
  2. Strengthening bilateral ties – Diaspora played a role in the US–India nuclear deal (2008).
  3. Community mobilisation – Helped India’s COVID-19 vaccine diplomacy; strong mobilisation for relief during natural disasters (Kerala floods, Nepal earthquake).

Cultural and Soft Power Influence

  1. Bollywood & cuisine – Bollywood films rank in top 10 foreign releases in Gulf and US theatres; Indian food chains like Patel Brothers in US are cultural hubs.
  2. International Day of Yoga (21st June) – Promoted by diaspora across 170+ countries.
  3. Cricket diplomacy – Popularised Indian Premier League abroad; diaspora support in stadiums gives visibility.

Challenges and Criticism

  1. Brain drain vs. brain gain – Loss of skilled talent, though remittances compensate.
  2. Fragmentation – Religious, regional, and political divides weaken unified lobbying.
  3. Political caution – Reluctance to challenge host-country policies that hurt India.
  4. Exploitation in Gulf – Migrant workers face poor labour conditions and weak legal recourse.

Initiatives by India

  1. Pravasi Bharatiya Divas (PBD) – Celebrated biennially since 2003.
  2. Overseas Citizenship of India (OCI) – Allows lifelong visa, parity with NRIs in most fields (except politics & purchase of agricultural land).
  3. Scholarship Program for Diaspora Children (SPDC) – Assists NRI/PIO children studying in India.
  4. Madad Portal & e-Migrate – For welfare and grievance redressal of emigrants.

Comparative Diaspora Roles in Other Countries

  1. China – Chinese diaspora heavily invests in home-country infrastructure, strong lobbying in US.
  2. Israel – Jewish diaspora played a decisive role in US foreign policy.
  3. Ireland – Irish-American lobby influenced US policy on Northern Ireland.

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Women empowerment issues – Jobs,Reservation and education

The transformation of girls education

Explained | Social Justice | Mains Paper 2: Health & Education

Introduction

“Beti padhegi toh kya karegi?” — a once common phrase in Indian households, captures the deep-rooted gender bias against girls’ education. In sharp contrast, India today is witnessing a remarkable transformation where girls’ education is not only improving literacy rates but also shaping health, fertility, workforce participation, and leadership outcomes. This transformation, spearheaded by initiatives like Kanya Kelavani in Gujarat and later Beti Bachao Beti Padhao (BBBP) at the national level, represents a structural and cultural shift in Indian society.

Why is this transformation in the news?

Girls’ education in India is witnessing measurable improvements backed by accountability and systemic policy pushes. The nationwide BBBP initiative, initially launched in 100 gender-critical districts, has led to a visible improvement in sex ratio at birth (919 in 2015-16 to 929 in 2019-21), reduced female dropout rates, and higher female literacy in states like Gujarat. These achievements are striking because they stand in contrast to decades of entrenched female foeticide, poor infrastructure for girls, and deep social stigma. For the first time, policy, leadership, and public movements have converged to change mindsets at scale, making this one of the most significant social transformations of contemporary India.

The Gujarat Model of Change

  1. Multi-pronged approach: Tackled female foeticide and illiteracy not just with laws but also through perception change, infrastructure, and incentives.
  2. Kanya Kelavani Campaign (2003): Focused on awareness, provision of toilets for girls (a major dropout factor), and community participation.
  3. Striking impact: Female literacy rate in Gujarat rose to 70% (above national average of 64%); dropout rates reduced by 90% in targeted districts.
  4. Symbolic leadership: PM Modi auctioned personal gifts raising ₹19 crore for girls’ education, alongside a personal donation of ₹21 lakh, signalling public ownership of the movement.

Scaling Success Nationwide: Beti Bachao, Beti Padhao

  1. Launched in 2015: Nationwide expansion of Gujarat’s lessons to prevent female foeticide and promote education.
  2. Inter-ministerial coordination: Involved Women and Child Development, Health, and Education ministries for an integrated push.

  • Impact:

    1. Sex ratio at birth: Improved from 919 (2015-16) to 929 (2019-21).
    2. Wider coverage: Expanded beyond the initial 100 critical districts to pan-India.
    3. 20 out of 30 States/UTs performing better than national average sex ratio (930).

The Ripple and Multiplier Effects of Educated Girls

  1. Demographic shift: Educated women marry later, have fewer children; Total Fertility Rate fell to 2.0 (below replacement).
  2. Health outcomes: More likely to seek institutional deliveries and prenatal care; Infant Mortality Rate reduced from 49 (2014) to 33 (2020).
  3. Economic participation: Rising visibility in healthcare, STEM, education, entrepreneurship, armed forces, and tech leadership.
  4. Intergenerational impact: Children of educated mothers perform better in school, with healthier outcomes.
  5. Changing mindsets: In Madhya Pradesh, 89.5% aware of BBBP, and 63.2% credited it with motivating families to send daughters to school.

Challenges Ahead

  1. Labour force participation: Despite progress, overall female labour participation remains low.
  2. Regional disparities: Some states and districts lag significantly in sex ratio and enrollment.
  3. Cultural inertia: Early marriages, dowry, and gendered household expectations still restrict education gains.

Conclusion

The transformation in girls’ education marks one of the most profound social revolutions in India. From Gujarat’s Kanya Kelavani to the nationwide BBBP, the shift is not only about literacy but about empowering women to be leaders, professionals, and change-makers. As the article highlights, when you educate a girl, you transform a society. Sustaining this momentum will be crucial for India’s journey towards equity, development, and inclusive growth.

PYQ Relevance

[UPSC 2021] Though women in post-Independent India have excelled in various fields, the social attitude towards women and feminist movement has been patriarchal.” Apart from women education and women empowerment schemes, what interventions can help change this milieu?

Linkage: The article shows that while education and schemes like BBBP have triggered change, sustained mindset shifts through community engagement, legal safeguards, and leadership-driven social movements are equally vital to challenge India’s patriarchal milieu.

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Labour, Jobs and Employment – Harmonization of labour laws, gender gap, unemployment, etc.

More Women join the labour force, but are they really employed?

Explained | Economics | Mains Paper 3: Issues relating growth and development, employment

Introduction

The female labour force participation rate (FLFPR) is often viewed as a proxy for gender equality and economic dynamism. India’s FLFPR dropped from 31.2% in 2011-12 to 23.3% in 2017-18 but has dramatically risen to 41.7% in 2023-24. At first glance, this looks like a success story. However, closer scrutiny reveals that most women are being absorbed into agriculture, unpaid household enterprises, and low-paying self-employment, rather than formal or secure wage jobs. The paradox is clear: more women are being “counted” in the labour market, but their earnings and economic independence remain stagnant or declining.

Why is female labour force participation in the news?

  1. Sharp rise in FLFPR: Jumped from 23.3% in 2017-18 to 41.7% in 2023-24.
  2. First-time reversal: After years of decline, the participation rate is rising again.
  3. Underlying concern: Despite more women “working,” earnings have fallen, and secure wage jobs remain elusive.
  4. Contradiction: Participation has grown, but instead of diversifying into services/industry, women are moving back into agriculture.

What explains the rise in female participation?

  1. Rural women as drivers: Most of the rise is accounted for by women in rural India.
  2. Shift from domestic duties: Share of women reporting “domestic duties” fell from 57.8% (2017-18) to 35.7% (2023-24).
  3. Rise in unpaid helpers: Share of “helpers in household enterprises” rose from 9.1% to 19.6%.
  4. Self-employment increase: “Own account workers and employers” rose from 4.5% to 14.6%.

Are women moving to better jobs?

  1. Agriculture dominance: Share of rural women in agriculture rose from 71.1% (2018-19) to 76.9% (2023-24).
  2. Decline in other sectors: Women’s share in both secondary (industry) and tertiary (services) sectors has fallen.
  3. Blurring boundaries: Women’s unpaid household work overlaps with helper roles in household enterprises, making it questionable whether this should count as “employment.”

What about earnings and job quality?

  1. Declining real earnings: Except for casual workers, earnings have declined across categories—self-employed, salaried, and even employers.
  2. Vulnerability of self-employment: More women are reporting self-employment, but this has not translated into higher income.
  3. No wage expansion: Growth in FLFPR has not been accompanied by secure wage-based jobs.

Why does this matter for India’s economy and gender equality?

  1. False signal of empowerment: Higher FLFPR without earnings security reflects distress-driven participation, not genuine empowerment.
  2. Economic vulnerability: Rising unpaid and low-paid work lowers household resilience and women’s autonomy.
  3. Policy challenge: Employment growth is not keeping pace with women’s entry into the workforce, pointing to structural issues in India’s labour market.

Conclusion

The sharp rise in India’s female labour force participation hides more than it reveals. Women are being pushed into unpaid or poorly paid work, especially in agriculture and household enterprises, while real earnings are falling. This suggests that India’s growth story is not translating into dignified employment for women. For true gender equality, the focus must shift from mere participation numbers to quality, security, and remuneration of women’s work. Only then will women’s economic empowerment become a reality.

PYQ Relevance

[UPSC 2023] Distinguish between ‘care economy’ and ‘monetized economy’. How can the care economy be brought into a monetized economy through women empowerment?

Linkage: The article highlights women’s shift from domestic duties to unpaid helper roles, directly linking the care economy to the challenge of integrating it into the monetized economy through women’s empowerment.

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Terrorism and Challenges Related To It

An anti-terror role that defies logic

Explained | Security Issues | Mains Paper 3: External State & Non-State Actors: Challenges To Internal Security.

Introduction

The global fight against terrorism is rooted in credibility, trust, and collective responsibility. Yet, the United Nations’ recent decision to entrust Pakistan with leadership positions in the Taliban Sanctions Committee and as Vice-Chair of the UNSC Counter-Terrorism Committee has sparked disbelief. For a country long accused of sheltering terrorists, from Osama bin Laden to Lashkar-e-Taiba and Jaish-e-Mohammad, this appointment is not just ironic but deeply unsettling. Coupled with financial support such as the IMF’s billion-dollar loan to Pakistan despite concerns of terror financing, these developments expose critical vulnerabilities in the UN system. For India, which continues to suffer from cross-border terrorism, this represents a significant diplomatic and security challenge.

Why is this in the news?

Pakistan, accused for decades of harbouring terrorists and backing attacks on Indian soil, has been elevated to leadership in global counter-terrorism mechanisms. The timing is striking: the move came just weeks after the April 2025 Pahalgam attack where terrorists killed Indian tourists, followed by India’s Operation Sindoor against terror launchpads. To add to the irony, Pakistan also assumed the UNSC Presidency in July 2025. This is not the first time the UN has made such questionable appointments (Libya on Human Rights, Saudi Arabia on Women’s Rights), but Pakistan’s case is especially alarming given its record of state-sponsored terror. The decision casts doubt on the UN’s integrity, raises questions about its vetting process, and undermines India’s global campaign to expose Pakistan as a terror sponsor.

How has Pakistan’s role in terrorism been established?

  1. Osama bin Laden Shelter: Found in Abbottabad, near Pakistan’s military academy.
  2. Cross-border attacks: From the 2008 Mumbai attacks to the 2019 Pulwama bombing and the 2025 Pahalgam attack, evidence points to Pakistan-backed groups.
  3. Terror groups supported: Lashkar-e-Taiba (LeT), Jaish-e-Mohammad (JeM), and networks across Afghanistan and Balochistan.
  4. Public protection of terrorists: Hafiz Saeed, despite being a UN-designated terrorist, continues to appear at PoK launchpads and public events under the watch of Pakistan’s security forces.

Why is Pakistan’s UN role a paradox?

  1. Contradiction with objectives: Pakistan’s terror links directly undermine the goals of the Counter-Terrorism Committee.
  2. FATF leniency: Removal from the FATF grey list in 2022 despite unresolved financing concerns highlights weak vetting.
  3. Geopolitical trade-offs: Powerful nations enable Pakistan’s elevation to secure their own strategic and economic interests.
  4. Dangerous precedent: It signals that state-sponsored terror can be diplomatically whitewashed.

What loopholes in the UN system does this expose?

  1. Selection flaws: No stringent vetting for compliance with counter-terrorism standards.
  2. Inconsistent moral compass: Earlier cases include Libya chairing the UNHRC and Saudi Arabia heading UN Women’s Rights Commission.
  3. Financial contradictions: IMF’s $1 billion loan in May 2025, just after the Pahalgam attack, raises ethical red flags.
  4. Rewarding duplicity: Pakistan even announced ₹14 crore compensation to families of terrorists, including kin of JeM chief Masood Azhar.

How does this affect India’s security and diplomacy?

  1. Narrative war: Pakistan may use its position to shift blame for regional instability onto India.
  2. UNSC power play: As vice-chair, Pakistan can obstruct India’s efforts to sanction Pakistan-based terrorists.
  3. Taliban equation: Pakistan could derail India’s outreach to the Taliban regime.
  4. Increased threats: Likely escalation of infiltration, asymmetric warfare, and cyber-attacks on India.

What counter-measures can India adopt?

  1. Diplomatic alliances: Leverage partnerships with UNSC members to balance Pakistan’s influence.
  2. Narrative building: Intensify global campaigns via media, academia, and diaspora to expose Pakistan’s duplicity.
  3. Engage Taliban directly: Humanitarian missions in Kabul to weaken Pakistan’s monopoly.
  4. Security strengthening: Bolster intelligence and counter-infiltration mechanisms.
  5. Push for accountability: Advocate for periodic reviews and performance audits of UN counter-terrorism bodies.

Conclusion

The UN’s decision to entrust Pakistan with counter-terrorism roles is more than a diplomatic anomaly, it is a strategic failure with global repercussions. For India, it signifies a heightened threat environment, a greater diplomatic challenge, and a call for proactive global engagement. What begins as “a seat at the table” could soon translate into control over the agenda. The real danger is not Pakistan’s presence in UN committees but the global community pretending it does not matter.

UPSC Relevance

[UPSC 2015] Terrorist activities and mutual distrust have clouded India-Pakistan relations. To what extent the use of soft power like sports and cultural exchanges could help generate goodwill between the two countries? Discuss with suitable examples.

Linkage: Pakistan’s elevation to UN counter-terrorism roles despite its proven terror links deepens mutual distrust with India, underscoring why soft power avenues like sports and cultural exchanges remain fragile yet essential tools to rebuild limited goodwill.

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Agricultural Sector and Marketing Reforms – eNAM, Model APMC Act, Eco Survey Reco, etc.

More Women employed in agriculture, but half of them are unpaid

Explained | Agriculture | Mains Paper 1: Primary, Secondary, & Tertiary Sector Industries In Various Parts Of The World

Introduction

Women-led development is increasingly recognised as a structural game-changer for India’s economic ambitions. Nowhere is this more urgent than in agriculture, which not only sustains livelihoods but also employs the largest share of India’s female workforce. However, while women’s participation in farming has risen sharply due to men shifting to non-farm jobs, their contributions remain largely invisible, unpaid, and undervalued. This contradiction calls for a deeper exploration of systemic inequities and emerging opportunities to turn agriculture into a vehicle for women’s empowerment and national growth.

The Feminisation of Agriculture: Numbers Behind the Shift

  1. Surge in women workers: Women’s employment in agriculture rose by 135% in a decade, now accounting for 42% of the agricultural workforce.
  2. Unpaid work: The number of women as unpaid family workers increased 2.5 times, from 23.6 million in 2017–18 to 59.1 million in 2023–24 (PLFS).
  3. Regional inequities: In States like Bihar and Uttar Pradesh, over 80% of women workers are in agriculture, and more than half receive no wages.
  4. National picture: Today, one in three working women in India is unpaid.

Why Women’s Work in Agriculture Remains Invisible

  1. Lack of recognition: Women are not officially recognised as farmers despite constituting a large share of labour.
  2. Skewed land ownership: Only 13–14% of land holdings are in women’s names, limiting access to credit, insurance, and government support.
  3. Wage gap: Women earn 20–30% less than men for equivalent agricultural tasks.
  4. Concentration in low-value work: Women are locked into subsistence farming and low-margin tasks without decision-making power.
  5. Macro impact: Despite higher participation, agriculture’s share in GVA fell from 15.3% (2017–18) to 14.4% (2024–25), reinforcing inequities instead of enabling empowerment.

Global Trade Trends as an Opportunity

  1. India–U.K. FTA: Expected to boost agricultural exports by 20% within three years, covering 95% of agricultural and processed food products duty-free.
  2. Export-oriented crops: Women already have strong representation in spices, tea, millets, rice, dairy- sectors poised for expansion.
  3. From labourers to entrepreneurs: With training, credit access, and market linkages, women could transition to income-generating entrepreneurs in value-added exports.

Technology as a Game-Changer

  1. Digital agriculture: Platforms like e-NAM, mobile advisory services, precision tools connect women to markets and pricing systems.
  2. Language and literacy gap: Women face low digital literacy, language barriers, and lack of devices, restricting adoption.
  3. Promising models:
    1. BHASHINI platform and Microsoft–AI4Bharat’s Jugalbandi provide multilingual, voice-first government access.
    2. L&T Finance’s Digital Sakhi programme has built digital and financial literacy among rural women in seven States.
    3. Odisha’s Swayam Sampurna FPOs and Jhalawari Mahila Kisan Producer Company (Rajasthan) leverage digital tools for branding and exports.

Structural Reforms Needed

  1. Land reforms: Promote joint or individual land ownership to strengthen women’s eligibility for formal support.
  2. Labour reforms: Recognise women as independent farmers to ensure fair wages, rights, and credit.
  3. Value chain inclusion: Shift women into higher-margin activities like processing, branding, packaging, and exporting.
  4. Institutional support: Scale multi-stakeholder programs (government, NGOs, FPOs) to dismantle structural inequities.

Conclusion

The feminisation of agriculture in India highlights a double-edged reality: while women have become indispensable to the sector, their economic contributions remain unrecognised and unpaid. With global trade shifts, digital innovations, and land-labour reforms, India now stands at a crossroads. Whether women remain invisible labourers or emerge as empowered entrepreneurs will depend on how decisively policymakers, private actors, and civil society act to bridge systemic inequities. Women’s empowerment in agriculture is not just a gender issue, it is central to India’s economic transformation.

PYQ Relevance

[UPSC 2024] Distinguish between gender equality, gender equity and women’s empowerment. Why is it important to take gender concerns into account in programme design and implementation?

Linkage: The question probes the conceptual clarity between equality, equity, and empowerment while testing their application in real policy frameworks. It aligns with the article as the feminisation of agriculture highlights how ignoring gender concerns in land, labour, and trade programmes perpetuates invisibility of women’s work, whereas equity-driven reforms can transform participation into genuine empowerment.

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Food Processing Industry: Issues and Developments

What an empty plate of food should symbolise

Explained | Economics | Mains Paper 3: Food Processing & Related Industries In India

Introduction

Globally, nearly one-third of all food produced is lost or wasted, undermining both food security and climate action. For India, the cost of post-harvest losses is about ₹1.5 trillion every year, almost 3.7% of its agricultural GDP. Beyond economics, this wastage squanders nutrition, water, energy, and labour, aggravating the climate crisis. The problem is not consumer-driven, as in developed nations, but arises early in the value chain, in handling, processing, and distribution. International Day of Awareness of Food Loss and Waste (IDAFLW) highlights this as both a challenge and an opportunity: to build resilient, efficient, and climate-smart food systems.

Why is Food Loss in the News?

The recent FAO–NIFTEM–GCF study has provided the first sector-, state– and operation-wise estimates of greenhouse gas emissions from post-harvest losses and retail waste in India, covering 30 crops and livestock products. The findings are striking: even modest losses in cereals like paddy account for over 10 million tonnes of CO₂-equivalent emissions annually due to rice’s methane intensity. Overall, food loss generates more than 33 million tonnes of emissions every year. For a country aiming to balance food security with climate commitments, this is both alarming and unprecedented in scale.

The Economic Burden of Food Loss

  1. ₹1.5 trillion annual cost: Post-harvest losses in India amount to nearly 3.7% of agricultural GDP.
  2. Sectoral vulnerability: Fruits and vegetables suffer 10–15% losses; even staples such as paddy (4.8%) and wheat (4.2%) are significantly affected.
  3. Farmer incomes at risk: Such losses reduce food availability and directly affect the livelihood security of millions of farmers.

The Climate Connection

  1. Greenhouse gas emissions: Food loss from 30 key commodities produces 33 million tonnes of CO₂-equivalent emissions annually.
  2. Cereal losses critical: Paddy alone contributes over 10 million tonnes of emissions due to methane intensity.
  3. Livestock products’ footprint: Wastage in dairy and meat is equally damaging, given their heavy resource requirements.
  4. Link with SDGs: India has integrated SDG 12.3.1 (Global Food Loss and Waste) into its National Indicator Framework for systematic monitoring.

Where Do the Losses Occur?

  1. Early supply chain stages: Losses in India occur during handling, processing, and distribution, unlike high-income countries where waste is consumer-driven.
  2. Infrastructure gaps: Lack of modern cold chains, refrigerated transport, and efficient storage are major bottlenecks.
  3. Fragmented supply chains: Weak value-chain integration adds to inefficiency and wastage.

Practical Solutions in Sight

  1. Cold chain modernisation: Programmes like PM Kisan SAMPADA Yojana (PMKSY) focus on modernising storage, processing, and logistics.
  2. Affordable technologies: Solar cold storage, low-cost cooling chambers, and moisture-proof silos can reduce spoilage for smallholders.
  3. Digital interventions: IoT sensors, AI-driven forecasting, and tracking tools like the FAO Food Loss App (FLAPP) (launched in 2023, used in 30+ countries) improve efficiency.
  4. Circular economy practices: Redirecting surplus to food banks/community kitchens and converting unavoidable waste into compost, feed, or bioenergy.
  5. Policy support: Subsidies, credit guarantees, and low-interest loans are needed to scale up solutions.

Shared Responsibility Across Stakeholders

  1. Government: Integrate food loss reduction in climate strategies and invest in infrastructure.
  2. Private sector: Adopt circular business models and scalable innovations.
  3. Civil society & academia: Drive awareness and research.
  4. Consumers: Practice mindful consumption and support redistribution mechanisms.

Conclusion

An empty plate should symbolise nourishment received, not the silent wastage of resources and opportunities. Reducing food loss in India is not just about saving food — it is about strengthening farmer incomes, ensuring food security, cutting emissions, and meeting global sustainability goals.

PYQ Relevance

[UPSC 2019] Examine the scope of the food processing industries in India. Elaborate the measures taken by the government in the food processing industries for generating employment opportunities.

Linkage: Food loss and waste directly highlight the gaps in India’s food processing sector, where inadequate cold chains, fragmented supply chains, and weak storage infrastructure undermine both farmer incomes and climate goals, making this question highly relevant.

Value Addition

International Day of Awareness of Food Loss and Waste (IDAFLW): Observed on September 29; raises global attention to the issue of food loss and waste undermining food and climate security.

Value Chain and Food Processing Sector in India

Economic Significance

  1. Contribution to GDP : Food processing sector contributes about 10% of manufacturing GDP and nearly 13% of India’s exports.
  2. Employment Potential : Provides large-scale rural and semi-urban employment, with strong potential for women and smallholder farmers.

Infrastructure and Policy Interventions

  1. Pradhan Mantri Kisan SAMPADA Yojana (PMKSY) : Umbrella scheme for cold chains, mega food parks, and agro-processing clusters.
  2. Mega Food Parks : Around 42 Mega Food Parks sanctioned across the country to integrate farm-to-market supply chains.
  3. Operation Greens (TOP to TOTAL) : Price stabilisation and value chain strengthening for perishable crops like tomato, onion, potato.
  4. PLI Scheme for Food Processing (2021) : ₹10,900 crore outlay to boost exports, ready-to-eat, organic, and marine food products.

Post-Harvest Losses and Value Chain Gaps

  1. High Economic Losses : NABCONS (2022) estimated ₹1.5 trillion annual post-harvest losses, equivalent to 3.7% of agricultural GDP.
  2. Crop-wise Losses : Fruits and vegetables face 10–15% losses; paddy 4.8%; wheat 4.2%.
  3. Comparative Gap : Only 10% of India’s produce is processed, compared to 65–70% in developed nations.

Technology and Innovation in Value Chains

  1. IoT and AI : Used for forecasting, tracking, and real-time storage monitoring.
  2. Affordable Storage Solutions : Solar cold storage, low-cost cooling chambers, and moisture-proof silos reduce wastage.
  3. Digital Platforms : FAO’s Food Loss App (FLAPP) (2023) monitors value-chain losses; adopted in 30+ countries.

Sustainability and Circular Economy

  1. Resource Efficiency : Cutting losses conserves embedded water, energy, and labour.
  2. Surplus Redistribution : Food banks and community kitchens absorb edible surplus.
  3. Waste Conversion : Composting, animal feed, and bioenergy generation from unavoidable waste.
  4. Global Commitments : Strengthens India’s alignment with SDG 2 (Zero Hunger), SDG 12 (Responsible Consumption and Production), and SDG 13 (Climate Action).

Case Study Box: Food Processing and Value Chain in India

Case Study 1: Tumkur Mega Food Park, Karnataka

  • Launched : Under PMKSY.
  • Facilities : Cold storage, warehousing, quality control labs, logistics hubs
  • Impact :
    • Reduced post-harvest losses of perishable crops.
    • Generated ~5,000 direct and indirect jobs.
    • Enhanced farmer linkages with retail chains and exporters.

Case Study 2: Operation Greens – Onion Price Stabilisation (Maharashtra, 2018–19)

  • Problem : Frequent onion price crashes and volatility in Maharashtra.
  • Intervention : Subsidised transport and storage under Operation Greens (TOP to TOTAL).
  • Impact :
    • Prevented distress sales by farmers.
    • Stabilised retail onion prices for consumers.
    • Demonstrated the role of value chain management in food security.

Case Study 3: Amul Dairy Cooperative (Gujarat)

  • Model : Farmer-owned cooperative integrating production, processing, and distribution.
  • Impact :
    • Dairy farmers receive better price realisation.
    • Efficient cold chain logistics reduce milk spoilage.
    • Became a global model of agri-value chain success.

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Economic Indicators and Various Reports On It- GDP, FD, EODB, WIR etc

Analysing Indian State’s macro-fiscal health

Explained | Economics | Mains Paper 3: Indian Economy

Introduction

India’s federal system depends heavily on States for delivering core welfare, infrastructure, and development. For much of the 2000s, reforms and tax buoyancy allowed States to report surpluses, better spending, and healthier balance sheets. However, the COVID-19 pandemic marked a turning point: revenues plummeted while emergency spending skyrocketed, forcing States into unprecedented borrowing. The Comptroller and Auditor General (CAG)’s decade-long analysis highlights this transition, exposing systemic stress points in India’s fiscal federalism.

Why is this issue in the news?

India’s States, once showing signs of fiscal prudence with even surpluses, now find themselves trapped in a debt spiral. The pandemic alone pushed almost every State into record borrowing, reversing earlier trends. For example, Uttar Pradesh, once lauded for surplus budgets, reported a revenue surplus of only ₹2,000 crore, down sharply from ₹37,000 crore in FY20. Kerala, which borrowed ₹80,575 crore in 2020-22, saw its debt mount to unsustainable levels. The contrast is stark: States that earlier prospered through buoyancy and reforms are today weighed down by heavy fiscal deficits and repayment burdens.

How has the States’ borrowing changed over time?

  1. Sharp rise post-pandemic: Borrowings spiked everywhere during the pandemic, with Kerala, Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, and Tamil Nadu reporting unprecedented debt levels.
  2. Uttar Pradesh’s decline: From a revenue surplus of ₹37,000 crore in 2019-20, UP fell to only ₹2,000 crore.
  3. Kerala’s crisis: Borrowed ₹80,575 crore between 2020-22 and exceeded ₹1.04 lakh crore later, making it one of the most indebted States.
  4. National trends: From 2017 to 2022-23, States’ gross borrowings rose from ₹5.6 lakh crore to ₹8.2 lakh crore, reflecting widespread fiscal strain.

Why are States borrowing so heavily?

  1. Emergency spending: The pandemic forced huge expenditures on health, welfare, and relief, while revenues collapsed.
  2. Welfare paradox: Despite borrowing, States continue with high welfare commitments such as free electricity, pensions, and subsidies.
  3. GST regime pressures: Dependence on GST compensation and delayed transfers added strain to State finances.
  4. Capital expenditure trade-offs: More money went into welfare subsidies than infrastructure, raising concerns of long-term growth stagnation.

What are the fiscal risks emerging?

  1. Debt sustainability: States like Punjab, Kerala, and Rajasthan carry some of the heaviest debt burdens relative to GSDP.
  2. Revenue shortfall: Weak own-tax revenues coupled with GST dependency reduce fiscal space.
  3. Deficit pressures: Gross fiscal deficit (GFD) levels remain elevated, restricting maneuverability.
  4. Crowding out growth: Excessive borrowing for subsidies diverts funds from capital creation, weakening long-term competitiveness.

How are States coping with fiscal pressures?

  1. Raising borrowings: Kerala, Maharashtra, and Tamil Nadu remain among the largest borrowers.
  2. Cutting investments: Many States reduced capital expenditure to fund populist schemes.
  3. Seeking Centre’s support: GST compensation and Union transfers remain critical lifelines.
  4. Relying on lotteries and land: Kerala and other States turn to non-tax sources like lottery revenues or land monetisation.

What is the way forward for States’ fiscal health?

  1. Prudent fiscal management: Focus on long-term debt sustainability instead of short-term populism.
  2. Rationalised welfare: Targeted subsidies over blanket schemes to avoid unsustainable fiscal stress.
  3. Strengthened GST framework: Ensure timely compensation and greater autonomy in tax mobilisation.
  4. Balanced expenditure: Redirect focus toward capital creation and infrastructure while safeguarding essential welfare.

Conclusion

The macro-fiscal health of Indian States has reached a critical juncture. The transition from buoyancy and surpluses in the 2000s to widespread borrowing and debt stress post-pandemic illustrates both structural vulnerabilities and political compulsions. While welfare commitments reflect democratic imperatives, unchecked populism coupled with weak revenue growth risks undermining fiscal stability. The future of India’s growth story rests not only on the Centre but equally on how States recalibrate their spending priorities and borrowing practices.

PYQ Relevance

[UPSC 2024] Examine the pattern and trend of public expenditure on social services in the post-reforms period in India. To what extent this has been in consonance with achieving the objective of inclusive growth?

Linkage: The article’s discussion on States’ rising welfare spending, shrinking capital outlays, and mounting debt post-pandemic directly links to this PYQ by questioning whether such expenditure patterns genuinely advance inclusive growth.

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