Microplastic Pollution:
Microplastics are now a serious environmental and health threat. A recent (Ministry of Earth Sciences) MoES–NCCR survey found alarming levels along India’s east and west coasts, highlighting the urgent need to embed microplastic control within India’s environmental governance framework.
Key Findings from NCCR Survey (2022–2025):
- Major microplastic sources identified:
- Riverine inputs (plastic waste transported by rivers)
- Abandoned, Lost, and Discarded Fishing Gear (ALDFG), a persistent marine debris source globally
- The presence of primary (e.g., microbeads in cosmetics) and secondary microplastics (from the breakdown of plastic waste) was confirmed.
Microplastics: Nature
- Definition: Plastic particles ranging between 1 micrometre (µm) and 5 millimetres (mm).
- Types:
- Primary Microplastics: Manufactured in small sizes (e.g., microbeads in personal care products).
- Secondary Microplastics: Result from degradation of larger plastic items due to sunlight, wave action and other environmental factors.
Environmental Impact of Microplastics:
Impact on Marine Environments:
- Ingestion by Marine Life: Marine organisms, including fish, seabirds, ingest microplastics and can cause physical harm including gut blockages and tissue damage.
- Bioaccumulation in Marine Food Webs: Bioaccumulation can lead to higher concentrations of toxins such as Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCBs) and Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs) in top predators, potentially impacting their health and reproductive success.
- Habitat Disruption: Microplastics can accumulate in marine sediments and affect the structure and function of marine ecosystems.
- Chemical Leaching: Microplastics can leach harmful chemicals into the surrounding seawater. These chemicals include Bisphenol A (BPA), which is known to cause reproductive defects in some fish species, along with phthalates and brominated flame retardants, all of which can interfere with the endocrine system.
Impact on Ecological Systems:
- Soil Contamination: Microplastics can negatively impact soil structure, microbial activity, and nutrient cycling, affecting plant growth and overall ecosystem health. They can act as carriers for toxins like heavy metals (e.g., Lead (Pb) and Cadmium (Cd)).
- Disruption of Food Webs: Microplastics can accumulate in the bodies of various organisms, potentially disrupting food chains and affecting higher trophic levels.
- Impact on Soil Biota: Exposure to microplastics can negatively impact soil-dwelling organisms like earthworms and microorganisms, affecting their growth and reproduction. Leaching of plastic additives such as phthalates can disrupt cell membrane function in microbes.
- Plant Toxicity: Microplastics can be absorbed by plants, potentially affecting their growth and development, and introducing toxins into the food chain.
India’s Initiatives on Microplastic Management
- Plastic Waste Management Rules, 2016 (Amended 2021–22): Ban on single-use plastics and Emphasis on Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR) for collection and recycling.
- Swachh Bharat Mission 2.0: Includes solid waste segregation, treatment, and scientific disposal.
- Ecosensitive Coastal Zone Regulation (CRZ): CRZ rules govern development along coastlines and indirectly reduce marine plastic input.
- FSSAI Project: Ongoing study to develop standard detection protocols for microplastics in food products.
International Conventions and Agreements
- MARPOL (International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships) Annex V prohibits the discharge of plastics and synthetic fishing gear into the sea.
- Basel Convention (1989, amended in 2019) regulates transboundary movement of plastic waste. India ratified the amendments concerning plastic waste in 2020.
- The United Nations Environment Assembly (UNEA) adopted a historic resolution to negotiate a legally binding global treaty on plastic pollution by 2024 (still ongoing).
- Sustainable Development Goal 14 talks about Preventing and significantly reducing marine pollution of all kinds, particularly from land-based activities.
- Global Partnership on Marine Litter (GPML): A UN Environment initiative, India is a participating country.
Way Forward
- National Microplastic Monitoring Programme: Expand surveys to include rivers, lakes, groundwater, and terrestrial ecosystems.
- Ban on Microbeads: A clear legislative ban on the use of microbeads in personal care products (done in countries like the UK and USA).
- Fishing Gear Recovery Programmes: Introduce buy-back schemes or incentives for collection of damaged fishing gear.
- Invest in R&D: Support startups and research institutes working on biodegradable alternatives and plastic detection methods.
- Public Awareness and Behavioural Change: Use platforms like Eco Clubs, MyGov, Swachh Bharat campaigns for mass education.
The presence of microplastics disrupts ecosystems by affecting organisms’ behavior and physiology, impacting soil fertility, and altering aquatic food webs. Addressing microplastic pollution requires a multi-faceted approach, including reducing plastic consumption, improving waste management, and developing innovative solutions like biodegradable alternatives and advanced filtration systems.
Practice UPSC Mains Questions:
- What are microplastics and how do they impact human health and the environment? Evaluate India’s current policy response to the problem and suggest a comprehensive mitigation strategy.
- Critically discuss the effectiveness of current national and global efforts to combat microplastic pollution, including initiatives like the Single-Use Plastic ban and the ongoing discussions around a legally binding international plastics treaty.
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The J&K Reorganisation Act was passed in Parliament on August 6, 2019. It gave the Centre, through the Lieutenant Governor, a heightened legislative role in J&K, and put the bureaucratic apparatus in the UT under the Union Home Minister.
Importance of the topic:
The demand for restoring J&K’s statehood is central to ongoing political discourse, federalism, and Centre–State relations. It involves constitutional questions about autonomy, democratic representation, and legislative authority. Understanding this issue is essential for both Indian Polity and Governance sections of GS Paper II and current affairs-based Mains questions. Six years after the abrogation of Article 370 and the passage of the Jammu and Kashmir Reorganisation Act, 2019, the question of restoring full statehood to J&K is back in political and judicial discourse. While the Supreme Court upheld the abrogation in December 2023, it also urged the Union Government to restore statehood at the earliest, ideally before the next Assembly elections.
Understanding the Jammu & Kashmir Reorganisation Act, 2019
The J&K Reorganisation Act, passed in August 2019, radically altered the political geography of India by:
- Bifurcating the former state into two Union Territories (UTs): Jammu & Kashmir (with a legislative assembly) and Ladakh (without a legislative assembly)
- Repealing Article 370, which had conferred special status to J&K.
- Ending the state’s Constitution, flag, and autonomy in various matters.
How Was the Act Passed?
It was passed under Article 3 of the Constitution, which empowers Parliament to change the boundaries or status of any state. The Constitution (Application to J&K) Order, 2019 extended all provisions of the Indian Constitution to J&K. A Presidential Order, followed by resolutions in Parliament, enabled the effective nullification of Article 370.
This method has been legally contentious, with debates about: Whether Article 370 could be abrogated without the consent of the erstwhile State Assembly and Whether a UT can be created out of a full-fledged state without a constitutional amendment.
Why Restoration of Statehood is Important:
- Democratic Legitimacy: A Union Territory is governed by the Centre, with limited powers to the local legislature (like Delhi). Statehood would return full legislative powers and autonomy to the elected J&K government.
- Political Participation and Stability: Full statehood may encourage wider participation in elections and a return to mainstream politics in the Valley.
- Judicial Recommendation: The Supreme Court (2023) noted that UT status must be temporary and urged a time-bound plan for restoration.
- Rebuilding Trust: Statehood is seen as a step to win back the confidence of the local population, especially after internet shutdowns, detentions, and security clampdowns.
Challenges in Restoring Statehood
- Security Concerns: Terror threats and infiltration risks persist. The government may delay full devolution until there is a more stable security environment.
- Geopolitical Tensions: China and Pakistan continue to contest India’s sovereignty over J&K and Ladakh. Strategic concerns may shape decisions.
- Administrative Realignment: The reorganisation involved restructuring administrative units, services, and legal frameworks. Reversing some of those may create bureaucratic hurdles.
- Political Control by the Centre: The current arrangement allows the Centre direct control. Restoring statehood might reduce this control, especially if opposition parties dominate the future assembly.
- Need for Election Readiness
Value Addition:
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Article 3 of the Constitution of India:
- Article 3 of the Indian Constitution grants the Parliament significant powers related to the internal reorganization of the states and union territories within the Union of India.
- Under Article 3, Parliament can:
- Form new states by combining or separating territory from existing states or union territories.
- Increase or decrease the area of any state.
- Alter the boundaries or change the name of any state
- For Parliament to exercise these powers, a Bill must be introduced with the President’s prior recommendation. If the Bill impacts a state’s area, boundaries, or name, the President must seek the state legislature’s views within a specified timeframe. However, these views are not binding on Parliament. Bills under Article 3 are passed by a simple majority and are not considered constitutional amendments under Article 368.
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With such a levy on high-end goods, spending on luxury will become a visible public act of support for the armed forces. In an era of evolving warfare, from stealth jets to AI-driven drones, India’s defence preparedness is no longer optional, it is existential. This article proposes a ‘Defence Cess’ on luxury goods and services, offering a creative, emotionally resonant, and fiscally sustainable mechanism to ring-fence funds for military modernisation. This issue links directly to GS Paper II (Governance), GS Paper III (Security and Economy), and GS IV (Ethics, especially public accountability and duty).
The Strategic Urgency: Why Modernisation Can’t Wait
India is increasingly surrounded by hostile neighbours with fast-upgrading military capacities:
- Pakistan may soon induct stealth fighters like J-20 or J-35 from China.
- China is testing sixth-generation aircraft and has strong cyber and drone warfare capabilities.
- The Indian Air Force (IAF), by contrast, operates only 32 squadrons vs the sanctioned strength of 42 — leaving India strategically exposed in contested airspace.
Key Quote: “Capability alone is not enough. The country cannot afford to be vulnerable.”
Modernisation is Existential, Not Aspirational
India’s military modernisation roadmap is ambitious but underfunded. It includes:
- Fifth-generation fighter aircraft development (AMCA)
- Indigenous jet engine programmes
- Strategic unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs)
- Electronic warfare (EW) and cyber-capacity enhancement
But while intent exists, execution suffers from fragmented schemes, budgetary limitations, and lack of dedicated long-term funding.
The Defence Cess Proposal: Key Features
- A 5–10% surcharge on ultra-luxury goods and services like High-end cars, Private jets, Imported luxury watches, Premium liquor, etc.
- Clearly itemised on invoices as “Raksha Cess”
- Funds are non-lapsable, targeted, and traceable
- Exclusively for capital expenditure in Procurement, R&D, Infrastructure for defence
Global Parallels and Precedents
|
Defence/Strategic Taxation Model |
| Italy |
Luxury tax on yachts and helicopters during Eurozone crisis |
| Sweden |
Long-standing luxury taxation for social balance |
| China |
Anti-extravagance drive redirected elite consumption toward strategic sectors |
These countries have used fiscal mechanisms not just to fund strategy but to shape public narratives, blending consumption with national responsibility.
Why a Defence Cess Works for India
- Psychological and Symbolic Impact: The idea of contributing directly to the betterment of Indian defence through luxury spending has strong emotional appeal. It creates a moral linkage between indulgence and national duty converting private consumption into public solidarity. Naming it “Raksha Cess” makes it resonate with patriotism and responsibility.
- Fiscal Innovation Without Burdening the Masses: India’s direct tax base is relatively narrow, and increasing defence funding through general taxation could hurt the middle class or poor. This cess targets only high-end consumers, ensuring that additional fiscal pressure is placed on those most capable of bearing it. Luxury spending has grown significantly with India’s rising affluent class, this captures a booming sector for national good.
- Transparency and Traceability: Since the cess is itemised separately on invoices, it allows greater transparency. It increases trust in government utilisation and may lead to greater tax compliance if people know exactly where their money goes. With digitised billing and GST-era infrastructure, monitoring and reporting mechanisms already exist to track such surcharges.
- Dedicated, Ring-Fenced Defence Fund: Current defence allocations are diluted across revenue expenses and pensions. It helps bypass routine bureaucratic delays and ensures directed capital spending. A defence cess would be non-lapsable and strictly for capital expenditure — such as: Acquiring new aircraft, R&D in defence tech and Indigenous manufacturing. This enables long-term strategic planning free from annual budget cycles.
- Aligns India With Global Practices: Many countries (Italy, Sweden, China) have used luxury taxation or targeted levies to support strategic sectors or correct fiscal imbalances. India can draw from these models to introduce a fiscally sound and globally validated mechanism.
- Boosts the Narrative of Nation-Building: In an era where narratives matter, this proposal encourages voluntary nation-building and elite participation in national security. It sends a message that “those who benefit most from India’s rise should contribute most to its protection.”
Challenges in Implementing a Defence Cess:
- Legal and Fiscal Complexity: Introducing a cess outside the GST framework may face legal and administrative hurdles, requiring amendments or coordination with the GST Council. There may be opposition from States citing federal fiscal concerns
- Risk of Misuse or Leakage: Any fund not managed with full transparency and oversight can fall prey to inefficiency or corruption. Strong audit systems and public reporting mechanisms must be built into the cess architecture from the outset.
- Need for a Clear Governance Structure: A dedicated body or fund management unit should be created under the Ministry of Defence or PMO, preferably with civil society representation for accountability. Without such a structure, funds may be diverted or underutilised.
- Revenue Predictability and Scale: Luxury consumption is inelastic but cyclical, it may dip during economic downturns. The fund should not be over-relied upon for core defence needs; rather, it must act as a complementary booster.
- Perception Management and Political Pushback: Some may view this as a populist or performative move, or even as a “sin tax on success”. There must be consistent and transparent communication that this is about contribution, not punishment.
- Moral Optics and Class Tensions: Care must be taken to avoid triggering class resentment or elite backlash, especially if the tax seems punitive. Framing it as “a privilege with purpose” is crucial — the messaging has to be inclusive, not divisive.
Conclusion: From Passive Consumers to Active Nation-Builders
India’s national security demands not just better weapons, but a sustainable model of public contribution and political imagination. A well-designed defence cess could convert elite indulgence into national insurance, creating a visible alignment between privilege and responsibility.
Value Addition
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India’s Defence Modernisation:
| What Has Been Done: |
What is being planned |
- Tejas Mk-1A production initiated (HAL)
- Strategic partnerships under DPP-2020 for indigenous manufacturing
- Agni Prime, INS Vikrant, and SAM systems development
- Defence exports crossed ₹21,000 crore in 2023-24
- Emergency procurement powers given to armed forces post-Galwan
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- AMCA (Advanced Medium Combat Aircraft) — 5th Gen fighter
- Twin-engine deck-based fighter (TEDBF) for Navy
- India-US Jet Engine Deal (GE-HAL) under iCET
- India-France agreement for submarine co-development
- Cyber and AI warfare units under Theatre Command model
|
Important Agreements and Collaborations:
| Country |
Collaboration |
| USA |
iCET, Jet Engine tech transfer (GE -F414) |
| France |
Rafale aircraft, scorpene submarine |
| Israel |
Missile defence (Barak-8) |
| Russia |
S-400 Missile systems, AK-203 Rifles |
Important Defence Policies:
- Defence Acquisition Procedure (DAP) 2020: Goal: To streamline the procurement process for the Indian Armed Forces, promoting indigenization and efficiency. Prioritizes “Buy Indian” categories, Enhanced Indigenous Content (IC), Simplification of Trial and Testing Procedures and has Emphasis on Make and Innovation.
- Innovations for Defence Excellence (iDEX): Goal: To foster an ecosystem for innovation and technology development in the defence and aerospace sectors, leveraging the potential of startups, MSMEs, academia, and individual innovators. It is managed by Defence Innovation Organization (DIO), a not-for-profit company founded by Hindustan Aeronautics Limited (HAL) & Bharat Electronics Limited (BEL).
- DRDO’s 5-Year Roadmap (Vision 2025): Goal: To lead India towards self-reliance in defence technologies and become a global leader in defence research and development.
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The Growth is Now Coming Not from Insecticides or Fungicides, but Herbicides.
Understanding the Three Major Types of Pesticides:
Pesticides are chemical or biological substances used to protect crops by eliminating or controlling pests, diseases, or weeds. India’s pesticide market primarily consists of:
- Insecticides: These control insects that damage crops by feeding on them or transmitting diseases.
- Fungicides: These are used to prevent or eliminate fungal infections like mildew, blight, or rust that affect crop yield and quality.
- Herbicides: These destroy or inhibit the growth of weeds that compete with crops for nutrients, water, and sunlight.
Herbicides – The New Growth Driver of India’s Pesticide Market:
India’s organised crop protection market is valued at approximately ₹24,500 crore. While insecticides (₹10,700 crore) remain the largest segment, herbicides (₹8,200 crore) have emerged as the fastest-growing category, with an annual growth rate exceeding 10%. This shift reflects a deeper transformation in India’s rural economy—one driven by labour scarcity, rising wage rates, and the need for mechanisation and efficiency in farm operations.
Why Herbicides Are Gaining Ground:
- Labour Shortages in Agriculture: Manual weeding is time-consuming and labour-intensive. A labourer takes 8–10 hours to weed one acre, and the average daily wage has increased from ₹326 in 2019 to over ₹447 in 2024. Moreover, rural youth are increasingly moving away from agricultural work. This has led to a surge in herbicide use as a labour-saving input, similar to how tractors reduced the need for manual ploughing.
- Time-Saving and Cost-Effective: Power weeders are limited in closely spaced or deep-rooted crops. Herbicides, on the other hand, can be sprayed easily and reduce both labour dependence and turnaround time between cropping cycles.
- Strategic Use Patterns Emerging: Earlier, herbicides were used only after weed emergence (“post-emergent”). Now, farmers increasingly apply “pre-emergent” herbicides at or just after sowing to prevent weed growth from the beginning—reflecting a shift from reactive to preventive agriculture.
Role of Indian Companies Amidst MNC Dominance:
India’s crop protection sector remains largely dominated by multinationals like Bayer (Germany), Syngenta (Switzerland), Corteva (USA), and Sumitomo (Japan). However, Indian companies like Crystal Crop Protection Ltd (CCPL) and Dhanuka Agritech are rising players:
- CCPL acquired rights for key herbicides like Ethoxysulfuron and Gramoxone from global majors.
- It has also developed new products like ‘Sikosa’ in partnership with Battelle (USA) and Mitsui (Japan), showing how Indian firms are strategically expanding through innovation and collaboration.
Why This Matters for India’s Agricultural Future
- Productivity Gains: Weeds reduce crop yield by competing for water and nutrients. Herbicides help ensure better resource absorption by crops.
- Supports Mechanisation: Like other farm machinery, herbicides reduce dependence on human labour and enable faster, scalable farming.
- Aligns with Climate-Resilient Agriculture: Timely and smart weed control reduces input waste and improves crop resilience.
Key Concerns
- Ecological Impact: Excessive herbicide use can lead to soil degradation, water contamination, and loss of biodiversity.
- Labour Displacement: As weeding becomes chemical-driven, demand for rural manual labour might further decline.
- MNC Monopoly: Unlike seeds and fertilisers, pesticides remain MNC-dominated, raising questions on strategic autonomy in agri-inputs.
Conclusion:
The rise of herbicides in India’s pesticide market marks a significant transformation in agricultural input use. While they offer a timely solution to labour shortages and boost farm efficiency, a cautious, balanced, and indigenously empowered approach is necessary.
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President Trump announces steep tariff hikes on Indian imports over continued Russian oil purchases; India calls it “unjustified and unreasonable”.
Context and Relevance (GS2 – International Relations, GS3 – Economy, Trade Policy):
In a move that has strained India–U.S. economic ties, U.S. President Donald Trump has announced plans to “substantially” increase tariffs on Indian goods. This decision comes days after a 25% tariff plus penalty was imposed, with Trump citing India’s oil imports from Russia as the trigger. India has hit back, defending its energy security needs and calling out the West’s own trade with Russia.
This development adds to the geopolitical-economic complexity facing India’s foreign policy and trade decisions in the wake of the Russia–Ukraine conflict.
What are Tariffs?
- A tariff is a tax imposed by a government on imported goods.
- Tariffs make foreign goods costlier, potentially protecting domestic industries but also risking retaliation and higher consumer prices.
Sectors Likely to Be Affected
- Pharmaceuticals – India is a major exporter of generic drugs to the U.S.; tariffs could increase prices and affect competitiveness.
- Metals and Engineering Goods – Steel, aluminum, and other value-added metals are vulnerable.
- Textiles and Apparel – A major Indian export to the U.S. which operates on thin margins.
- IT Services (Indirect Impact) – Not under direct tariff but can be impacted by broader deterioration in trade ties.
- Petrochemicals and Refined Products – As India refines and re-exports Russian crude, this area could come under scrutiny.
- Defence Procurement and Technology Sharing – Strategic relations could take a hit, affecting high-tech transfers.
- Startups and Digital Trade – New tech collaborations may slow if the overall atmosphere deteriorates.
Why is the U.S. Taking This Step:
President Trump’s reasoning includes:
- India allegedly buying “massive amounts of Russian oil” and re-exporting it for profits.
- High Indian tariffs and non-tariff barriers that restrict U.S. goods.
- India’s continued energy and defence cooperation with Russia.
- Trump’s argument taps into U.S. domestic concerns around trade imbalances and perceived strategic neutrality by India on the Russia–Ukraine issue.
India’s Stand: Energy Security First:
India’s Ministry of External Affairs (MEA) issued a strong rebuttal:
- India started buying from Russia when traditional suppliers diverted oil to Europe.
- The U.S. itself had encouraged these imports to stabilise global markets.
- Western nations continue trading with Russia in: LNG, uranium, palladium, fertilisers, and chemicals.
- EU–Russia bilateral trade in 2024 exceeded €84.7 billion (goods + services).
India argued that its trade was a “vital compulsion”, unlike the West’s “strategic choice”.
Economic and Strategic Implications for India:
Core Economic Concepts at Play
- Trade Diversion & Substitution: U.S. importers may turn to other countries, diverting trade away from India.
- Protectionism vs Globalisation: Rising protectionism threatens the rules-based global trade order.
- Non-Tariff Barriers Debate: Focus returns to India’s complex regulatory environment that discourages FDI and foreign trade.
- Elasticity of Demand for Indian Exports: Tariff hikes could reveal price sensitivity in sectors like pharma and textiles.
Foreign Policy and Strategic Autonomy
- India’s multi-alignment strategy is being tested.
- Strategic autonomy in energy choices now faces economic costs.
Impact on India’s Export Competitiveness
- With countries like Vietnam, Mexico, and Indonesia unaffected by such tariffs, India faces a competitive disadvantage.
Investor Confidence
- Heightened U.S.–India tensions could create policy uncertainty for foreign investors.
Way Forward for India:
- Bilateral Negotiations: Urgent dialogue needed through trade channels to de-escalate.
- Diversification: India must strengthen ties with other large markets (e.g., EU, ASEAN, Africa).
- Strengthen Domestic Industry: Boost manufacturing competitiveness through PLI schemes, FTAs, and ease of doing business.
- Energy Diplomacy: Deepen engagement with Gulf countries and renewables to reduce over-dependence on Russia.
Conclusion:
This episode is a litmus test for India’s balancing act between strategic autonomy and economic pragmatism. It also reflects the larger trend of global economic nationalism overshadowing multilateral cooperation. India will need to walk a tightrope between asserting its sovereign right to energy security and preserving its vital trade relationships.
Sample UPSC Mains Question (GS2/GS3 – 15 Marks)
In the wake of rising global protectionism and India’s continued energy trade with Russia, critically examine the impact of unilateral tariff impositions by developed nations on India’s strategic autonomy and export competitiveness. Suggest a multi-pronged approach to mitigate such risks.
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Why in the News?
Recently, the World Bank’s 2024 update to its income classification system revealed major shifts, with a sharp decline in low-income populations and a rise in upper-middle-income countries.
Global Income Classification Trends (2004–2024): Key Shifts in Population Distribution:
- Global Shift Upwards: The share of the world population in low-income countries dropped from 37.4% in 2004 to 7.6% in 2024, showing significant poverty reduction.
- Rise of Upper-Middle Group: The population in upper-middle-income countries rose from 8.9% in 2004 to 34.7% in 2024, indicating broad economic progress in many developing nations.
- Lower-Middle Income Stability: The lower-middle-income group has remained relatively stable, around 38–40% of global population from 2004 to 2024.
- High-Income Countries’ Share Fluctuated: The global population in high-income nations peaked at 18.9% in 2014, then slightly declined to 17.4% in 2024.
- Country Reclassifications: Countries like India and Indonesia moved to higher income groups, while some African countries remained or slipped into low-income status.
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What is the World Bank’s income classification?
- Four Income Groups: Countries are classified into low, lower-middle, upper-middle, and high-income based on their Gross National Income (GNI) per capita.
- Annual Update: Classifications are updated yearly, adjusting for global inflation and changes in income.
- Absolute Thresholds: Groupings are based on fixed income thresholds, not relative comparisons with other countries.
- Low income: GNI per capita ≤ $1,135
- Lower-middle income: $1,136 – $4,465
- Upper-middle income: $4,466 – $13,845
- High income: ≥ $13,846
How is GNI per capita used in this system?
- It measures the average income per person, including income from abroad.
- GNI figures (reported in local currency) are converted to USD using exchange rates.
- Countries are placed into groups using predetermined income thresholds.
Why do countries shift between income groups?
- Economic Growth or Decline: Strong GDP growth raises GNI per capita, moving countries to higher groups. Eg: India’s GNI per capita rose from $2,250 (2022) to $2,610 (2023), nearing upper-middle-income status.
- Currency Exchange Fluctuations: A weaker local currency reduces GNI in USD terms. Eg: Egypt’s currency depreciation led its GNI per capita to fall from $3,890 (2022) to $3,240 (2023), reclassifying it from upper-middle to lower-middle-income.
- Population Growth Rates: Fast population growth reduces GNI per capita even if total income rises. Eg: Nigeria’s large population growth kept its GNI per capita at $2,110 (2023), maintaining its lower-middle-income status.
What are the challenges for India as a Lower-Middle-Income Country?
- Limited Fiscal Space: India struggles to allocate sufficient funds for healthcare, education, and infrastructure. Eg: Public health spending remains around 2% of GDP, below the global average of 5–6%.
- High Income Inequality: Rapid growth hasn’t translated into equitable wealth distribution. Eg: The top 10% in India hold nearly 77% of total national wealth (Oxfam, 2023).
- Jobless Growth: Economic expansion hasn’t created enough formal sector jobs. Eg: Despite over 6% GDP growth, unemployment among youth remains high at around 45% (CMIE, 2023).
What are the steps taken by the Indian government?
- PM Gati Shakti Mission: Enhances infrastructure development for seamless connectivity and job creation.
- National Education Policy (NEP) 2020: Aims to improve access, equity, and quality in education, especially in rural areas.
- Ayushman Bharat Scheme: Provides free healthcare to over 50 crore people, addressing public health gaps.
- Make in India & PLI Schemes: Promote domestic manufacturing and boost employment across key sectors.
- Digital India & Skill India: Focuses on digital inclusion and vocational training to equip youth with employable skills.
Way forward:
- Accelerate Inclusive Economic Growth: Focus on MSMEs, rural entrepreneurship, and labour-intensive sectors to boost incomes and job creation.
- Invest in Human Capital: Enhance education quality, healthcare access, and nutritional outcomes, especially for the poor.
- Strengthen Social Safety Nets: Expand direct benefit transfers (DBTs) and targeted subsidies to reduce vulnerability and inequality.
- Promote Technological Innovation: Support startups, R&D, and digital infrastructure to drive productivity and global competitiveness.
Mains PYQ:
[UPSC 2013] The World Bank and the IMF, collectively known as the Bretton Woods Institutions, are the two inter-governmental pillars supporting the structure of the world’s economic and financial order. Superficially, the World Bank and the IMF exhibit many common characteristics, yet their role, functions and mandate are distinctly different. Elucidate.
Linkage: This question directly asks about the World Bank’s role, functions, and mandate. A fundamental aspect of the World Bank’s function is its income classification system, which was initially designed to determine eligibility for loans, particularly concessional ones, based on a country’s average income.
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Why in the News?
Concerns have emerged over India’s commitments in the India-UK Comprehensive Economic and Trade Agreement (CETA), particularly Article 13.6 on intellectual property. Critics argue it weakens India’s long-standing stance on compulsory licensing, favouring voluntary mechanisms instead.
How does Article 13.6 affect medicine access in India?
- Dilution of Compulsory Licensing Rights: The Article 13.6 of CETA favours voluntary licensing over compulsory licensing, reducing India’s legal room to ensure affordable drug access, especially during public health emergencies.
- Reduced Policy Space in Patent Law: Provisions like weakening the “working requirement” restrict India’s ability to revoke non-working foreign patents, hampering local production of essential medicines.
- Dependence on Foreign Patent Holders: Voluntary licensing shifts control to multinational corporations, allowing them to set restrictive terms, often limiting distribution, pricing, and manufacturing flexibility for Indian firms.
- Loss of Global TRIPS Advocacy Role
India’s past leadership in pushing for TRIPS flexibilities (Doha Declaration) is undermined, affecting its credibility in representing developing countries’ interests in global forums.
- Risk to Access and Affordability of Medicines: The FTA could hinder production of low-cost generics, making life-saving drugs less accessible to Indian citizens and low-income countries relying on Indian pharma exports.
What is Voluntary Licensing?
Voluntary licensing is when the patent holder (usually a pharmaceutical company) gives permission to another company (often in another country) to produce and sell its patented product, usually generic versions under agreed terms and conditions.
What is Compulsory Licensing?
Compulsory licensing is when a government allows someone else to produce a patented product or process without the consent of the patent holder, usually under specific public interest grounds such as health emergencies. |
Which global rules backed India’s earlier patent stand?
- TRIPS Agreement (WTO): Allowed for compulsory licensing under public health grounds, helping India prioritize affordable access over strict patent monopolies.
- Doha Declaration on TRIPS and Public Health (2001): Reaffirmed countries’ right to protect public health and promote access to medicines, supporting India’s flexible patent stance.
- Paragraph 6 System (WTO, 2003): Enabled countries like India to export generic medicines to nations lacking manufacturing capacity, aligning with its role as the “pharmacy of the world.”
- Indian Patent Act, 1970 (amended in 2005): Incorporated TRIPS flexibilities such as compulsory licensing and strict patentability criteria (e.g. Section 3(d)) to prevent evergreening.
- UN High-Level Panel on Access to Medicines (2016): Emphasized that IP rights should not override public health, validating India’s position on balancing innovation and accessibility.
What should be done?
- Reaffirm TRIPS Flexibilities in Trade Negotiations: India must ensure that all future FTAs explicitly protect its right to use compulsory licensing and patent law flexibilitiesunder the TRIPS Agreement.
- Strengthen Domestic Patent Law: Amend and reinforce provisions like the “working requirement” to protect public health and allow challenges to non-working or unaffordable patents.
- Enhance Public Health Safeguards in FTAs: Negotiate clear exceptions for essential medicines and green technology, ensuring that IP provisions do not override public interest obligations.
- Build Strategic Alliances with Global South: Collaborate with developing countries to collectively oppose IP-heavy provisions in trade deals and promote affordable access to medicines globally.
- Promote Indigenous Innovation and R&D: Invest in public sector research and incentivize Indian pharma and green tech innovation to reduce dependency on foreign patents and strengthen self-reliance.
Mains PYQ:
[UPSC 2024] Discuss the implications of Intellectual Property rights with respect to life materials? Although, India is second in the world to file patents, still only a few have been commercialized. Explain the reasons behind this less commercialization.
Linkage: This question directly asks about “Intellectual Property rights with respect to life materials” and patents. The article talks about the implications of India’s CETA commitments on its patent regime concerning “patented medicines” and the “patent system”. The “slip up” in the trade pact is precisely about India compromising its traditional stance on IPR, particularly regarding access to medicines, which is a direct implication of intellectual property rights on life materials.
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Why in the News?
Recently, US President Donald Trump has threatened additional penalties on Indian imports, specifically targeting India’s purchase of discounted Russian oil.
Why is India buying more oil from Russia?
- Steep Price Discounts: Russian crude is sold at prices significantly below global benchmarks. In FY 2024-25, India imported $56.9 billion worth of mineral fuels from Russia, up from $2.1 billion in 2020-21.
- Energy Security Priority: Ensuring affordable and reliable energy is vital for India’s economic stability and consumer welfare.
- No UN Sanctions: India legally continues trade since Russian oil is not under United Nations sanctions, unlike US/EU bans. India cites international legality and moral justification for its purchases.
- Strategic Pragmatism: India follows a non-aligned, interest-driven foreign policy, prioritizing national needs over bloc politics.
What are the impacts of the US and NATO warnings on India?
- Trade Penalty Threats: The US has imposed a 25% tariff on Indian goods and hinted at an additional penalty linked to India’s energy trade with Russia.
- Secondary Sanctions Warning: NATO has warned that countries continuing business with Russia may face secondary sanctions. NATO Secretary General Mark Rutte issued a caution to India, China, and Brazil for sustaining Russia’s wartime economy.
- Legislative Pressure in the US: A proposed US Congressional bill seeks a 500% duty on imports from nations trading in Russian-origin petroleum and uranium. If passed, this could impact Indian exports to the US due to its engagement in discounted Russian oil.
- Strained Strategic Ties: Continued trade with Russia risks diplomatic friction with key Western allies, affecting defence cooperation and technology sharing. India’s balancing strategy between Russia and the West becomes harder as the Western bloc consolidates against Moscow.
- Push for Energy Diversification: Western pressure is pushing India to rethink its energy security strategy and reduce dependence on Russian crude.
How can India change its strategy to buy oil from other countries?
- Diversify Import Sources: India can increase crude purchases from Gulf countries, the US, Latin America, and Africa to reduce dependence on Russia. Eg: India has ramped up imports from Iraq and Saudi Arabia, traditionally among its top suppliers.
- Sign Long-term Contracts: Establish long-term supply agreements with stable oil-exporting nations to ensure steady and secure inflow. Eg: India signed a long-term deal with Abu Dhabi National Oil Company (ADNOC) for crude supply and storage.
- Invest in Strategic Partnerships: Strengthen ties through energy diplomacy and joint ventures in oil exploration and production abroad. Eg: Indian PSUs like ONGC Videsh have stakes in oil fields in Vietnam, Venezuela, and Russia.
- Leverage Spot Market and Strategic Reserves: Use the global spot market for short-term deals and enhance strategic petroleum reserves (SPRs). Eg: India has bought crude from the US and Nigeria on the spot market during price dips.
- Boost Domestic Refining Flexibility: Upgrade refineries to process diverse crude grades, enabling imports from a wider range of countries. Eg: Reliance and Indian Oil refineries are capable of handling crude from the US, Middle East, and West Africa.
How can India protect its interests and handle pressure? (Way forward)
- Prioritize Strategic Autonomy: India should maintain an independent foreign policy, making decisions based on national interest rather than aligning with any geopolitical bloc.
- Engage in Diplomatic Dialogue: Proactively communicate with Western partners to explain its energy needs and seek carve-outs or exemptions from potential sanctions.
- Strengthen Domestic Resilience: Increase investments in renewable energy, expand strategic oil reserves, and boost refining capacity to reduce vulnerability to external shocks.
- Balance Competing Relationships: Carefully navigate ties with both Russia and the West, ensuring that economic cooperation does not compromise strategic partnerships elsewhere.
Mains PYQ:
[UPSC 2019] What introduces friction into the ties between India and the United States is that Washington is still unable to find for India a position in its global strategy, which would satisfy India’s National self-esteem and ambitions” Explain with suitable examples.
Linkage: This question highlights the tension arising when India seeks to act according to its “National self-esteem and ambitions” rather than conforming to a global strategy dictated by another power (the US). This strongly aligns with the idea of India making independent decisions guided by its own interests.
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Why in the News?
Recently, the International Court of Justice (ICJ) delivered a landmark advisory opinion on July 23, 2025, clarifying the legal obligations of states regarding climate change.
Note: The International Court of Justice (ICJ) is the principal judicial organ of the United Nations. While advisory opinions are not formally binding, they hold persuasive (Convince other) legal weight and reflect the Court’s authoritative interpretation of international law.
What does the ICJ say about saving nature and the climate?
- Nature is a climate actor, not just a victim: ICJ recognizes ecosystems like forests, oceans, and coral reefs as active parts of the climate system. Eg: Forests absorb CO₂ and regulate rainfall.
- Protecting nature is a legal climate duty: Countries have a responsibility to safeguard nature as part of their climate obligations. Eg: Wetlands must be preserved to manage floods and store carbon.
- Ecological literacy is essential: Decision-makers must understand ecosystem roles in climate regulation. Eg: Mangrove destruction worsens storm impact and carbon release.
- Biodiversity and climate are equal: Climate action must not come at the cost of biodiversity. Eg: Solar parks should not destroy grasslands or wildlife zones.
- Global justice includes nature’s rights: The ICJ promotes a shift from human-centred to eco-centred justice. Eg: Legal personhood to rivers (like Ganga) aligns with this approach.
How can India align the ICJ view with Articles 21 and 48A of the Constitution?
- Recognize environmental rights as part of Right to Life (Article 21): Link clean air, water, and a healthy ecosystem to the fundamental right to life. Eg: Supreme Court’s recognition of the right to a healthy environment in the Subhash Kumar case.
- Implement Directive Principle on environment (Article 48A): Strengthen policies to protect and improve forests, rivers, and biodiversity. Eg: Initiatives like Namami Gange align with this duty.
What are the roles of Tribals in India’s climate plans?
The roles of tribals in India’s climate plans are crucial because they are deeply connected with nature and are key to conservation and climate resilience.
- Traditional Ecological Knowledge: Tribals have deep understanding of local ecosystems, useful for conservation and climate adaptation. Eg: Bhil tribes, Madhya Pradesh – traditional water harvesting for drought resilience.
- Forest and Biodiversity Guardianship: Indigenous communities act as forest protectors and biodiversity custodians, aiding carbon sequestration. Eg: Dongria Kondh, Odisha – protect Niyamgiri Hills’ biodiversity.
- Sustainable Livelihood Practices: Tribes follow low-carbon, eco-friendly practices, supporting climate goals. Eg: Apatani tribe, Arunachal Pradesh – eco-friendly wet rice farming (growing rice in flooded fields).
- Community-Based Climate Adaptation: Local innovation enables faster climate resilience and resource management. Eg: Women in Kutch, Gujarat – build check dams for water security.
- Effective Implementation of Climate Schemes: Grassroots involvement improves policy success, ensures inclusive development. Eg: Van Dhan Yojana – empowers tribal collectives for sustainable forest use.
Which laws should India improve to better protect nature and fight climate change?
- Strengthen Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA): Make public consultations more transparent and science-based. Eg: Dilution in EIA 2020 draft faced criticism for reducing oversight on polluting projects.
- Amend Forest Conservation Act (FCA): Ensure tribal rights and ecological value are protected during land diversion. Eg: FCA 2023 allowed exemptions for some forest lands, risking biodiversity loss.
- Update Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981: Include stricter penalties and real-time monitoring for industrial emissions. Eg: Delhi’s recurring smog highlights the law’s limited deterrence.
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Way forward:
- Empower Local Communities: Recognize and support tribal and grassroots climate efforts through legal rights, funding, and capacity building.
- Mainstream Climate in Policy Planning: Integrate climate adaptation and mitigation into urban planning, agriculture, and infrastructure development.
- Promote Green Finance and Innovation: Incentivize clean technologies, nature-based solutions, and public-private partnerships for sustainable development.
Mains PYQ:
[UPSC 2023] The most significant achievement of modern law in India in the constitutionalization of environmental problems by the Supreme Court. Discuss this statement with the help of relevant case laws.
Linkage: The article highlights that India’s Supreme Court has interpreted Article 21 (right to life) to include the right to a healthy environment, and the ICJ’s opinion internationalizes this idea, providing a strong basis for India’s legal framework to embrace a restorative vision.
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Why in the News?
The 25% tariff plus penalty imposed by U.S. President Donald Trump on Indian imports has brought renewed attention to the strain in India-U.S. trade relations.
Why did the U.S. impose a 25% tariff on Indian imports?
- High Tariff and Non-Tariff Barriers by India: The U.S. accused India of maintaining high import duties and regulatory restrictions that limited American market access. Eg: Trump repeatedly criticized India’s high tariffs on U.S. goods like motorcycles and dairy products.
- Geopolitical Frustration Over India-Russia Ties: India’s continued energy and defense cooperation with Russia, despite U.S. pressure, triggered punitive action. Eg: Trump expressed displeasure at India’s oil imports from Russia, linking them to trade penalties.
- Failure to Reach a Mini-Trade Deal: Repeated delays and stalemates in talks over a limited trade agreement led to frustration in the U.S.
What stalled the India-U.S. mini-trade deal?
- India’s Reluctance to Lower Tariffs: India resisted U.S. demands to reduce import duties, especially in agriculture and dairy, to protect domestic interests. Eg: India declined to open its dairy sector to U.S. exporters, citing religious and cultural concerns over feed practices involving animal blood, which conflict with Indian dietary norms.
- Unclear Negotiation Timelines: The deal lacked a defined timeline, and momentum stalled due to shifting priorities on both sides. Eg: U.S. Trade Representative Jamieson Greer stated the deal needed “some more negotiations,” while India stopped referencing the mini-deal, signaling disengagement.
How do India’s farm and dairy policies hinder trade talks?
- Protection of Domestic Farmers: India maintains high tariffs and import restrictions to shield small and marginal farmers from foreign competition. Eg: India imposes import duties of up to 100% on dairy products, making it difficult for U.S. exporters to access the Indian market.
- Cultural and Religious Sensitivities: Indian regulations emphasise vegetarian feed practices, which clash with Western livestock farming methods. Eg: India rejected U.S. dairy imports because American cows are often fed blood meal, violating Hindu dietary norms.
- Subsidy and MSP System: India’s Minimum Support Price (MSP) and subsidy policies create a non-level playing field, raising concerns about fairness among trade partners. Eg: The U.S. has objected to India’s public stockholding of food grains, which they claim distorts global agricultural trade.
How do India-Russia ties affect India-U.S. trade relations?
- Strategic Autonomy in Foreign Policy: India maintains a non-aligned stance, continuing strong ties with Russia, especially in defence and energy sectors, despite Western pressure. Eg: India’s purchase of the S-400 missile system from Russia triggered U.S. concerns under the CAATSA sanctions regime.
- Energy Trade with Russia: India increased crude oil imports from Russia due to discounted prices amid the Ukraine conflict, which contradicts U.S.-led sanctions. Eg: In 2023, Russia became one of India’s top oil suppliers, raising questions in Washington about India’s commitment to Western-led efforts.
How can India balance sovereignty with export interests? (Way forward)
- Assert Strategic Autonomy while Building Economic Alliances: India must uphold its sovereign right to choose partners (e.g., Russia) while diversifying export markets and enhancing trade ties with nations like the U.S., EU, ASEAN, to reduce dependency and mitigate tariff risks.
- Pursue Issue-Based Bilateral Negotiations: India can engage in sector-specific negotiations that safeguard sensitive areas (like agriculture) while offering market access in others (like pharmaceuticals or services), thereby balancing domestic priorities with global trade expectations.
Mains PYQ:
[UPSC 2018] How would the recent phenomena of protectionism and currency manipulations in world trade affect macroeconomic stability of India?
Linkage: The article is directly related to impact of “protectionism” on India’s macroeconomic stability. The “25% tariff ‘plus penalty’ on imports of Indian goods” by the U.S. is a clear example of protectionist measures in world trade. The article explicitly states that these tariffs place India at a “relative disadvantage”, directly relating to the “soured relations” and potential impact on India’s economic stability.
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Why in the News?
Recently, Prime Minister Narendra Modi’s two-day state visit to the Maldives (July 2025) marked a significant reset in bilateral ties after months of strain following the election of President Mohamed Muizzu, who had earlier run on an ‘India Out’ platform.
What caused the India-Maldives ties reset under Muizzu?
- Troop Withdrawal & Civilian Substitution: President Muizzu demanded the removal of Indian military personnel, citing sovereignty. India responded by replacing them with civilian technical staff.
- High-Level Diplomatic Engagements: Muizzu visited New Delhi in October 2024, signaling openness to dialogue.Indian PM reciprocated with a state visit to Male in July 2025, the first by a foreign Head of State under Muizzu.
- Economic Support & Debt Relief: India extended budgetary support and credit lines, easing Maldives’ financial burden. Eg: A ₹4,850 crore Line of Credit and 40% debt repayment reduction in 2025.
- Softening of Rhetoric & Public Signals: President Muizzu acknowledged historical ties, calling the Indian Ocean a testament to shared heritage. This marked a shift from his earlier India-Out campaign tone.
- Launch of Institutional Mechanisms: Announcement of India-Maldives Parliamentary Friendship Group and FTA discussions in 2025.
How has India ensured the Maldives’ security?
- Military Intervention in Crisis: In 1988, India launched Operation Cactus to foil a coup attempt, securing the capital and leadership.
- Bilateral Defence Cooperation: The DOSTI maritime exercise, started in 1991, strengthens Coast Guard coordination.
- Strategic Presence and Infrastructure Support: India maintained a defensive presence (now civilian) and supported surveillance capabilities like helped set up coastal radar systems.
- Humanitarian and Disaster Relief Operations: India has provided quick assistance during natural disasters, showcasing readiness and goodwill. India provided critical aid to Maldives after the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami.
- Regional Security Engagements: Maldives is a key member of the Colombo Security Conclave, focusing on counter-terrorism and maritime security.
Why is the Maldives vital for India amid China’s presence?
- Strategic Location in the Indian Ocean: The Maldives lies along key international shipping lanes, making it critical for India’s maritime security and energy supply routes. Eg: Over 80% of India’s energy imports pass close to the Maldives archipelago, near the Eight Degree Channel.
- Countering China’s Expanding Influence: China’s increasing investments and debt diplomacy in Maldives threaten to shift the regional balance. Eg: The Sinamale Bridge, built with Chinese funding, raised concerns over strategic dependence.
- Ensuring Regional Stability and Security Cooperation: Maldives’ support is essential for coordinated patrols, anti-terrorism, and anti-piracy efforts.
Way forward:
- Strengthen People-to-People Ties and Institutional Dialogue: Promote educational, cultural, and tourism exchanges while deepening parliamentary and civil service cooperationto build long-term goodwill and trust.
- Enhance Transparent and Sustainable Development Partnerships: Focus on jointly planned, community-driven projects with clear benefits to Maldivian citizens, countering external influence through mutual respect and shared values.
Mains PYQ:
[UPSC 2024] Discuss the geopolitical and geostrategic importance of Maldives for India with a focus on global trade and energy flows. Further also discuss how this relationship affects India’s maritime security and regional stability amidst international competition?
Linkage: The article talk about the Maldives’ geographical location in the northern Indian Ocean and its historical and ongoing ties with India. It also highlights India’s concerns about “growing Chinese influence in the region”, which directly relates to “international competition” and its impact on “regional stability.” The question also touches upon “global trade and energy flows” and “maritime security,” which are intrinsic to the strategic importance of an island nation like Maldives.
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Why in the News?
Recently, the custodial death of Ajith Kumar in Tamil Nadu has reignited concerns about police torture and custodial violence in India, drawing attention to the ongoing abuse of power, lack of accountability, and systemic failures in law enforcement.
Note: “Dirty Harry’s shadow” is the ethical grey zone that officers may enter when they justify unethical or illegal behavior (e.g., excessive force, illegal search, or planting evidence) on the grounds that it’s necessary to serve a greater good (like convicting a dangerous criminal).
What is the status of custodial torture in India?
- Between 2010 and 2020, NHRC data reports 17,146 custodial deaths (judicial/police), averaging nearly five deaths per day.
- From 2001 to 2020, only 26 police personnel were convicted out of 1,888 recorded custodial deaths, reflecting a severe lack of accountability in the system.
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Why does custodial torture persist in India despite legal safeguards?
- Weak Enforcement of Legal Safeguards: Supreme Court guidelines (e.g., D.K. Basu guidelines) are often ignored, especially by lower-level police.
| The D.K. Basu guidelines are a set of procedural safeguards laid down by the Supreme Court of India in 1996 in the landmark case D.K. Basu vs. State of West Bengal to prevent custodial torture, deaths, and abuse of police power.
Key Guidelines (To be followed during arrest and detention):
- Arrest memo must be prepared, signed by the arrestee and a witness, with time and date.
- Inform a relative/friend: The person arrested must be allowed to inform someone about the arrest.
- Right to legal counsel: The arrestee has the right to meet their lawyer during interrogation.
- Medical examination: Arrestees must be medically examined every 48 hours by a government doctor.
- Copy of arrest memo: Sent to the local magistrate for records.
- Daily diary entry: Time, place of arrest, and custody details must be recorded in the police diary.
- Police identification: Arresting officers must have name tags and their details must be recorded.
- Notice board in police station: Display of rights of arrested persons.
- Timely production before magistrate: Within 24 hours of arrest, as per Article 22 of the Constitution.
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- Lack of Accountability: Very few police personnel are punished, creating a culture of impunity.
3. Societal Indifference and Pressure: Public tolerance for “tough policing” and pressure to solve cases fast encourages use of force to extract confessions.
- Legal Gaps That Enable Torture:
- No Standalone Law: There’s no specific law criminalising custodial torture. The 2010 Prevention of Torture Bill was never passed.
- Non-Ratification of UNCAT: India signed but hasn’t ratified the UN Convention Against Torture, so it lacks binding obligations to reform.
- Poor Protection for Victims/Witnesses: Those who report torture often face threats, with little legal protection – delaying or discouraging justice. Eg: The Jayaraj-Bennicks case (2020)
Should India ratify the UN Convention Against Torture?
- Enhances Legal Accountability and Human Rights Protections: Ratifying UNCAT would require India to enact a dedicated anti-torture law, ensuring clear definitions, accountability, and punishment for custodial abuse. Eg: In the Jayaraj and Bennicks case (2020), the absence of a strong torture law delayed justice and highlighted the need for international legal standards.
- Strengthens India’s Global Human Rights Image: As a democracy and UN member, ratification would align India with global norms, reinforcing its commitment to human dignity and justice. India often faces criticism at UN Human Rights Council reviews for non-ratification, which weakens its diplomatic stance on rights issues.
What reforms are needed? (Way forward)
- Enact a Dedicated Anti-Torture Law: Clearly define torture, prescribe strict punishment, and ensure victim compensation and rehabilitation.
- Set Up Independent Oversight Bodies: Create state and district-level police complaints authorities for unbiased investigation.
- Ensure Custodial Surveillance: Install CCTVs in all custody areas and mandate regular monitoring and audits.
- Train Police on Human Rights: Conduct regular training programs focused on rights-based policing and legal safeguards.
Mains PYQ:
[UPSC 2023] The Constitution of India is a living instrument with capabilities of enormous dynamism. It is a constitution made for a progressive society”. Illustrate with special reference to the expanding horizons of the right to life and personal liberty.
Linkage: The article explicitly links the Supreme Court’s reaffirmation of “dignity and bodily autonomy as fundamental rights” in the K.S. Puttaswamy case (2017) to the ongoing issue of rampant torture in custody. This question allows for a discussion on how judicial interpretations have broadened the scope of fundamental rights, which are directly challenged by the “Dirty Harry” policing methods that the source criticises.
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Why in the News?
Recently the arrest of two Catholic nuns in Chhattisgarh on charges of human trafficking and forced religious conversion has sparked widespread political and religious backlash.
Why are anti-conversion laws controversial in tribal regions?
- Misuse Against Voluntary Conversions: These laws, intended to curb conversions through force or fraud, are often misused to harass tribal Christians and missionaries involved in voluntary and lawful religious activities. Eg: In Chhattisgarh, two Catholic nuns were arrested for alleged forced conversion, despite the tribal girls and their families confirming it was voluntary.
- Targeting of Minority Rights: Anti-conversion laws disproportionately affect Christian and Muslim minorities, leading to surveillance, fear, and restricted religious freedom, especially among tribal converts. Eg: Several tribal states like Madhya Pradesh, Jharkhand, and Odisha have used these laws to criminalise conversions, even when done without coercion.
- Threat of Delisting ST Converts: There is a growing debate on removing Scheduled Tribe status from tribals who convert to Christianity, threatening their constitutional safeguards and entitlements. Eg: In Chhattisgarh, such debates have intensified, questioning the identity and rights of Christian Adivasis.
What is the Sarna Religious Code?
The Sarna religious code is a demand by tribal (Adivasi) communities in India to recognize Sarnaism as a distinct religion in official government records, especially in the Census.
Key Features:
- Nature Worship Tradition: Sarna followers worship nature — like sacred groves (called Sarnas), hills, rivers, and the Earth. They follow traditional Adivasi customs, not Hindu, Christian, or Muslim practices.
- Cultural Assertion and Legal Recognition: Recognizing the Sarna code would safeguard tribal culture, language, and identity, and protect their constitutional and land rights from religious assimilation.
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What constitutional rights to religious freedom are being undermined?
- Right to Freedom of Religion (Article 25): Citizens have the right to freely profess, practice, and propagate any religion. This is undermined when voluntary conversions are falsely labelled as forced or illegal, especially among tribals and minorities.
- Right to Personal Liberty (Article 21): The right to make autonomous choices—including choosing one’s religion—is a part of personal liberty. Anti-conversion laws infringe on this by criminalizing voluntary decisions, often without evidence of coercion.
- Equality Before Law (Article 14): These laws are selectively enforced against Christians and Muslims, leading to discriminatory treatment. This violates the principle of equality and non-discrimination, a core part of India’s secular constitutional framework.
What are the actual conversions happened in India?
- Mass Dalit Conversions to Buddhism (1956 and after): Led by Dr. B.R. Ambedkar, over 5 lakh Dalits converted to Buddhism in 1956 to escape caste-based oppression and reclaim dignity. Eg: Ambedkar’s historic mass conversion in Nagpur triggered a broader movement of religious shift rooted in social reform.
- Christian Conversions in Tribal Regions: In states like Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, and Odisha, many tribal communities have converted to Christianity, often due to access to education, healthcare, and social support from missionaries. Eg: The Kandhamal district in Odisha has seen a significant rise in Christian population over decades, leading to communal tensions.
- ‘Ghar Wapsi’ or Reconversion to Hinduism: Organised by Hindu groups like the Vishwa Hindu Parishad (VHP), ‘Ghar Wapsi’ aims to reconvert people who earlier embraced other faiths back to Hinduism. Eg: In Uttar Pradesh (2014), VHP claimed hundreds of Muslims and Christians were brought back to Hinduism through Ghar Wapsi drives, raising ethical and legal concerns.
Do Conversions Impact Indian Society Negatively?
- Social Polarisation and Communal Tensions: Conversions whether into or out of a religion often become flashpoints for communal conflict, especially when framed as threats to majority identity. This can disrupt social harmony and lead to violence, as seen in Kandhamal (Odisha, 2008) and other conflict-prone areas.
- Political Exploitation and Fear-Mongering: Conversion is frequently politicised, used to mobilise vote banks or target minority communities, which undermines democratic values and diverts focus from genuine socio-economic development.
- Distrust and Fragmentation in Local Communities: Conversions may sometimes lead to social alienation or loss of community ties, especially in tightly-knit rural or tribal areas, where religious identity is deeply linked with cultural belonging.
Way forward:
- Strengthen Constitutional Safeguards: Ensure that anti-conversion laws align with Articles 25-28 of the Constitution by protecting voluntary religious choicewhile penalizing only coercive or fraudulent practices.
- Promote Interfaith Dialogue and Tribal Autonomy: Encourage community-level engagement and interfaith dialogue, and recognize tribal cultural rights including support for demands like the Sarna religious code to prevent polarization and protect indigenous identities.
Mains PYQ:
[UPSC 2024] Intercaste marriages between castes which have socio-economic parity have increased, to some extent, but this is less true of interreligious marriages. Discuss.
Linkage: The arrest of the nuns and the subsequent clarification by the girls’ kin that there was “no forceful conversion” directly touches upon the sensitive issue of interreligious interactions and alleged conversions, which anti-conversion laws are often used to criminalize, especially in the context of interfaith marriages.
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Why in the News?
India’s Index of Industrial Production (IIP) recorded a 10-month low growth of 1.5% in June, primarily due to a sharp decline in mining (–8.7%) and electricity output (–2.6%).
What caused the IIP slowdown in June?
- Sharp contraction in mining and electricity output: Mining activity declined by –8.7%, and electricity generation fell by –2.6%, significantly dragging overall growth. These two sectors jointly account for 22.3% of the IIP weightage.
- Erratic monsoon and waterlogging in key mining belts: Early and uneven southwest monsoon caused flooding in mining areas of Odisha, Jharkhand, and West Bengal, disrupting production and logistics.
- Damage to infrastructure and supply chain disruptions: Waterlogging led to damage in power distribution infrastructure and interrupted supply chains, resulting in subdued industrial activity and power demand.
How did climate events contribute?
- Disruption of mining activities: Heavy rainfall and waterlogging in mineral-rich regions like Jharkhand, Odisha, and West Bengal hindered extraction and transportation of key minerals. Eg: Jharkhand received 504.8 mm rainfall (against a normal of 307 mm), affecting coal and iron ore production.
- Damage to power infrastructure: Flooding led to breakdowns in electricity distribution systems, especially in rural and semi-industrial belts. Eg: Widespread inundation disrupted power supply, lowering electricity output by –2.6% in June.
- Supply chain interruptions: Climate irregularities caused logistical delays and increased input costs, hampering industrial flow.
Why is India reluctant to link climate events with economic data like IIP or GDP?
- Institutional hesitation and narrative control: Key agencies like the Ministry of Statistics and RBI prefer attributing economic fluctuations to factors like high base effects, global demand shifts, or input cost variations, avoiding politically sensitive climate linkages.
- Complexity of climate attribution: Linking specific events (like heavy rain or drought) to climate change requires scientific modelling and probabilistic data, which are resource-intensive and not yet integrated into mainstream reporting.
- Fear of politicisation and accountability: Acknowledging climate-linked economic slowdowns could invite policy criticism and demand for corrective action, making policymakers cautious.
How do climate disruptions in mining and power affect industrial output?
- Halted Mining Operations: Extreme rainfall leads to waterlogging and flooding in mining belts, making extraction unsafe and unviable. Eg: In June, mining activity contracted by –8.7% due to excessive rainfall in Odisha, Jharkhand, and West Bengal.
- Damage to Power Infrastructure: Climate events like floods and storms disrupt power transmission lines and generation facilities, leading to reduced electricity output. Eg: Electricity production shrank by –2.6% in June, which lowered industrial productivity across sectors.
- Supply Chain Disruptions: Delays in the supply of raw materials (like coal) due to climate-induced transport and logistical breakdowns affect the manufacturing cycle. Eg: Sluggish industrial output growth of 3.9% in June, despite some sectoral growth, was partly due to such disruptions.
What can India learn from global practices in integrating climate risk into economic reporting?
- Mainstream Climate Risk in Macroeconomic Analysis: Institutions like the European Central Bank (ECB) and Bank of England incorporate climate risk assessments into their economic forecasts and financial stability reports. Eg: The ECB uses climate stress tests to estimate the impact of extreme weather on GDP and inflation projections, helping shape responsive monetary and fiscal policies.
- Develop Probabilistic Climate Attribution Models: Global agencies invest in scientific and data-driven models to link specific climate events to broader economic outcomes. Eg: The UK Met Office partners with economic bodies to assess how floods or heatwaves influence sectoral output and employment, ensuring better policy alignment and risk preparedness.
Why is climate attribution important for informed economic policymaking?
- Enables Targeted Risk Mitigation and Resource Allocation: Understanding the economic impact of specific climate events helps policymakers design sector-specific interventions, such as improved infrastructure in flood-prone mining regions or energy grid resilience plans.
- Strengthens Long-term Economic Planning and Resilience: Integrating climate attribution allows for accurate forecasting and budgeting, ensuring that climate-linked disruptions (e.g., to power or mining) are factored into growth strategies, insurance frameworks, and industrial policies.
Way forward:
- Integrate Climate Risk Frameworks into Economic Reporting: Agencies like the Ministry of Statistics and RBI should formally include climate-related variables in metrics like IIP and GDP, using probabilistic models and event attribution tools to capture the economic impact of extreme weather events.
- Build Institutional Capacity for Climate-Economic Analysis: Establish a dedicated national climate-economic observatory or task force to monitor, assess, and publish regular reports on how climate disruptions affect different sectors, drawing inspiration from institutions like the European Central Bank.
Mains PYQ:
[UPSC 2021] Investment in infrastructure is essential for more rapid and inclusive economic growth.”Discuss in the light of India’s experience.
Linkage: This question is highly relevant as it directly addresses the crucial role of “investment in infrastructure” for “economic growth.” The article explicitly states that “the robust growth in capital (3.5%), intermediate (5.5%) and infrastructure (7.2%) goods output, indicates that much of industrial growth continues to hinge on the government’s infrastructure spends”.
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Why in the News?
India’s manufacturing sector is facing renewed scrutiny due to the rising contractualisation of labour, which has grown from 20% in 1999-2000 to 40.7% in 2022-23, according to the Annual Survey of Industries.
What drives the rise of contract labour in formal manufacturing?
- Cost Minimization: Employers hire contract workers to reduce wage bills and avoid social security contributions. Eg: In large firms, contract workers often earn up to 31% less than regular employees.
- Bypassing Labour Laws: Contracting allows firms to circumvent regulations under the Industrial Disputes Act, 1947, such as rules on retrenchment and notice period.
- Operational Flexibility: Firms use contract labour to scale up or down quickly with demand without long-term obligations. Eg: Seasonal industries like textiles use short-term contract workers during peak export periods.
- Third-Party Shielding: Outsourcing through contractors protects the principal employer from legal accountability for employment terms. Eg: Automobile assembly lines often outsource non-core work to manpower agencies.
- Sector-Wide Trend Across Sizes: The rise in contract labour is not limited to small firms; it extends to large and capital-intensive industries. Eg: Between 2000 and 2022, contract labour share doubled from 20% to 40.7% across all industries.
Why does contract labour hurt long-term productivity?
- Low Skill Development: Contract workers are rarely given training or upskilling opportunities, limiting their efficiency and innovation. Eg: In India’s electronics manufacturing sector, companies like Dixon Technologies rely heavily on contract labour, leading to a shortage of skilled technicians for precision assembly.
- High Attrition and Turnover: Contract workers frequently change jobs due to lack of job security, resulting in loss of institutional knowledge. Eg: In food processing units in Punjab, annual turnover among contract workers exceeds 70%, disrupting workflow continuity.
- Reduced Worker Motivation: Absence of benefits like promotion, pension, or medical cover leads to low morale and reduced effort. Eg: In government-run power plants, studies have shown that contract workers contribute less to maintenance efficiency than permanent staff, affecting overall plant performance.
- Weak Industrial Relations: Contract workers are often excluded from grievance redressal mechanisms or unions, increasing workplace tensions and risking disruptions. Eg: Maruti Suzuki’s Manesar plant witnessed violent unrest in 2012, partly attributed to discontent between permanent and contract workers.
- Quality Compromise and Rework: Contract workers may lack the ownership mindset, resulting in errors and product rework, which lowers productivity. Eg: In garment export hubs like Tiruppur, repeated quality rejections from overseas buyers have been traced to inconsistent output from untrained contract labour.
- Wage and cost gaps act as a disincentive
- Unequal pay for equal work: Contract workers often earn much less than permanent workers for doing the same job, violating fairness.
Eg: In PSUs like ONGC, contract workers earn up to 50% less than permanent employees for the same technical work.
- Avoidance of social security: Employers save costs by not contributing to Provident Fund, gratuity, or health benefits, increasing worker insecurity.
Eg: A CAG audit of private thermal power plants found 30–40% labour cost savings due to evasion of statutory benefits.
What are the existing policy?
- Contract Labour (Regulation and Abolition) Act, 1970: This law aims to regulate the employment of contract labour in certain establishments and abolish it in specific cases where work is perennial in nature. However, enforcement is weak, and many employers bypass provisions through sub-contracting.
- Code on Occupational Safety, Health and Working Conditions (OSH Code), 2020: Consolidates 13 labour laws, including those related to health, safety, and working conditions of workers (including contract labour). It mandates registration of establishments and welfare facilities, but monitoring and implementation remain inconsistent.
- Fixed Term Employment (FTE) provision under the Industrial Relations Code, 2020: Legalises short-term employment contracts with a provision for equal pay for equal work. But in practice, social security benefits and job security are often denied to such workers.
Way forward:
- Ensure Universal Social Protection: Extend mandatory social security coverage (e.g., ESIC, EPF) to all contract and gig workers, with portable benefits and employer accountability, regardless of tenure or contract type.
- Improve Legal Enforcement and Transparency: Strengthen labour law enforcement through digital compliance portals, randomised inspections, and public disclosure of contract employment data to prevent misuse and promote accountability.
Mains PYQ:
[UPSC 2024] Discuss the merits and demerits of the four ‘Labour Codes’ in the context of labour market reforms in India. What has been the progress so far in this regard?
Linkage: The article talks about the “labour code on industrial relations” introduced in 2020 which is related to the demand of the question. This code, awaiting implementation, aims to provide greater flexibility in hiring and firing by allowing firms to directly hire non-regular workers on fixed-term contracts without third-party contractors. However, it also seeks to curb exploitation by mandating basic statutory employment benefits.
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Why in the News?
A recent controversy on X (Twitter) between a hepatologist and an Indian chess Grandmaster has reignited the long-standing debate over whether practitioners of traditional medicine (such as Ayurveda and Unani) can legitimately claim the title of “doctor” and prescribe modern medicine.
What are the concerns with Ayurvedic doctors prescribing modern drugs?
- Lack of scientific training: Ayurvedic doctors often lack formal training in modern pharmacology and diagnostic methods, which may result in inappropriate prescriptions. For instance, there have been cases where Ayurvedic practitioners prescribed steroids or antibiotics without understanding their side effects or dosage.
- Violation of legal norms: According to the Supreme Court judgment in Dr. Mukhtiar Chand case, non-MBBS practitioners are not permitted to prescribe allopathic medicines. However, several states have passed conflicting executive orders, creating legal ambiguity.
- Consumer deception and litigation: When Ayurvedic doctors prescribe modern drugs, patients may assume they are consulting an MBBS-qualified doctor, leading to misrepresentation. This has led to consumer lawsuits, such as a case in Delhi where the doctor’s qualification was challenged in court.
- Endangerment in critical care: Some private hospitals employ Ayurvedic doctors in emergency wards to cut costs, risking patient safety. There have been cases where treatment by BAMS doctors during emergencies led to worsened outcomes due to delayed or incorrect interventions.
- Undermining rational drug use: The unregulated prescription of allopathic drugs by Ayurvedic doctors contributes to antibiotic resistance and irrational drug use. A Uttar Pradesh health audit found significant instances where AYUSH doctors prescribed modern medicines without oversight.
How has traditional medicine regulation evolved in India?
- Establishment of AYUSH systems: Post-independence, India formally recognized traditional systems like Ayurveda, Yoga, Unani, Siddha, and Homeopathy (AYUSH). The Department of Indian Systems of Medicine and Homeopathy (ISM&H) was established in 1995, later upgraded to the Ministry of AYUSH in 2014 to promote and regulate these practices.
- Legal and institutional frameworks: The Indian Medicine Central Council Act, 1970 set up the Central Council of Indian Medicine (CCIM) to regulate education and professional standards. This was later replaced by the National Commission for Indian System of Medicine (NCISM) under the NCISM Act, 2020, to enhance transparency and accountability.
- Integration with mainstream healthcare: Over time, traditional medicine has been increasingly integrated into public health policies, like the National Health Policy (2017), and programs such as AYUSH Health and Wellness Centresunder Ayushman Bharat. This reflects a shift toward pluralistic healthcare governance while ensuring regulation and quality control.
Why is Rule 2(ee) of the Drugs and Cosmetics Rules debated?
- Rule 2(ee) defines “registered medical practitioners” who may prescribe modern drugs. It allows State governments discretion to include non-MBBS practitioners under certain conditions. This loophole is used to let Ayurvedic and Unani doctors prescribe modern medicine.
- The Supreme Court judgment (Dr. Mukhtiar Chand case) clarified this as unconstitutional, yet many states persist. The Indian Medical Association frequently contests such misuse in courts.
What is the impact of AYUSH on public health insurance?
- Inclusion in Ayushman Bharat: The AYUSH systems have been included under the Ayushman Bharat – Pradhan Mantri Jan Arogya Yojana (AB-PMJAY), allowing beneficiaries to access treatments in AYUSH hospitals. This expanded the coverage of services, particularly in rural and underserved areas where traditional medicine is widely trusted.
- Cost-effective care delivery: Treatments under AYUSH are often less expensive than allopathic interventions. For instance, Panchakarma therapy for lifestyle disorders or Ayurvedic treatments for arthritis are cost-efficient, thus reducing the financial burden on insurance providers and the government.
- Increased utilisation and trust: With AYUSH covered under insurance, more people are opting for traditional medicine. This has led to higher utilisation rates of AYUSH healthcare facilities and promoted medical pluralism, contributing to a broader public health reach in India.
Way forward:
- Strengthen Evidence-Based Integration: Establish an independent regulatory body for traditional medicine that ensures scientific validation, clinical trials, and safety monitoring before public endorsement or inclusion in health schemes. This helps maintain credibility and public trust.
- Depoliticise Health Governance: Formulate traditional medicine policies through expert-driven committees with representation from all health systems, free from political interference. This ensures balanced development, equitable support, and harmonised integration into the national health framework.
Mains PYQ:
[UPSC 2024] In a crucial domain like the public healthcare system, the Indian State should play a vital role to contain the adverse impact of marketisation of the system. Suggest some measures through which the State can enhance the reach of public healthcare at the grassroots level.
Linakge: The article highlights the consequences for public health when state governments allow registered Ayurvedic and Unani practitioners to prescribe modern medicine or perform surgeries, leading to friction with modern medical associations. This question directly addresses the role of the state in the public healthcare system and enhancing its reach at the grassroots level.
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Why in the News?
Prime Minister Narendra Modi’s visit to Tamil Nadu during the Aadi Thiruvathirai festival at Gangaikonda Cholapuram drew attention due to its subtle political messaging and focus on the legacy of the Chola dynasty, especially Rajendra Chola I.
How can the Chola administration guide modern local governance?
- Land and Revenue Management: They conducted detailed land surveys and classified land for fair taxation. Eg: Modern use of digital land records and GIS mapping can improve urban planning and property tax collection.
- Sustainable Infrastructure: Built durable public works with advanced engineering. Eg: The Brihadisvara Temple shows disaster-resilient design, relevant for today’s urban infrastructure.
- Grassroots Democratic Traditions: The Chola Sabhas and Ur assemblies practiced local self-governance, aligning with the 73rd and 74th Constitutional Amendments on decentralisation.
- Efficient Local Administration: Chola-era institutions handled tax collection, infrastructure upkeep, and dispute resolution, offering a model for accountable and participatory governance today.
Why is Chola water management relevant today?
- Sustainable Water Use: The Cholas built tanks, canals, and reservoirs for rainwater harvesting and year-round irrigation. Eg: Tamil Nadu can adopt tank rehabilitation for climate-resilient agriculture.
- Integrated River Management: They managed the Cauvery delta through coordinated water channel planning. Eg: Programs like Namami Gange can apply holistic watershed development inspired by Chola methods.
- Community-led Water Governance: Local communities maintained water systems, ensuring efficiency and accountability. Eg: Panchayati Raj Institutions can empower village water user associations for decentralised water management.
What can temple architecture teach about seismic safety?
- Broad Base & Tapering Design: Chola temples had a wide foundation and pyramid-like structure to distribute weight and resist earthquakes. Eg: Brihadisvara Temple has survived centuries of seismic activity.
- Interlocking Stone Technique: Used granite blocks without mortar, allowing flexible movement during tremors. Eg: Airavatesvara Temple stones fit precisely, boosting durability.
- Seismic-Sensitive Construction: Built with awareness of local geology and fault lines for quake resilience. Eg: Southern temples remain structurally stable despite past earthquakes.
How does invoking the Chola legacy shape modern politics?
- Cultural Nationalism & Historical Pride: Celebrating the Chola dynasty boosts national pride and showcases India’s ancient global influence. Eg: Leaders highlight Chola maritime trade and temple architecture to project a strong civilisational legacy.
- Regional Outreach & Political Messaging: Invoking Chola heritage appeals to Tamil identity, aiding political connect with southern states. Eg: PM’s visit to Gangaikonda Cholapuram during Aadi Thiruvathirai signaled a move to gain regional goodwill.
Conclusion: The legacy of the Chola dynasty offers enduring lessons for contemporary India across governance, infrastructure, water management, architecture, and politics. Their grassroots democratic institutions, efficient local administration, and innovative land and water management practices provide a valuable blueprint for strengthening decentralised governance, promoting sustainable development, and enhancing climate resilience.
Mains PYQ:
[UPSC 2022] Discuss the main contributions of Gupta period and Chola period to Indian heritage and culture.
Linkage: This question is directly related to your query as it broadly asks about the “main contributions” of the Chola period to “Indian heritage and culture.” This scope allows for a comprehensive discussion that goes beyond just art and architecture (grand temples). It provides an opportunity to elaborate on the administrative acumen of the Cholas, their water management systems, tax and land revenue collection, and democratic processes, which are highlighted in the sources as significant “mundane facets…of modern relevance” and key aspects of their legacy.
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Why in the News?
Recently, the Protection of Children from Sexual Offences (POCSO) Act, 2012 is under scrutiny as the Supreme Court examines whether consensual sex between adolescents aged 16–18 should be decriminalised.
What are the issues related to criminalising adolescent consent as per SC?
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Misuse of Law Against Teens: Criminalising consensual sex between 16–18-year-olds leads to misuse of the law, treating teens in mutual relationships as offenders. Courts observed this goes against the protective intent of the POCSO Act.
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Denial of Autonomy: Adolescents lose the right to make consensual choices, as their consent is legally invalid. Under Section 2(d) of POCSO, all under 18 are considered children, ignoring their autonomy.
What legal provisions support the criminalisation of adolescent consent?
- Evolving Capacity of Adolescents: The UN Convention on the Rights of the Child (UNCRC), to which India is a signatory, recognises that adolescents have evolving capacities. Eg: International norms suggest that children above 16 may have sufficient maturity to make informed decisions, including about consensual relationships.
- Madras High Court (Vijayalakshmi vs. State, 2021): The court observed that consensual relationships among adolescents should not be criminalised when the age difference is modest (within 5 years). Eg: A 17-year-old girl and her 19-year-old partner in a consensual relationship were seen as victims of misuse of POCSO.
- Amicus Curiae Submissions to the Supreme Court (2024): Senior Advocate Indira Jaising suggested reading an exception into the POCSO Act to decriminalise consensual sexbetween adolescents aged 16–18. Eg: She argued that consent between sexually mature adolescents should not be labelled as abuse under law.
- Law Commission of India Report (2023): While not favouring a change in the age of consent, the Commission recommended “guided judicial discretion” in cases involving 16–18-year-olds in consensual relationships. Eg: Judges may consider the consensual nature while deciding on punishment, avoiding harsh sentences for adolescent partners.
Note: Amicus Curiae is a Latin term meaning “friend of the court.” It refers to a person or organization not a party to the case, but who offers relevant information, expertise, or insight to assist the court in making its decision.
What about the POSCO?
POCSO stands for the Protection of Children from Sexual Offences Act, 2012. It is a comprehensive law enacted by the Indian Parliament to protect children under 18 years from sexual abuse, sexual harassment, and pornography. |
Case Study:
- United Kingdom – “Gillick Competence” Doctrine: The UK follows the principle of Gillick competence, where children under 16 can legally consent to medical treatment (including sexual health services) if they are mature enough to understand the consequences. The Sexual Offences Act 2003 criminalises sex under 16, but the law is applied with discretion, especially in mutual consensual relationships between teenagers close in age.
- Canada – Close-in-Age Exemption: Under Canada’s Criminal Code, the age of consent is 16, but there is a “close-in-age exemption”. Eg: A 14–15-year-old can legally consent to sex with a partner less than 5 years older if the relationship is not exploitative. This balances protection from abuse with recognition of adolescent development and autonomy.
Way forward:
- Legislative Clarity with Close-in-Age Exemption: Amend the POCSO Act to introduce a close-in-age exemption (e.g., age difference ≤5 years) for consensual adolescent relationships between 16–18 years, as suggested by courts like the Madras High Court. This ensures protection from exploitation while avoiding unjust criminalisation.
- Comprehensive Adolescent Legal Awareness Programs: Launch school-based sensitisation campaigns to educate teenagers on consent, law, rights, and consequences of sexual activity. This promotes informed decision-making and reduces misuse or misunderstanding of the law.
Mains PYQ:
[UPSC 2023] The Constitution of India is a living instrument with capabilities of enormous dynamism. It is a constitution made for a progressive society”. Illustrate with special reference to the expanding horizons of the right to life and personal liberty.
Linkage: The debate surrounding the POCSO Act and the age of consent for consensual adolescent relationships directly exemplifies how legal frameworks, and indeed the Constitution, must adapt to the realities of a “progressive society”. The call for exemptions or caveats to the POCSO Act, especially when “normal adolescent behaviour” is criminalized.
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Why in the News?
On July 3, 2025, Russia officially recognised the Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan (IEA), becoming one of the first major powers to do so since the Taliban’s return to power in 2021. This move follows the accreditation of the Taliban’s ambassador to Moscow, and marks a major shift in Russia’s Afghanistan policy, which had previously labelled the Taliban as a terrorist organisation.
Why did Russia recognise the Taliban regime now?
- Acknowledging Ground Reality: Russia views the Taliban as the de facto rulers of Afghanistan with control over territory and administration. Eg: Since 2021, the Taliban have exercised uninterrupted control over Kabul and provinces, making them the sole authority maintaining internal order.
- Counterterrorism Cooperation: Russia sees the Taliban as a potential partner in counterterrorism, especially against Islamic State-Khorasan (IS-K), which threatens regional and Russian security. Eg: After the Moscow concert hall attack (March 2024) attributed to IS-K, Russia enhanced backchannel security coordination with the Taliban.
- Maintaining Strategic Influence in the Region: By recognising the Taliban, Russia aims to safeguard its geopolitical influence in Central and South Asia, countering Western absence and Chinese rise. Eg: Russia’s engagement through the Moscow Format strengthens its regional leadership in Afghan dialogue.
- Preceding Legal and Diplomatic Softening: In April 2025, Russia’s Supreme Court suspended the 2003 ban on Taliban activity, allowing legal recognition without full delisting. Eg: The suspension of the terrorist tag created a diplomatic opening for formal recognition.
What are the regional implications of Russia’s move?
- Shift in Regional Power Dynamics: Russia’s recognition challenges the Western-led isolation of the Taliban and may encourage other regional powers to formalise ties. Eg: Countries like Iran and China, already engaged economically with the Taliban, may now consider official recognition, altering the diplomatic status quo.
- Boost to Taliban’s Legitimacy and Regional Acceptance: Recognition provides the Taliban diplomatic credibility, enabling greater participation in regional forums and access to aid or investment. Eg: The Taliban may now join regional security formats like the Shanghai Cooperation Organisation (SCO) observer sessions more freely.
- Enhanced Security Cooperation Against Terrorism: Russia may now collaborate more openly with the Taliban to counter threats like IS-K, stabilising parts of Central Asia. Eg: Joint discussions on border security with Tajikistan and Uzbekistan may increase, helping curb militant infiltration.
How has Russia’s Taliban policy evolved since 1996?
- Rejection and Hostility (1996–2001): Russia declared the Taliban a terrorist organisation, opposing its rise in Afghanistan due to fears of Islamist extremism spreading to Chechnya and Central Asia.
- Cautious Engagement (2001–2021): While still labelling the Taliban a terrorist group, Russia began unofficial contacts to safeguard regional interests and hosted intra-Afghan peace talks in Moscow.
- Strategic Recognition (Post-2021): Following the U.S. withdrawal and Taliban takeover, Russia shifted to a realpolitik approach, officially recognising the Taliban in 2024 to secure influence, counter the West, and stabilise its southern flank.
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What does this recognition mean for India and China?
- India – Strategic Marginalisation: Russia’s recognition may reduce India’s diplomatic influence in Afghanistan, where it has supported a democratic and inclusive political setup. Eg: India’s $3 billion investments in Afghan infrastructure (like the Afghan Parliament building) may lose strategic value amid a Taliban-dominated regime backed by regional powers.
- China – Regional Leverage: It boosts China’s ability to engage the Taliban diplomatically and economically, securing interests in security (Xinjiang) and resource extraction. Eg: China has initiated talks on expanding the Belt and Road Initiative (BRI) into Afghanistan and invested in Mes Aynak copper mines, which may progress with Russian support.
How should India engage with the Taliban post-recognition? (Way forward)
- Pragmatic Diplomatic Channels: India should maintain non-recognition-based engagement through back-channel talks and functional diplomacy to protect its strategic and security interests, especially in areas like counter-terrorism and regional connectivity.
- Conditional Development Cooperation: India can offer developmental aid and economic projects in health, education, and infrastructure, conditioned on Taliban commitments to human rights and non-support for cross-border terrorism.
Mains PYQ:
[UPSC 2024] Critically analyse India’s evolving diplomatic, economic and strategic relations with the Central Asian Republics (CARs) highlighting their increasing significance in regional and global geopolitics.
Linkage: The article explicitly states that Russia’s decision to officially recognize the Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan (IEA) government sets a “precedent” and that “some Central Asian states and even China may well follow suit”. This direct link indicates that Russia’s strategic shift regarding the Taliban significantly impacts the diplomatic, economic, and strategic relations of CARs, making understanding this “gauntlet” crucial for analyzing regional and global geopolitics.
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Why in the News?
Recently, President’s Rule in Manipur has been extended by another six months from August 13, 2025, amid an ongoing ethnic conflict between the Kuki-Zo and Meitei communities.
What led to the decline in misuse of the President’s Rule?
- S.R. Bommai Judgment (1994) – Judicial Review Introduced: The Supreme Court ruled that the President’s decision under Article 356 is subject to judicial review. Eg: This judgment set a precedent for checking arbitrary dismissals of State governments.
- Rise of Coalition Politics and Regional Parties: Since the 1990s, strong regional parties became key players in national coalitions, reducing the Centre’s dominance. Eg: Parties like TDP, DMK, and TMC gained influence during UPA and NDA regimes, deterring misuse.
- Increased Public Awareness and Media Scrutiny: Growing media vigilance and civil society activism led to public opposition against politically motivated President’s Rule. Eg: Protests and legal action followed the controversial imposition of President’s Rule in Uttarakhand (2016).
- Strengthening of Federal Values and Political Maturity: A maturing democracy and greater respect for federalism encouraged restraint in using Article 356. Eg: Even in politically complex States like Tamil Nadu or Maharashtra, elected governments were allowed to continue despite crises.
- Legal and Political Repercussions of Misuse: Judicial reversals and reputational damage have made misuse risky for ruling parties at the Centre. Eg: Arunachal Pradesh (2016) – SC restored the dismissed government, exposing the misuse of President’s Rule.
Why was President’s Rule extended in Manipur?
- Continued Ethnic Conflict and Fragile Peace: The deep-rooted ethnic tensions between the Kuki-Zo and Meitei communities remain unresolved. Though violence has reduced, the situation is still fragile, and buffer zones continue to segregate communities.
- Political Vacuum after Resignation of N. Biren Singh: The resignation of the Chief Minister and collapse of the elected BJP government led to a governance void, necessitating central intervention.
- Need for Security and Rule of Law: Despite some return of displaced families, the situation requires de-weaponisation and control of militant groups. President’s Rule enables stronger administrative and security measures to restore normalcy.
What is the background history of the Manipur Crisis?
- Ethnic Composition and Historical Tensions: Manipur is divided between Meiteis (majority, valley-based) and Kuki-Zo tribes (minority, hill-based). Ethnic fault lines have persisted due to political underrepresentation and land ownership issues.
- Trigger: Meitei Demand for ST Status: In April 2023, the Manipur High Court asked the state to consider granting Scheduled Tribe (ST) status to Meiteis. Tribal communities opposed it, fearing erosion of constitutional protections in hill areas.
- Outbreak of Violence – May 2023: The “Tribal Solidarity March” on May 3 turned violent, leading to clashes, displacement, and destruction of homes and churches. Over 60,000 people were displaced and more than 200 killed.
- Governance Failure and Communal Polarisation: The state government, led by CM N. Biren Singh, was accused of ethnic bias and failure to act impartially. Security forces struggled to maintain order amid growing militia activity and creation of buffer zones.
- Central Intervention and Stalemate: The Centre imposed President’s Rule in 2024, but a political solution remains elusive. The Kuki-Zo community is now demanding a separate administration, while tensions continue.
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What role should the Centre play in resolving Manipur’s crisis? (Way forward)
- Foster Political Dialogue and Reconciliation: The Centre must take proactive political initiatives to bridge the ethnic divide and not leave the crisis entirely to bureaucracy and security forces. Eg: A central-led peace process involving both Meitei and Kuki-Zo groups can build trust and prevent hardliner dominance.
- Ensure Rule of Law and Demilitarisation: Continued action is needed to de-weaponise the region and curb militant groups that promote ethnic violence. Eg: The crackdown on armed groups since President’s Rule helped reduce open violence and enabled the return of displaced families.
- Support Inclusive Civil Society Engagement: The Centre should empower moderate voices and civil society organisations that seek peace and reconciliation.
Mains PYQ:
[UPSC 2023] Account for the legal and political factors responsible for the reduced frequency of using Article 356 by the Union Governments since mid 1990s.
Linkage: This question directly relates to President’s Rule, which is explicitly mentioned in the Manipur source as being extended due to the severe internal security challenges, despite its general decline since the 1990s due to factors like the S.R. Bommai judgment and the rising influence of regional parties. The Manipur situation is a contemporary example of Article 356’s application in a crisis.
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