UN to cut 25% of its global Peacekeeping Force

IOCR | International Relations | Mains Paper 2: Important International Institutions

Why in the News?

The UN will cut peacekeeping personnel by 25% across nine missions after U.S. funding dropped from $1 billion to $680 million under President Trump’s “America First” policy.

US and Peacekeeping Funding Dynamics:

The US and China together contribute nearly 50% of the UN’s peacekeeping budget.
The U.S. outlined its new commitment of $680 million, marking a 32% decrease from last year’s payment.
A senior UN official confirmed that China has pledged to pay its full contribution by the end of 2025, offsetting some of the financial shortfall.

Implications of Funding Cut:

The withdrawal of peacekeepers will leave several fragile regions exposed to renewed instability, especially in Africa and the Middle East.
The cuts signal a shift toward selective, donor-driven peacekeeping, prioritising geopolitical interests over collective international responsibility.
For the UN, the challenge lies in maintaining operational credibility and protecting civilian populations amid reduced resources.

About the United Nations Peacekeeping Mission:

Overview: UN Peacekeeping is a collective international mechanism established to maintain peace and security in conflict-affected regions under the leadership of the United Nations.
Personnel: Peacekeepers, known as Blue Berets or Blue Helmets, include military, police, and civilian members from contributing nations.
Origin: The idea arose after World War II with the formation of the UN in 1945, marking a new era in global conflict resolution.
First Mission (1948): The United Nations Truce Supervision Organisation (UNTSO) was deployed after the Arab–Israeli War to monitor ceasefires, setting the template for future operations.
Evolution: Over time, missions expanded to cover civil wars, humanitarian crises, and post-conflict reconstruction across Africa, Asia, Europe, and the Middle East.
Core Principles:

1. Consent of the Parties
2. Impartiality
3. Non-use of Force (except in self-defence or mandate defence)

Deployment: Missions require the consent of key conflict parties and are authorised by the UN Security Council.
Functions: Include monitoring ceasefires, disarmament, protection of civilians, humanitarian assistance, promotion of human rights, and support for democratic governance.
Finance: United States (26.95%)> China (18.69%)> Japan (8.03%) > Germany (6.11%) > United Kingdom (5.36%) > France (5.29%).
India’s Contribution:
- Major Contributor: India ranks among the largest troop contributors since the inception of UN peacekeeping.
- Participation Record: Contributed over 1.95 lakh troops, served in 49 missions, and made 168 supreme sacrifices in service.

[UPSC 2024] Consider the following pairs:
Country Reason for being in the news
1. Argentina: Worst economic crisis
2. Sudan: War between the country’s regular army and
paramilitary forces
3. Turkey: Rescinded its membership of NATO
How many of the pairs given above are correctly matched?
(a) Only one pair (b) Only two pairs* (c) All three pairs (d) None of the pairs

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Russian Invasion of Ukraine: Global Implications

US-Russia to extend the New START Treaty

IOCR | International Relations | Mains Paper 2: Effect Of Policies & Politics Of World On India’S Interests
Why in the News?

U.S. President Donald Trump has indicated a willingness to extend the New START Treaty with Russia by one year, until February 2027, as the treaty is due to expire next February.

About the New START Treaty:
- About: New Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty (New START); Bilateral nuclear arms control pact between the United States and Russia.
- Signed: April 8, 2010, in Prague by U.S. President Barack Obama and Russian President Dmitry Medvedev; Came into Force: February 5, 2011.
- Initial Duration: 10 years, set to be expired in February 2021; extended by 5 years to February 2026.
- Proposed Further Extension: To February 2027, as hinted by U.S. President Donald Trump.
- Objective: Limit and verify the number of deployed strategic nuclear weapons to ensure predictability and strategic stability between the two nuclear superpowers.
- Ceilings:
  - 1,550 deployed strategic nuclear warheads.
  - 700 deployed intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBMs), submarine-launched ballistic missiles (SLBMs), and heavy bombers.
  - 800 deployed and non-deployed launchers and bombers combined.
- Verification Regime:
  - Regular on-site inspections.
  - Biannual data exchanges.
  - Notifications of movement or deployment of nuclear assets.
  - Telemetry sharing for missile tests.
- Administering Authority: U.S. Department of State and Russian Ministry of Foreign Affairs under a joint commission.
- Scope: Applies only to strategic (long-range) nuclear forces, not tactical nuclear weapons.
- Historical Context:
  - Successor to START I (1991) and START II (1993).
  - Last remaining arms control treaty after the collapse of the INF Treaty (2019) and U.S. withdrawal from the ABM Treaty (2001).
- Significance: Serves as the final legal constraint on the two largest nuclear arsenals, reducing risk of an unconstrained arms race.
Implications of Extending the New START
- Maintains Strategic Stability: Retains verifiable limits on the world’s two largest nuclear stockpiles, reducing risk of escalation or miscalculation.
- Prevents Arms Race: Avoids a strategic vacuum that could lead to rapid weapon modernization and expansion by both nations.
- Diplomatic Leverage: Provides a diplomatic window for future multilateral disarmament talks, possibly involving China and other nuclear powers.
- Global Signalling: Reinforces commitment to nuclear restraint and non-proliferation under the spirit of the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT).
- Risks of Non-Extension:
  - Collapse of all bilateral arms control between the U.S. and Russia.
  - Accelerated nuclear modernization programs.
  - Weakened global disarmament norms and potential CTBT irrelevance.
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Foreign Policy Watch: United Nations

[pib] India re-elected to Part II of ICAO Council

IOCR | International Relations | Mains Paper 2: Bilateral, Regional and Global Groupings and agreements involving India
Why in the News?

During the 42nd International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) Assembly in Montreal, India was re-elected to Part II of the ICAO Council.

About the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO):
- Overview: Specialized UN agency created in 1944 through the Chicago Convention (signed 7 December 1944).
- Headquarters: Montreal, Canada; Membership: 193 states (virtually every UN member).
- Objectives: Ensure safe and orderly growth of international civil aviation; Standardize aviation rules and regulations across nations.
- Functions:
- - Formulates Standards and Recommended Practices (SARPs) for global aviation.
  - Promotes air safety, security, efficiency, and environmental protection.
  - Resolves aviation disputes between states.
  - Monitors compliance with international aviation norms.
  - Coordinates global air traffic management and accident investigation standards.
- Structure:
- - Assembly: Sovereign body, meets every 3 years, includes all 193 members.
  - Secretariat: Headed by Secretary-General.
  - Council: 36 elected members serving 3-year terms; key decision-making body.
  - Bureaus: Air Navigation, Air Transport, Technical Co-operation, Legal, Administration & Services.
ICAO and India:
- Membership: Founder member since 1944, uninterrupted presence on ICAO Council for 81 years.
- Nodal Agency: Directorate General of Civil Aviation (DGCA).
- Performance: India rated above global average for airworthiness in 2022 ICAO audit.
- Contributions: Active in policy development, international standards, harmonized and sustainable aviation frameworks.
- Aviation Growth: One of the fastest-growing markets globally, attracting investments in aircraft manufacturing, MRO (Maintenance, Repair & Overhaul), and skill development.
- Cultural Role: India hosts International Civil Aviation Day annually (first observed 1994; UN recognition 1996).
India’s Re-Election to ICAO Council (2025–2028):
- Significance: Elected to Part II of ICAO Council (states making largest contribution to civil air navigation facilities); India positioned itself as a global aviation hub.
- Priorities for 2025–2028 Term:
  - Strengthening aviation safety, security, and sustainability.
  - Promoting equitable growth in air connectivity.
  - Advancing technology and innovation in aviation.
  - Supporting ICAO’s “No Country Left Behind” initiative.
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The Crisis In The Middle East

What is Wassenaar Arrangement?

IOCR | International Relations | Mains Paper 2: Bilateral, Regional and Global Groupings and agreements involving India

Why in the News?

Protests erupted over Microsoft after allegations that its cloud services (Azure) are aiding Israeli military operations, harming Palestinian civilians, raising concerns under the Wassenaar Arrangement.

What is Wassenaar Arrangement?

Establishment: Created in 1996 as a successor to the Cold War-era COCOM (Coordinating Committee for Multilateral Export Controls).
Name Origin: Named after Wassenaar, a suburb of The Hague, where the agreement was reached in 1995.
Headquarters: Vienna, Austria.
Membership: 42 countries; India joined in 2017. Includes most NATO/EU states and all UNSC P5 except China.
Objective: Promote transparency, responsibility, and control in transfers of conventional arms and dual-use technologies.
Mechanism: Works through voluntary information-sharing, export license denials, and notifications on controlled transfers.
Control Lists:
- Munitions List: Covers conventional arms including tanks, combat aircraft, UAVs, helicopters, missiles, small arms.
- Dual-Use List: Covers sensitive technologies and equipment with both civilian and military applications.

Wassenaar Arrangement and Software:

Initial Scope: Designed for hardware exports (equipment, chips, devices).
2013 Expansion: Included “intrusion software” that can bypass or defeat cyber protections.
Challenges:
- Cloud/SaaS blurs what counts as an “export.”
- Inconsistent interpretations among members for software transfer and access.
- Grey areas: defensive research exemptions, cross-border data flows, and digital surveillance.
Gap: Rapid rise of AI, cloud computing, and biometrics has outpaced WA’s traditional framework.

Reform Needs:

- Broaden lists to explicitly cover cloud, AI, surveillance, and biometric systems.
- Recognize remote access as exports.
- Establish technical committees for frequent updates and agile controls.

Wassenaar Arrangement and India:

Membership (2017): Enhanced India’s profile in non-proliferation and arms control, bolstering its case for entry into the Nuclear Suppliers Group (NSG).
Export Controls: Aligns India’s SCOMET list (Special Chemicals, Organisms, Materials, Equipment, and Technologies) with global norms.
Technology Access: Opens pathways to sensitive dual-use technologies vital for space, defence, and digital industries.
Diplomacy: Supports India’s counter-terrorism efforts, including the No Money for Terrorism (NMFT) initiative.

[UPSC 2011] Recently, the USA decided to support India’s membership in multilateral export control regimes called the “Australia Group” and the “Wassenaar Arrangement”. What is the difference between them?

1. The Australia Group is an informal arrangement which aims to allow exporting countries to minimize the risk of assisting chemical and biological weapons proliferation, whereas the Wassenaar- Arrangement is a formal group under the OECD holding identical objectives.

2. The Australia Group comprises predominantly of Asian, African, and North American countries, whereas the member countries of Wassenaar Arrangement are predominantly from the European Union and American continents.

Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

Options: (a) 1 only (b) 2 only (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2 *

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Foreign Policy Watch: India-Pacific Island Nations

[pib] Forum for India-Pacific Islands Cooperation (FIPIC)-III Summit

IOCR | International Relations | Mains Paper 2: Bilateral, Regional and Global Groupings and agreements involving India
Why in the News?

India recently hosted a meeting of foreign ministers of Forum for India-Pacific Islands Cooperation (FIPIC) in New York.

About Forum for India–Pacific Islands Cooperation (FIPIC):
- Launch: Established in 2014 during PM Narendra Modi’s visit to Fiji under the Act East Policy.
- Members: Comprises 14 Pacific Island Countries (PICs) i.e Cook Islands, Fiji, Kiribati, Marshall Islands, Micronesia, Nauru, Niue, Palau, Papua New Guinea, Samoa, Solomon Islands, Tonga, Tuvalu, and Vanuatu.
- Objectives: Strengthen cooperation in trade, investment, health, agriculture, renewable energy, disaster management, digital connectivity, and climate change adaptation.
- Summits Held:
  - Suva (2014)
  - Jaipur (2015)
  - Port Moresby (2023)
- Key Initiatives: $1 million climate fund, Pan-Pacific Islands e-network, visa on arrival, cooperation in space technology, and training of diplomats.
- Trade: Current bilateral trade is about $300 million annually (exports $200 million, imports $100 million).
Strategic Importance of FIPIC:
- Indo-Pacific Outreach: Expands India’s role in maritime governance and regional security.
- Countering China: Acts as a soft-power tool to balance China’s influence in the Pacific.
- Maritime Leverage: PICs control vast Exclusive Economic Zones (EEZs) crucial for shipping lanes, fisheries, and seabed resources.
- Climate Diplomacy: Strengthens India’s leadership with climate-vulnerable PICs under South-South cooperation.
- Global Forums: PICs often vote as a bloc in UN, WTO, and other multilateral institutions, enhancing India’s diplomatic weight.
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Innovation Ecosystem in India

Highlights of the Global Innovation Index, 2025

IOCR | International Relations | Mains Paper 2: Important International Institutions

Why in the News?

The World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) has released the Global Innovation Index (GII) 2025.

About the Global Innovation Index (GII):

Overview: Annual ranking of 139 economies by their innovation capacity and success.
Publishers: Jointly by Cornell University, INSEAD, and the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO).
Origin: First published in 2007.
Indicators: Uses 80+ metrics across 7 pillars.
Structure:
- Innovation Input Sub-Index: Institutions, human capital and research, infrastructure, market sophistication, business sophistication.
- Innovation Output Sub-Index: Knowledge and technology outputs, creative outputs.
Purpose: Helps governments evaluate how effectively R&D, education, and infrastructure are translated into innovation outcomes.

Key Highlights of GII 2025:

Global R&D growth: Slowed to 2.9% (2024) and 2.3% (2025 projection), down from 4.4% earlier; lowest since the 2010 financial crisis.
Top Performers: Switzerland (1st), Sweden (2nd), United States (3rd), followed by Republic of Korea, Singapore, United Kingdom, Finland, Netherlands, Denmark, and China (10th).
China: Surpassed Switzerland in knowledge and technology outputs; 2nd highest in R&D expenditure; world leader in patent filings.
Regional Trends: Europe dominates with 15 of top 25 economies; Southeast, East Asia and Oceania (SEAO) region has 6 economies in top 25.
India: Ranked 38th globally with a score of ~40.5; top among lower-middle income countries and in Central & Southern Asia.
- Strengths: Knowledge and technology outputs (22nd), market sophistication, and human capital and research.
- Weaknesses: Business sophistication, infrastructure, and institutions remain lagging.

[UPSC 2019] The Global Competitiveness Report is published by the:

Options:

(a) International Monetary Fund (b) United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (c) World Economic Forum * (d) World Bank

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Foreign Policy Watch: United Nations

India secures International Seabed Authority (ISA) exploration contract

IOCR | International Relations | Mains Paper 2: Important International Institutions

Why in the News?

India has secured the world’s first International Seabed Authority (ISA) licence to explore polymetallic sulphur nodules in the Carlsberg Ridge, northwest Indian Ocean.

India’s Engagement with ISA:

Exploration Contracts:
1. 2002 – Polymetallic nodules, Central Indian Ocean Basin (valid till 2027).
2. 2016 – Polymetallic sulphides, Indian Ocean Ridge (valid till 2031).
3. 2025 – First global licence for polymetallic sulphides in Carlsberg Ridge.
Pending Application: Afanasy-Nikitin Seamount (ANS), Central Indian Ocean.
Strategic Goals:
- Secure access to critical minerals (nickel, cobalt, manganese, copper).
- Balance energy transition needs with environmental safeguards.
- Counter competing claims (e.g., China in the Indian Ocean).
Role in ISA: Active participant in Mining Code negotiations; pushes for sustainable, equitable exploration.

About International Seabed Authority (ISA):

Establishment: Created under UNCLOS (1982) and the 1994 Agreement on Part XI; Based in Kingston, Jamaica.
Membership: 168 States (including India) + EU; the US is NOT a member or party to UNCLOS.
Mandate:
- Regulate exploration/exploitation of minerals in the Area (beyond national jurisdictions, ~54% of oceans).
- Ensure benefits for all humankind.
- Protect marine environment from mining impacts.
- Promote marine scientific research.
Regulatory Framework: Guided by the Mining Code (licensing, EIA, sustainability standards).
Functions:
- Grants 15-year exploration contracts (extendable).
- Monitors compliance of contractors.
- Balances resource use with environmental safeguards.

About Carlsberg Ridge:

Location: A mid-ocean ridge in the northwest Indian Ocean (Arabian Sea region).
Extent: Covers ~3,00,000 sq. km, stretching from Rodrigues Island (SW Indian Ocean) to the Owen fracture zone.
Tectonic Setting: Boundary between the Indian Plate and the Arabian Plate.
Critical Minerals: Deposits contain manganese, cobalt, nickel, copper, vital for clean energy, electronics, and defence.

[UPSC 2021] Consider the following statements:

1. The Global Ocean Commission grants licenses for seabed exploration and mining in international waters.

2. India has received licenses for seabed mineral exploration in international waters.

3. ‘Rare earth minerals’ are present on the seafloor in international waters.

Which of the statements given above are correct?

Options: (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2 and 3 only* (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2, and 3

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Insolvency and Bankruptcy Code

In news: Bank for International Settlements (BIS)

IOCR | International Relations | Mains Paper 2: Important International Institutions

Why in the News?

The Bank for International Settlements (BIS) has cautioned that record-high global share prices appear detached from concerns over rising government debt.

About the Bank for International Settlements (BIS):

Establishment: Formed in 1930, making it the world’s oldest international financial institution.
Role: Known as the “central bank for central banks”, serving only central banks & international organisations, not private entities or governments.
Headquarters: Basel, Switzerland; offices in Hong Kong & Mexico City.
Membership: Owned by 63 central banks, covering ~95% of global GDP.
Purpose: Promotes international monetary and financial cooperation and ensures global monetary stability.
Functions:
- Platform for policy coordination & information sharing among central banks.
- Provides banking services: reserve management, gold/forex transactions, liquidity support.
- Acts as trustee/agent in global financial operations.
- Conducts research, training, and seminars on financial stability.
- Hosts Basel Committee on Banking Supervision (BCBS), which frames Basel norms.

India and the BIS:

Membership: Represented by the Reserve Bank of India (RBI) as a full member.
Representation: RBI Governor participates in BIS Board of Governors meetings.
Participation:
- Engages in BIS research & policy discussions.
- RBI officials join working groups on supervision, stability, and fintech.
Basel Norms: India, via RBI, has adopted Basel standards on capital adequacy, liquidity & risk management.
Innovation Hub: Collaborates with BIS on digital payments, central bank digital currencies (CBDCs), and cross-border fintech solutions.

[UPSC 2015] ‘Basel III Accord’ or simply ‘Basel III’ often seen in the news, seeks to

Options: (a) develop national strategies for the conservation and sustainable use of biological diversity

(b) improve banking sector’s ability to deal with financial and economic stress and improve risk management*

(d) transfer technology from developed countries to poor countries to enable them to replace the use of chlorofluorocarbons in refrigeration with harmless chemicals

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Foreign Policy Watch: United Nations

[pib] Universal Postal Union (UPU)

IOCR | International Relations | Mains Paper 2: Important International Institutions

Why in the News?

At the 28th Universal Postal Congress in Dubai (2025), the Union Minister for Communications has unveiled the Unified Payments Interface (UPI)- UPU Integration Project.

About Universal Postal Union (UPU):

Overview: A UN specialized agency and the primary forum for international postal cooperation.
Establishment: Created by the Treaty of Bern (1874). It is the second oldest international organization (after CCNR, 1815).
Headquarters: Bern, Switzerland.
Membership:
- 192 member countries (as of 2025).
- Any UN member state can join automatically.
- Non-UN states may join with two-thirds approval from members.
- India is a member since 1876.
Structure:
- Congress: Supreme authority meets every 4 years.
- Council of Administration (CA): Supervises activities between Congress sessions; studies regulatory and administrative issues.
- Postal Operations Council (POC): Technical/operational body of 48 elected members.
- International Bureau: Secretariat providing logistical and technical support.
Functions:
- Coordinates postal policies across nations.
- Sets rules for international mail exchanges.
- Makes recommendations to boost global mail, parcel, and financial services.
- Acts as advisory, mediator, and technical support agency for postal systems.

Significance of the UPI–UPU Integration:

For India:
- Strengthens India’s global leadership in digital payments innovation.
- Positions India as a hub for low-cost remittance solutions.
For Global Postal System:
- Adds digital financial services to the traditional postal network, enhancing its relevance in the digital era.
- Strengthens India–UPU cooperation and demonstrates India’s ability to combine fintech innovation with global multilateral platforms.
For Migrants:
- Enables fast, affordable, and secure cross-border remittances through post offices.
- Reduces dependence on high-cost traditional remittance channels.

[UPSC 2004] Match List I with List II and select the correct answer using the codes given below.

List I (Agency)

(A) United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) (B) United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) (C) United Nations Industrial Development Organization (UNIDO) (D) Universal Postal Union (DPU)

List II (Headquarters) 1. Nairobi 2. Vienna 3. Berne 4. New York

Options: (a) 2 3 4 1 (b) 4 1 2 3 (c) 2 1 4 3 (d) 4 3 2 1*

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Foreign Policy Watch: India-United States

US to update MTCR export control policies

IOCR Prelims Only | International Relations | Mains Paper 2: Bilateral, Regional and Global Groupings and agreements involving India

Why in the News?

The United States is preparing to reinterpret the 1987 Missile Technology Control Regime (MTCR) to expand exports of heavy attack drones, like the MQ-9 Reaper, to partner countries.

About Missile Technology Control Regime (MTCR):

Formation: Established in 1987 by the G-7 countries (Canada, France, Germany, Italy, Japan, UK, USA) to prevent the spread of missiles and UAVs capable of delivering nuclear, chemical, or biological weapons.
Membership: Today, 35 countries are members; India joined in 2016.
Nature: Not a treaty but a voluntary political understanding where members implement export control guidelines.
Coverage:
- Category I items: Complete missile/UAV systems with ≥500 kg payload and ≥300 km range, major subsystems, and production facilities (exports presumed denied).
- Category II items: Less sensitive or dual-use components/technologies; exports subject to national discretion under strict licensing.
Purpose: To limit missile proliferation while allowing peaceful space and aviation cooperation.

About the Recent Policy Change on MTCR:

US Reinterpretation (2025):
- Large unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) like the MQ-9 Reaper will be treated as “aircraft” instead of missile systems.
- This removes the “strong presumption of denial” that earlier restricted their export under MTCR.
Objective: To make the US the leading drone supplier, countering competition from China, Israel, and Turkiye.
Implications:
- Opens the door for Foreign Military Sales (FMS) of heavy attack drones to partners like Saudi Arabia, India, and Indo-Pacific allies.
- Still subject to US reviews for regional stability, end-use monitoring, tech security, and human rights compliance.
- Facilitates India–US space and defence cooperation, lowering barriers for joint ventures and technology partnerships.

[UPSC 2022] Consider the following:

1. Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank 2. Missile Technology Control Regime 3. Shanghai Cooperation Organisation

India is a member of which of the above?

Options: (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 3 only (c) 2 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3

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Type: IOCR

Why in the News?

US and Peacekeeping Funding Dynamics:

Implications of Funding Cut:

About the United Nations Peacekeeping Mission:

Why in the News?

About the New START Treaty:

Implications of Extending the New START

Why in the News?

About the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO):

Functions:

Structure:

ICAO and India:

India’s Re-Election to ICAO Council (2025–2028):

Why in the News?

What is Wassenaar Arrangement?

Wassenaar Arrangement and Software:

Reform Needs:

Wassenaar Arrangement and India:

Why in the News?

About Forum for India–Pacific Islands Cooperation (FIPIC):

Summits Held:

Strategic Importance of FIPIC:

Why in the News?

About the Global Innovation Index (GII):

Key Highlights of GII 2025:

Why in the News?

India’s Engagement with ISA:

About International Seabed Authority (ISA):

About Carlsberg Ridge:

Why in the News?

About the Bank for International Settlements (BIS):

India and the BIS:

Why in the News?

About Universal Postal Union (UPU):

Membership:

Structure:

Functions:

Significance of the UPI–UPU Integration:

For India:

For Global Postal System:

For Migrants:

Why in the News?

About Missile Technology Control Regime (MTCR):

Coverage:

About the Recent Policy Change on MTCR:

US Reinterpretation (2025):

Implications: