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Type: IOCR

  • Foreign Policy Watch: United Nations

    ‘Pact for the Future’ Agreement

    IOCR | International Relations | Mains Paper 2: Bilateral, Regional and Global Groupings and agreements involving India

    Why in the News?

    India has renewed its call for time-bound reforms of the UN Security Council and reaffirmed support for the ‘Pact for the Future’ to strengthen global cooperation.

    About the ‘Pact for the Future’ Agreement:

    • Origin: Adopted at the UN Summit of the Future (September 2024).
    • Purpose: To reinvigorate multilateralism and strengthen global cooperation on contemporary and emerging challenges.
    • Scope: Comprises 56 commitments spanning development, peace, digital governance, and institutional reforms.
    • Annexes:
      1. Global Digital Compact: Sets frameworks for AI, digital access, and rights.
      2. Declaration on Future Generations: Mainstreams long-term thinking in policymaking.
    • Inclusivity: Drafted through multi-year negotiations involving member states, civil society, and global institutions.
    • Implementation and Review Mechanism:
      • Implementation through intergovernmental processes led by relevant UN agencies.
      • First formal review at the 83rd UNGA (2028) at the Head of State/Government level.
      • Monitoring via national/international accountability frameworks.

    Notable Features and Challenges:

    • Historic Significance:
      • One of the broadest international agreements in scope.
      • Embodies a “new multilateralism” for adapting the UN to modern realities.
    • Controversies:
      • Not unanimously adopted – Russia, Iran, and others objected to elements they found insufficient or overambitious.
    • Criticisms:
      • Lacks detailed mechanisms for enforcement and implementation.
      • Disagreements persist on UNSC reform, disarmament timelines, and climate financing.

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  • Foreign Policy Watch: United Nations

    In news: International Seabed Authority (ISA) 

    IOCRPrelims Only | International Relations | Mains Paper 2: Important International Institutions

    Why in the News?

    Despite growing global pressure, the International Seabed Authority (ISA) has yet to finalize regulations for deep sea mining.

    Deadlock Over Deep Sea Mining Rules:

    • ISA’s 36-member executive council concluded a line-by-line reading of the draft “mining code” containing 107 regulations.
    • These regulations govern mining for cobalt, nickel, and manganese in international waters.
    • Key concerns remain unresolved, especially around environmental protection mechanisms.
    • Chile and 36 other countries demand a moratorium until scientific assessments confirm minimal harm to marine ecosystems.
    • Also, the US is not a member of the ISA or party to UNCLOS.

    About International Seabed Authority (ISA):

    • Establishment: Formed under the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (1982) and the 1994 Agreement relating to Part XI of the Convention.
    • Headquarters: Located in Kingston, Jamaica.
    • Membership: Comprises 168 member states including India and the European Union.
    • Jurisdiction: Governs “The Area” — the seabed and ocean floor beyond national boundaries, covering around 54% of global oceans.
    • Guiding Principle: Operates on the principle that deep-sea resources are the common heritage of humankind.

    Key Functions:

    • Regulation of Mineral Activities
      • Licensing: Grants licenses for exploration of seabed mineral resources.
      • Transition Oversight: Manages the shift from exploration to commercial exploitation.
    • Mining Code Development: Maintains the Mining Code—rules for environmental impact, royalties, benefit sharing, and technology transfer.
    • Environmental Protection
      • Standards: Sets and enforces environmental norms for seabed activities.
      • Risk Management: Applies precautionary principles to minimize ecological harm.
    • Oversight and Compliance
      • Monitoring: Oversees contractors and states for legal and environmental adherence.
      • Enforcement: Investigates violations and recommends corrective action.

    India’s Engagement with the International Seabed Authority:

    • Active Participation: India contributes to rule-making and sustainable seabed governance.
    • Existing Contracts:
      • Polymetallic nodules in the Central Indian Ocean Basin.
      • Polymetallic sulphides in the Central Indian Ridge.
    • New Applications (2024):
      • Polymetallic sulphides in the Carlsberg Ridge.
      • Cobalt-rich crusts in the Afanasy-Nikitin Seamount.
    • Mining Code Engagement: Participates in drafting and negotiating legal standards.
    • Equity and Protection: Supports fair benefit-sharing and strong environmental safeguards.
    [UPSC 2021] Consider the following statements:
    1. The Global Ocean Commission grants licences for seabed exploration and mining in international waters.
    2. India has received licences for seabed mineral exploration in international waters
    3. ‘Rare earth minerals’ are present on the seafloor in international waters.
    Which of the statements given above are correct?
    (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2 and 3 only* (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3

     

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  • Food Safety Standards – FSSAI, food fortification, etc.

    [pib] India praised at Codex Executive Committee (CCEXEC88) for Millet Standards

    IOCR | International Relations | Mains Paper 2: Important International Institutions

    Why in the News?

    India recently participated in the 88th Codex Executive Committee (CCEXEC88) in Rome (14–18 July 2025), earning praise for leading global millet standards.

    About the Codex Alimentarius Commission (CAC):

    • Established: In 1963 by the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) and the World Health Organization (WHO).
    • Headquarters: Located in Rome, Italy.
    • Membership:
      • 189 members: 188 countries + the European Union.
      • Open to all FAO and WHO members state and associate members.
    • Objectives:
      • Protect consumer health by ensuring food safety.
      • Promote fair practices in international food trade.
      • Harmonize food standards to reduce trade disputes.
    • Key Functions:
      • Develops global standards on:
        • Food safety and hygiene
        • Food additives, contaminants
        • Residues of veterinary drugs and pesticides
        • Labelling and import/export rules
      • Sets Maximum Residue Limits (MRLs) and general/horizontal standards.
      • Supports developing countries in enhancing food safety systems.
    • Structure:
      • Executive Committee: Streamlines the Commission’s work.
      • Subsidiary Bodies:
        • General Subject Committees: Address additives, contaminants, hygiene, etc.
        • Commodity Committees: Develop product-specific standards.
        • Regional Coordinating Committees: Harmonize regional standards.
        • Task Forces: Address short-term, emerging issues.
    • Codex Alimentarius (Food Code):
      • A collection of international food standards, guidelines, and codes of practice.
      • Though voluntary, they are widely adopted, especially in international trade.
    • Relevance to WTO:
      • Codex standards are reference points under the WTO SPS Agreement for resolving trade-related food safety disputes.

    India and Codex Alimentarius Commission:

    • Member Since: 1964.
    • Active Participation:
      • India is an elected member of the Executive Committee (CCEXEC).
      • Participates in standard-setting across various food sectors.
    • Recent Contributions:
      • Chaired the development of whole millet grain standards, co-chaired with Mali, Nigeria, and Senegal.
      • Led new work on fresh dates (approved for CAC48).
      • Will co-chair future standards for fresh turmeric and broccoli.
    • Strategic Role at CCEXEC88 (Rome, July 2025):
      • Proposed SMART Key Performance Indicators for the Codex Strategic Plan 2026–2031.
      • Shared its capacity-building programs for neighbouring countries (Bhutan, Nepal, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, Timor Leste), praised by FAO.
    • Capacity Building & Mentorship:
      • Promoted use of the Codex Trust Fund (CTF) by less active member countries.
      • Shared success stories of mentorship programmes with Bhutan and Nepal.
    • Special Role:
      • Chairs the Codex Committee on Spices and Culinary Herbs (CCSCH) since 2014.
      • Aligns domestic FSSAI standards with Codex to support export competitiveness.

    Millets and India’s Leadership in Millets Promotion:

    • Millets = Shree Anna: Renamed in the Union Budget 2023-24, emphasizing their nutritional, economic, and environmental value.
    • Types of Millets:
      • Major: Jowar (Sorghum), Bajra (Pearl Millet), Ragi (Finger Millet)
      • Minor: Foxtail, Little, Kodo, Barnyard, Proso millets
    • Key Traits:
      • Drought-resistant, short duration crops
      • Nutrient-rich: High in fiber, iron, calcium, gluten-free
      • Climate-smart and low-input, suitable for dryland farming
    • India’s Global Push:
    • Government Initiatives:
      • National Millet Mission (2007) to boost production and processing.
      • Shree Anna Abhiyan: Focus on millet-based product innovation and marketing.
      • Integration into Public Distribution System (PDS), midday meals, and armed forces’ diets.
    [UPSC 2010] As regards the use of international food safety standards as reference point for the dispute settlements, which one of the following does WTO collaborate with?

    Options: (a) Codex Alimentarius Commission * (b) International Federation of Standards Users (c) International Organization for Standardization (d) World Standards Cooperation

    https://www.pib.gov.in/PressReleasePage.aspx?PRID=2146080

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  • Terrorism and Challenges Related To It

    In news: International Criminal Court (ICC)

    IOCR | International Relations | Mains Paper 2: Important International Institutions

    Why in the News?

    The International Criminal Court (ICC) has issued arrest warrants for senior Taliban leaders in Afghanistan over the persecution of women, a crime against humanity.

    About the International Criminal Court (ICC):

    • Established: 2002 under the Rome Statute (1998); headquartered at The Hague, Netherlands.
    • Nature: First permanent international court to try individuals for grave crimes.
    • Jurisdiction over 4 core crimes:
    1. Genocide
    2. Crimes against humanity
    3. War crimes
    4. Crime of aggression
    • Members: 124 States Parties
      • NON-members: India, China, USA, Russia, Israel, Ukraine
    • Structure:
      • Office of the Prosecutor – investigates and prosecutes cases.
      • 18 Judges – elected for 9 years.
      • Assembly of States Parties – governs ICC administration.
      • Trust Fund for Victims, Detention Centre
    • Languages: English, French, Arabic, Chinese, Russian, Spanish
    • Funding: Annual budget (2025) ~ €195 million (mostly from member states)

    Reach of an ICC Warrant:

    • Applicability:
      • Crimes by nationals of member states
      • Crimes committed on member state territory
      • UNSC referrals can extend jurisdiction to non-member states (e.g., Libya, Darfur)
    • Obligations on States:
      • Member states must execute arrest warrants and cooperate fully.
      • Non-compliance can be reported to Assembly of States Parties or UN Security Council (for UNSC referrals)
    • Challenges:
      • ICC lacks an independent enforcement mechanism
      • Non-members (e.g., US, Russia) are not bound to cooperate
      • Political and diplomatic constraints hinder the execution of warrants
    • Special Mechanisms: ICC established an Arrest Working Group (2016) to enhance warrant enforcement through better intelligence-sharing.
    [UPSC 2019] Consider the following statements:

    1.The International Criminal Court (ICC) has jurisdiction to prosecute nationals of even those States that have not ratified the Rome Statute.

    2. The International Criminal Court is a ‘court of last resort’ intended to complement national judicial systems.

    3. The United Nations Security Council can refer a situation to the Prosecutor of the ICC even if the State concerned is not a party to the Statute.

    Which of the statements given above are correct?

    Options:  (a) 1 and 3 only (b) 2, 3 and 4 only (c) 2 and 4 only (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4*

     

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  • Water Management – Institutional Reforms, Conservation Efforts, etc.

    UNEP Frontiers 2025 Report on Legacy Pollutants

    IOCRPrelims Only | Enviro & Biodiversity | Mains Paper 3: Conservation, Environmental Pollution & Degradation, Eia

    Why in the News?

    The United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), in its latest Frontiers 2025 report titled The Weight of Time, has warned that increased river and coastal flooding caused by climate change could unearth dangerous legacy pollutants from water bodies.

    About Legacy Pollutants:

    • Definition: Legacy pollutants refer to toxic substances like heavy metals and persistent organic pollutants (POPs) that continue to remain in the environment even decades after their use has been banned or restricted.
    • Examples:
      • Heavy Metals: Lead, Cadmium, Mercury, Arsenic.
      • Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs):
        • Pesticides: DDT (Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane), Aldrin, Endrin, Chlordane.
        • Industrial Chemicals: PCBs (Polychlorinated Biphenyls), Dioxins, Furans.
        • By-products: Produced from incineration, metal smelting, and waste burning.
    • Persistence: These substances are highly resistant to environmental degradation and accumulate in riverbeds, lakes, estuaries, and other sediment-rich ecosystems.
    • Health Hazards: Even at low exposure levels, legacy pollutants can cause: Neurotoxicity (nervous system damage), Immunotoxicity (immune disruption), Hepatotoxicity (liver damage), Reproductive toxicity (infertility, birth defects), Carcinogenicity (various cancers), Endocrine disruption etc.
    • Sources:
      • Past industrial practices, use of banned agricultural chemicals, and obsolete pesticide stockpiles.
      • Improperly managed chemical landfills, which still hold an estimated 4.8–7 million tonnes of POP waste globally.

    UNEP Frontiers 2025 Report on Legacy Pollutants

    Key Highlights of Frontiers 2025: The Weight of Time (UNEP):

    • Retreat of Toxins: Climate change-induced flooding can unearth and redistribute toxic legacy pollutants from contaminated sediments into the environment and food chain.
    • How? Floodwaters re-suspend heavy metals and POPs trapped in sediment.
    • Case Studies Cited:
      • Hurricane Harvey (Texas, 2017): Released mercury and carcinogenic chemicals from flood-induced sediment dispersal into Galveston Bay.
      • Niger Delta Floods (Nigeria, 2012): Mobilised Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs) from oil-contaminated sediments.
      • Pakistan Floods (2010 & 2022): Washed away obsolete pesticide stockpiles, spreading DDT and other POPs into floodwaters and soils.
    • India-Specific Findings:
      • Sediments of Ganga, Hindon, and Vaigai Rivers show dangerously high levels of Cadmium.
      • Cadmium is a known carcinogen and endocrine disruptor, with potential to cause kidney, bone, and reproductive harm.
      • Ayad and Vaigai Rivers also showed up deadly levels of Lead concentration.
    [UPSC 2016] Which of the following can be found as pollutants in the drinking water in some parts of India?

    1. Arsenic 2. Sorbitol 3. Fluoride 4. Formaldehyde 5. Uranium

    Options: (a) 1 and 3 only (b) 2, 4 and 5 only (c) 1, 3 and 5 only* (d) 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5

     

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  • Climate Change Negotiations – UNFCCC, COP, Other Conventions and Protocols

    UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC)

    IOCRPrelims Only | Enviro & Biodiversity | Mains Paper 3: Conservation, Environmental Pollution & Degradation, Eia

    Why in the News?

    The UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) negotiations are facing a credibility crisis, as years of underperformance, weak accountability, and neglect of developing countries’ concerns have created growing frustration.

    About the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC):

    • Overview: The UNFCCC is an international treaty adopted at the 1992 Rio Earth Summit to address climate change by stabilizing greenhouse gas (GHG) concentrations in the atmosphere.
    • Entry into Force: The Convention entered into force on 21 March 1994 and currently has 197 Parties, including all UN member states.
    • Governing Body – COP: The Conference of the Parties (COP) is the supreme decision-making body under the UNFCCC, which meets annually to assess progress and set new targets.
    • Consensus-Based Process: The Convention operates on the principle of consensus, meaning all Parties must agree for a decision to be adopted.
    • Article 2 Objective: The objective of the UNFCCC, as per Article 2, is to stabilize GHG levels at a point that prevents dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system.
    • Key Agreements: The UNFCCC framework led to major global climate agreements such as the Kyoto Protocol (1997) and the Paris Agreement (2015).
    • Institutional Structure: It has three main institutional bodies:
      1. SBSTA: Subsidiary Body for Scientific and Technological Advice
      2. SBI: Subsidiary Body for Implementation
      3. UNFCCC Secretariat: Headquartered in Bonn, Germany
    • Party Classifications:
      • Annex I: Developed countries (OECD + Economies in Transition); Obligated to reduce GHG emissions and submit regular reports.
      • Annex II: Subset of Annex I (OECD members); Required to provide financial and technological support to developing countries.
      • Non-Annex I: Developing countries; No binding emission targets but eligible for support and encouraged to act voluntarily.
      • LDCs (Least Developed Countries): Low-income, highly vulnerable nations; Receive priority support under UNFCCC for adaptation and capacity building.

    India and the UNFCCC:

    • Ratification: India ratified the UNFCCC in 1993 and has participated actively in all COP meetings since then.
    • Party Classification: India is classified as a Non- Annex I Party, meaning it has no binding emission reduction targets under the Convention.
    • Paris Agreement Commitments: Under the Paris Agreement (2015), India submitted Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs), including:
      • Reducing emissions intensity of GDP by 45% by 2030 from 2005 levels
      • Achieving 50% cumulative electric power capacity from non-fossil fuel sources by 2030
    • Climate Diplomacy:
      • India advocates the principle of Common But Differentiated Responsibilities and Respective Capabilities (CBDR–RC) in all negotiations.
      • India co-founded the International Solar Alliance (ISA) and launched the LiFE Movement (Lifestyle for Environment) to promote sustainable lifestyles.
      • India has opposed unilateral trade measures such as the EU’s Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanism (CBAM) at multiple climate forums.

    Issues with the UNFCCC Process:

    • Weak Enforcement: The process lacks enforcement mechanisms; countries that fail to meet commitments face no penalties.
    • Consensus Delays: The consensus-based approach often leads to delays and diluted agreements due to the ability of a few nations to block progress.
    • Unmet Commitments: Developed countries have not fulfilled the promised $100 billion per year in climate finance, which was due by 2020.
    • Neglected Developing Country Needs: Critical needs for adaptation finance, capacity building, and technology transfer remain largely unmet for developing nations.
    • Controversial Host Nations: The selection of host countries (e.g., UAE for COP28 and Azerbaijan for COP29) has drawn criticism due to their fossil fuel dependence.
    • Demand for Reforms: At the Bonn Climate Conference (2024), developing countries called for reforms such as:
      • Shifting to majority-based decision-making
      • Imposing limits on fossil fuel industry participation in climate talks
    [UPSC 2016] With reference to the Agreement at the UNFCCC Meeting in Paris in 2015, which of the following statements is/are correct?

    1. The Agreement was signed by all the member countries of the UN and it will go into effect in 2017.

    2. The Agreement aims to limit the greenhouse gas emissions so that the rise in average global temperature by the end of this century does not exceed 2°C or even 1.5°C above pre-industrial levels.

    3. Developed countries acknowledged their historical responsibility in global warming and committed to donate $1000 billion a year from 2020 to help developing countries to cope with climate change.

    Select the correct answer using the code given below:

    (a) 1 and 3 only (b) 2 only (c) 2 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3

     

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  • Foreign Policy Watch: Indo-Pacific and QUAD

    Quad Critical Minerals Initiative 

    IOCR | International Relations | Mains Paper 2: Bilateral, Regional and Global Groupings and agreements involving India

    Why in the News?

    The Quad has launched the “Quad Critical Minerals Initiative” to secure critical mineral supplies, addressing concerns over China’s price manipulation and coercive practices.

    What is the Quad Critical Minerals Initiative?

    • Launch: The Quad Critical Minerals Initiative was launched during the second Quad Foreign Ministers’ Meeting held in Washington, DC.
    • Participants: The meeting was attended by the foreign ministers of India, the United States, Australia, and Japan.
    • Aim: To strengthen cooperation among Quad nations on building secure and diversified critical mineral supply chains.
    • Strategic Objectives:
      • Reduced Dependency: It seeks to reduce reliance on any single country, particularly China, for the processing and refining of critical minerals.
      • Risk Mitigation: The Quad statement emphasized that overdependence exposes nations to economic coercion, price manipulation, and supply chain disruption.

    Need for such Initiative:

    • Chinese Supremacy: China dominates global mineral processing, controlling over 90% of rare earth refining, and 50–70% of lithium and cobalt refining.
    • Reserves Leadership: China holds the largest rare earth reserves at 44 million metric tons, far ahead of countries like India (6.9 MMT) and Australia (5.7 MMT).
    • Strategic Investments Abroad: China has acquired key mining assets in Africa, securing access to cobalt, lithium, and other critical minerals.
    • Supply Chain Leverage: With its monopolistic control, China can stall the global EV, battery, and renewable energy sectors through export restrictions.

    India’s Strategy on Critical Minerals:

    A. National Critical Minerals Mission (NCMM)

    • Launch and Funding: India launched the National Critical Minerals Mission in January 2025, backed by an allocation of ₹16,300 crore.
    • Core Objective: The mission aims to achieve self-sufficiency in critical mineral extraction and processing, thereby reducing import dependency.
    • Minerals Identified: The Indian government has identified 30 critical minerals including lithium, cobalt, graphite, tin, nickel, and copper as vital for economic and energy security.
    • Exploration Strategy: The NCMM promotes intensive exploration within Indian territory and offshore, and pushes for a fast-tracked approval mechanism for mining projects.
    • Energy Transition Goal: The mission supports India’s Net Zero by 2070 goal by ensuring timely access to raw materials for clean energy systems.

    B. International Cooperation – MSP and MSFN

    • MSP Membership: India joined the Minerals Security Partnership (MSP) in June 2023, a 14-member initiative led by the United States and supported by the European Union.
    • Investment Facilitation: The MSP seeks to catalyse public-private investments and build shared capabilities in mining, refining, and supply chain infrastructure.
    • Financial Network (MSFN): India is also part of the Minerals Security Finance Network (MSFN), which focuses on co-financing strategic critical mineral projects globally.
    • Sourcing Diversification: Through these platforms, India is expanding its cooperation with resource-rich countries like Mozambique, Madagascar, Brazil, and Tanzania.

    Significance for India:

    • Continued Import Dependence: Despite ongoing efforts, India remains heavily dependent on China, particularly for graphite and rare earth elements.
    • Long Project Timelines: A 2024 IEEFA report estimates that domestic mining operations may take over a decade to start production.
    • Rising Demand Pressure: India’s demand for critical minerals is expected to more than double by 2030, necessitating rapid action on exploration and supply diversification.
    • Need for Strategic Tie-ups: To secure future needs, India must accelerate global partnerships and develop domestic value chains from mining to processing.
    [UPSC 2025] Consider the following statements:

    I. India has joined the Minerals Security Partnership as a member. II. India is a resource-rich country in all the 30 critical minerals that it has identified. III. The Parliament in 2023 has amended the Mines and Minerals (Development and Regulation) Act, 1957 empowering the Central Government to exclusively auction mining lease and composite license for certain critical minerals.

    Which of the statements given above are correct?

    (a) I and II only (b) II and III only (c) I and III only* (d) I, II and III

     

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  • BRICS Summits

    BRICS Rio Declaration, 2025

    IOCR | International Relations | Mains Paper 2: Bilateral, Regional and Global Groupings and agreements involving India

    Why in the News?

    Gathering in Rio de Janeiro on July 6–7, leaders of Brazil, Russia, India, China, and South Africa adopted the BRICS Rio Declaration 2025 — marking a decisive shift in the bloc’s evolution.

    Back2Basics: BRICS

    • BRICS represents a coalition of nations committed to fostering economic growth, development cooperation, and global governance reform.
    • The first summit in 2009 featured the founding countries of Brazil, Russia, India, and China, where they adopted the acronym BRIC and formed an informal diplomatic club.
    • BRICS focuses on collaboration across 3 key pillars:
      1. Political and Security Cooperation: Ensuring peace, global stability, and governance reform.
      2. Economic and Financial Cooperation: Promoting trade, investment, and economic resilience.
      3. Cultural and People-to-People Cooperation: Enhancing mutual understanding and societal linkages.
    • Present Members of BRICS
      • Original Members: Brazil, Russia, India, China, and South Africa.
      • Recent Additions: Indonesia, Egypt, Ethiopia, Iran, and the UAE.

    About the Rio Declaration (2025):

    • Overview: Adopted at the XVII BRICS Summit in Rio de Janeiro (July 6–7, 2025), the Rio Declaration reflects BRICS’s push for a more inclusive and multipolar global order.
    • Call for reform: It calls for reforms in global institutions like the UN Security Council, IMF, and World Bank to give a greater voice to the Global South.
    • Focus: It emphasized sovereign equality, sustainable development, digital cooperation, and solidarity among emerging economies.
    • Expansion: BRICS welcomed Thailand as a full member and acknowledged 10 new partner countries, including Belarus, Nigeria, Cuba, and Vietnam, signalling broader representation.

    Key Highlights of the Declaration:

    • Global Reform Push: Demands reform of UN, IMF, Bretton Woods institutions for fairer representation of emerging economies.
    • Climate Finance: Endorses Brazil’s Tropical Forests Forever Facility and calls on developed nations to fund just transitions.
    • AI Governance: Supports a global framework aligned with national rules and UN Charter principles.
    • Health Equity: Launched BRICS Partnership on Socially Determined Diseases to address poverty-linked health disparities.
    • Economic Sovereignty: Push for local currency trade, non-dollar payment systems, and strengthening the New Development Bank.
    • Security Commitment: Zero tolerance for terrorism, including cross-border support and financing.
    • Digital Inclusion: Focus on women’s digital access, AI cooperation, and green technologies.
    • India’s Role: Led initiatives on science collaboration, digital public goods, and proposed reforms for 2026 BRICS leadership.
    [UPSC 2015] The ‘Fortaleza Declaration’, recently in the news, is related to the affairs of:

    Options: (a) ASEAN (b) BRICS* (c) OECD (d) WTO

     

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  • Intellectual Property Rights in India

    International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for FAO

    IOCRPrelims Only | Economics | Mains Paper 3: Intellectual Property Rights

    Why in the News?

    India has expressed serious concerns over proposed changes to the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture (ITPGRFA)—popularly known as the Plant Treaty.

    About the Plant Treaty, 2001:

    • Adoption: It was adopted by the FAO on 3rd November 2001 and came into force in 2004.
    • Purpose: It governs the Multilateral System (MLS) for the access and benefit-sharing of Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture (PGRFA).
    • Key Features:
      • Coverage of Crops: The MLS currently includes 64 essential food crops and forages listed in Annex I, which together meet around 80% of the world’s plant-based food needs.
      • Access Mechanism: Access to these genetic materials is provided for research, breeding, and training purposes through a Standard Material Transfer Agreement (SMTA).
      • Benefit-Sharing Approach: The Treaty incorporates monetary and non-monetary benefit-sharing mechanisms, with a focus on supporting biodiversity in developing countries.
      • IP Restrictions: It prohibits any intellectual property claims over the raw genetic materials accessed under the system.
      • Recognition of Farmers’ Rights: It affirms farmers’ rights, such as the protection of traditional knowledge, equitable benefit-sharing, and participation in national decisions about PGRFA use and conservation.
    • India’s Participation: India is a signatory and active participant and implements the Treaty alongside domestic legislation like the Protection of Plant Varieties and Farmers’ Rights (PPV&FR) Act, 2001.

    Proposed Amendments:

    • Objective: The upcoming proposal aims to expand the scope of the MLS to include all PGRFA, not just those in Annex I.
    • New Inclusions: The expansion would bring in indigenous varieties, non-commercial crops, and community-protected heirloom seeds under the MLS framework.
    • Impact on India’s Obligations: If passed, the amendment would mandate countries like India to share all plant germplasm through the existing SMTA process.
    • No Change in Benefit Terms: The amendment retains current benefit-sharing mechanisms, which critics argue are often non-monetary or merely symbolic.
    • Concerns over IP Rights: The broadened scope may lead to intellectual property loopholes if traditional seeds are repackaged or genetically altered.
    • Allegations of Biopiracy: Critics argue the proposal enables “backdoor biopiracy”, especially of the Global South’s rich seed diversity.

    India’s Concerns:

    • Loss of Seed Sovereignty: India fears it will lose discretion over which seeds to share, weakening its ability to protect unique plant biodiversity.
    • Undermining of Farmers’ Rights: The proposal might override the rights granted to farmers under the Plant Treaty and India’s PPV&FR Act, which view them as custodians of seed heritage.
    • Erosion of National Authority: The expansion could violate Articles 10 and 11 of the Treaty, which grant countries sovereign control over their genetic resources.
    • Violation of Federal Principles: The lack of consultation with States is seen as a breach of India’s federal structure, as agriculture is a State subject under Schedule VII of the Constitution.
    • Marginalization of Biodiversity Boards: The role of State Biodiversity Boards may be diminished, despite their importance in regulating local germplasm and community rights.
    • Lack of Equitable Returns: India argues that the global system offers little real benefit, raising doubts about fairness and justice in benefit-sharing.
    [UPSC 2014] Consider the following international agreements:

    1. The International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture.

    2. The United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification.

    3. The World Heritage Convention. Which of the above has/have a bearing on the biodiversity?

    Options: (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 3 only (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3

     

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  • Poverty Eradication – Definition, Debates, etc.

    India is 4th most Equal Society: World Bank

    IOCR | Indian Society | Mains Paper 1: Poverty & Development Issues

    Why in the News?

    As of 2025, India ranks as the world’s fourth most equal country in terms of income distribution, according to the World Bank’s Spring 2025 Poverty and Equity Brief.

    India is 4th most Equal Society: World Bank

    About the World Bank’s Spring 2025 Poverty and Equity Brief:

    • What It Is: The Poverty and Equity Brief is a biannual publication by the World Bank’s Poverty and Equity Global Practice Group.
    • Data Coverage: It includes country-level statistics on poverty, inequality, and shared prosperity using household surveys, national datasets, and income tracking.
    • Comparative Perspective: The brief allows comparison across income groups and regions, helping track Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs).
    • Spring 2025 Focus: This edition emphasizes post-pandemic recovery, distributional equity, and the effectiveness of welfare policies in developing nations.

    Key Parameters Involved:

    • Gini Index: It measures how equally income is distributed.
      • Score Range: 1 = complete equality; 100 = complete inequality.
      • India’s Score: 25.5 in 2022–23, showing strong income equality.
    • International Poverty Lines:
      • $2.15/day (2017 PPP): Global standard for extreme poverty.
      • $3.00/day: Threshold for lower-middle-income countries like India.
    • Poverty Headcount Ratio: Reflects how many people live below the poverty line.
      • India’s Status: 2.3% below $2.15/day and 5.3% below $3/day in 2022–23.
    • Shared Prosperity Premium:
      • Measures if the bottom 40% of the population are doing better or worse than average.
      • High premium means inclusive growth.

    Key Highlights from the Spring 2025 Report:

    • India’s Gini Score: Among Most Equal
      • With a score of 25.5, India is the 4th most equal country, after Slovak Republic (24.1), Slovenia (24.3), and Belarus (24.4).
      • India outperforms China (35.7) and all G7 and G20 nations.
      • Improved from 28.8 in 2011, showing a steady decline in inequality.
    • Major Poverty Reduction Milestone
      • Between 2011 and 2023, 171 million people moved out of extreme poverty.
      • Share of population under $2.15/day fell from 16.2% to 2.3%.
      • Share under $3/day fell to 5.3%, marking a significant decline.
    [UPSC 2007] Consider the following statements:

    1. The repo rate is the rate at which other banks borrow from the Reserve Bank of India. 2. A value of 1 for Gini Coefficient in a country implies that there is perfectly equal income for everyone in its population.

    Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

    Options: (a) 1 only (b) 2 only* (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2

     

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