Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: ICJ, COP-27, Loss and damage fund
Mains level: Role of ICJ in Climate change negotiations, Small Island Nations
Central Idea
- A group of 16 countries has launched a gallant effort to fight the problem of climate change an existential threat to human civilization at the United Nations (UN). Led by Vanuatu an island country in the South Pacific Ocean, the group seeks an advisory opinion from the International Court of Justice (ICJ) on the issue of climate change.
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What is International Court of Justice (ICJ)?
- The ICJ is the principal judicial organ of the United Nations (UN). It was established in 1945 and is located in The Hague, Netherlands.
- It has the authority to settle legal disputes between states and to provide advisory opinions on legal questions referred to it by the UN General Assembly, the Security Council, and other authorized UN bodies.
- The ICJ is composed of 15 judges elected for nine-year terms by the UN General Assembly and the Security Council.
- Its decisions are binding and final, and the court’s role is to settle legal disputes in accordance with international law.
ICJ has two types of jurisdictions: Contentious and Advisory
- Contentious: Contentious jurisdiction refers to the ICJ’s authority to resolve legal disputes between consenting states. Decisions made under contentious jurisdiction are binding
- Advisory:
- Advisory jurisdiction allows the UN General Assembly (UNGA), the Security Council (SC), and other specialized bodies of the organization to request the ICJ’s opinion on a legal question.
- The ICJ’s advisory opinions are non-binding. However, they hold significant normative weight and serve to clarify international law on relevant issues.
- The ICJ’s advisory opinion on climate change can be useful in climate-related litigation at the national level.
- Failure to deliver concrete solutions to Climate Change: Notwithstanding the presence of several international legal instruments on climate change such as the UNFCC, the Kyoto Protocol and the Paris Agreement, the international community has fallen short of delivering concrete solutions to the problem of climate change.
- COP-27 Fails to Resolve Differences: The recently concluded 27th UN Climate Change Conference (COP-27) where countries failed to narrow their differences on critical issues such as reducing greenhouse gas emissions. Countries were unable to reach a consensus on meaningful action.
- Vulnerability of Small Island Developing (SID) states:
- SID states such as Vanuatu are most vulnerable to rising temperatures and sea levels.
- Accordingly, in September 2021, Vanuatu launched an initiative, through the UNGA, to seek an advisory opinion from the ICJ to clarify the legal obligations of all countries to prevent and redress the adverse effects of climate change.
- Since then, the initiative has gathered momentum with more than 100 countries backing the idea. Specifically, the draft resolution piloted by Vanuatu seeks answers to the following questions from the ICJ.
The Legal questions
- What are the international law obligations of countries toward the protection of the climate system from anthropogenic emissions of greenhouse gases for the present and future generations?
- Answer: The ICJ will interpret existing climate change law and use customary international law to fill gaps, including the ‘no-harm’ (states are under an obligation that activities within their jurisdiction do not damage other countries) principle, to clarify the Paris Agreement.
- What are the legal consequences for states that have caused significant harm to the climate system, the SID states and other people of the present and future generations?
- Answer: Demands for climate reparations are made as part of climate justice, where historically high-emitting rich countries compensate developing countries affected by climate change. The ICJ can provide legal principles for the ‘loss and damage’ fund.
Confusion over loss and damage fund
- Little clarity on funding: At COP-27, it was agreed to establish a loss and damage fund to financially assist vulnerable developing countries. However, there is little clarity on which countries will provide the funding.
- Historical responsibility yet to be determined: Moreover, the connection between funding and the historical responsibility of developed countries in emissions is yet to be determined.
Role of International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea (ITLOS)
- It is not just the ICJ whose advisory opinion is being sought: The Commission of Small Island States on Climate Change and International Law, comprising countries like Antigua and Barbuda and Tuvalu, has sought the advisory opinion of the Hamburg-based ITLOS.
- To determine obligations under UNCLOS: ITLOS has been asked to determine countries’ obligations under United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea regarding marine pollution, which is linked to ocean warming, sea level rise, and acidification.
Conclusion
- As part of a multi-pronged approach to saving our planet, one should welcome the role of international courts. Developed countries and groupings like the G-20 should support these laudable initiatives of the SID states. Environment and climate sustainability are important themes of G-20. India, as the president of the G-20, should take a lead given its relentless emphasis on LiFE (developing environment-friendly lifestyle) campaign.
Mains Question
Q. What is Loss and damage fund? Discuss the legal questions that Vanuatu seeks to clarify through the ICJ.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: AYUSH mission
Mains level: AYUSH mission, Promotion and Challenges in Ayurvedic practice
Central Idea
- Ayurveda graduates face significant challenges in pursuing a career in Ayurvedic practice due to widespread scepticism about the efficacy of Ayurvedic theories and practices. Despite the publicity campaigns to promote Ayurveda, Yoga, Unani, Siddha and Homeopathy (AYUSH), the fact is that there is a trust-deficit in these systems.
What is National AYUSH Mission?
- Department of AYUSH, Ministry of Health and Family Welfare, Government of India has launched National AYUSH Mission (NAM) during 12th Plan for implementing through States/UTs.
- The basic objective of NAM is to promote AYUSH medical systems through cost effective AYUSH services, strengthening of educational systems, facilitate the enforcement of quality control of ASU &H drugs and sustainable availability of ASU & H raw-materials.
- It envisages flexibility of implementation of the programmes which will lead to substantial participation of the State Governments/UT.
- The NAM contemplates establishment of a National Mission as well as corresponding Missions in the State level.
What is Ayurveda?
- Sanskrit word: Ayu means life, and Veda means knowledge or science Hence it is “The Science of Life.”
- Ayurveda is a traditional system of medicine that originated in India more than 5,000 years ago.
- It was taught orally from one generation to another by accomplished masters.
- Some of this knowledge was later put into writing, but much of it remains inaccessible.
- The principles of many natural healing systems, including Homeopathy and Polarity Therapy, have their roots in Ayurveda.
What are the reasons for the public’s skepticism towards Ayurveda?
- Failed to keep the pace: The Ayurveda establishment has failed to keep pace with the intellectual and scientific advances of the times.
- Archaic theories and lack of evidence-based quality: Archaic theories that are apt to arouse suspicion in the minds of educated patients are peddled as sophisticated dogmas. Treatments are not subjected to straightforward testing as they are claimed to be based on these theories
- Perception that Ayurvedic treatments are slow to heal: Ayurveda treatments are slow to heal is another common view that characterises the public image of Ayurveda.
What are the challenges faced by Ayurveda graduates in pursuing a career in practice?
- Practical usability is limited: Limited practical usability of ancient medical wisdom taught in college training
- Lack of vibrant ecosystem of Research: Dependence on personal experimentation due to a lack of a vibrant ecosystem of science and research. The Research process involves a lot of trial and error with patients and predictably leads to an erosion of the practitioner’s reputation.
- Necessity of complementing Ayurveda with modern medicine: Inability to treat all primary-care illnesses, necessitating complementing with modern medicine, which is prohibited in most states.
- Unhealthy competition and advertisements: Competition from gimmickry and publicity-based practitioners.
- Proper training: Rejuvenating primary care by training Ayurveda graduates to become good primary-care doctors.
- Evidence-based appraisal of Ayurveda: Conducting a vigorous evidence-based appraisal of Ayurvedic theories and practices to sift the usable from the obsolete
- Practice modern medicines: Statutory decision to allow Ayurveda graduates to practice modern medicine in stipulated primary care areas
Conclusion
- Ayurveda prioritizes patient benefit over gratification and emphasizes prevention through balance, diet, lifestyle, and herbs. Sustainable treatment requires a gradual transition to wellness. Ayurveda, science, and public welfare all stand to gain. What is needed is sincerity, straight-thinking, and some adventurism on the part of stakeholders.
Mains Question
Q. What is Ayurveda? Despite of the efforts to promote Ayurveda, the graduates face significant challenges in pursuing a career in Ayurvedic practice. Discuss.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: NA
Mains level: India-Bangladesh Relations, Significance for India and New avenues of cooperation.
Central Idea
- In recent years, Bangladesh-India relations have entered the Golden Chapter in their relations. Setting the seal on this bilateral bonhomie, The Prime Minister of Bangladesh has been invited by the Indian Prime Minister to attend the G20 Summit as a special guest. Bangladesh is the only South Asian country to be on India’s guest list. India’s invitation to Bangladesh as its guest speaks volumes of the high priority the country accords its immediate eastern neighbor and ‘best friend’ in the neighborhood’.
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- India’s links with Bangladesh are civilization, cultural, social and economic.
- There is much that unites the two countries – a shared history and common heritage, linguistic and cultural ties, and passion for music, literature and the arts.
- It is also worth recalling that India shares its longest border of 4,096.7 kilometres with Bangladesh, which is also the fifth-longest border in the contemporary world.
- With the onset of economic liberalization in South Asia, they forged greater bilateral engagement and trade.
In Depth: Why Bangladesh is cardinally important to India?
- India’s largest trading partner in South Asia
- Bangladesh emerged as India’s largest trading partner: In 2021-22, Bangladesh emerged as India’s largest trading partner in South Asia and India is Bangladesh’s second-largest trading partner and its largest export market in Asia. Despite the pandemic, bilateral trade has grown at an unprecedented rate of 14 per cent
- Comprehensive Economic Partnership Agreement: The two countries are also preparing to sign the Comprehensive Economic Partnership Agreement, for substantial enhancement of trade and commercial partnerships between the two countries.
- Gateway for India’s Northeast
- Strategic location: Efforts have been made in recent years by both Bangladesh and India to improve connectivity between Bangladesh and India’s Northeast, which is geographically located between West Bengal and landlocked Northeastern states.
- Initiatives to Improve Connectivity: Initiatives such as inviting India to use Chattogram and Mongla ports, adding new ports and protocol routes to the shared inland waterway network, constructing the Maitri and Padma Setu bridges, and the upcoming Akhaura-Agartala rail line, aim to provide better trade and transport connectivity. The Mitali Express has also been operationalized for bi-weekly journeys between New Jalpaiguri and Dhaka.
- Important for stability and security issues: Bangladesh has been an outstanding partner of India on security issues, especially with its zero-tolerance attitude towards terrorism. On several occasions, Bangladesh has arrested and handed over insurgents from the separatist militant groups in the Northeast (United Liberation Front of Asom) to India.
- A central pillar in India’s Neighbourhood First and Act East Policies
- Bay of Bengal’s Increasing Strategic Significance: The increasing strategic significance of the Bay of Bengal, heightened by China’s rising and assertive presence in this maritime space has led India to bolster relations with the Bay littorals to ensure its pre-eminence in the Bay, which it considers to be a primary area of interest.
- Important for India’s Eastern Neighborhood Policy: Furthermore, as its western front remains troubled, India is increasingly trying to build stronger relations with its eastern neighbourhood to realise its Indo-Pacific aspirations.
- As china trying to make inroads, India Reviving and Cultivating Cooperation: As China also tries to make inroads into Bangladesh to gain a stronger foothold in the Bay region, India has felt an added impetus to nurture its relationship with the country, reviving age-old bonds and cultivating new avenues for cooperation.
- India’s Vaccine Maitri Initiative For example: In the pandemic, India prioritised Bangladesh and supplied 10.3 crore vaccine doses to the country, making it the largest recipient of its Vaccine Maitri initiative. The gesture was generously reciprocated, by providing of
Key Areas of Cooperation on India’s G20 Agenda
- Climate change and disaster management
- Green Development, Climate Finance and LiFE’: As the name suggests, the segment is devoted to developing environmental consciousness and understanding the impact of climate change with a particular focus towards not only climate finance and technology, but also ensuring just energy transitions for developing nations across the world.
- For instance: Both countries agreed to cooperate on climate change with particular attention to the Sundarban area which is facing challenges due to climate-induced sea level rise.
- Disaster risk reduction: Both India and Bangladesh experience frequent disasters such as cyclones originating from the turbulent Bay of Bengal. Consequently, the two countries signed an MoU on Disaster Management in 2021, to mitigate this transnational threat.
- Transition to renewable energy
- Energy transition and cooperation: As energy transitions are an important issue in India’s G20 mandate, recently, Bangladesh announced its target of generating 40 percent of power from clean energy by 2041. India-Bangladesh have increased cooperation in the energy sector.
- Projects for instance: With projects such as the Friendship Pipeline and Maitree Super Thermal Power Project, and agreed to enhance cooperation in energy efficiency and clean energy, including biofuels.
- Cyber security
- Cyber security cooperation: Cyber security is an intrinsic aspect of Digital Public Infrastructures (DPI’s) and also happens to be one of the areas in which India-Bangladesh have agreed to cooperate.
- Joining hands to enhance AI and cyber security: In June 2022, both countries decided to expand their strategic partnership to enhance Artificial Intelligence (AI) and cyber security.
Way ahead: Forging better multilateralism
- Within G20, a priority for India is to promote reformed multilateralism which cultivates accountable, inclusive, just, equitable and representative multipolar international systems, fit for addressing contemporary challenges.
- As one of the fastest-growing economies in the world, Bangladesh will become even more important for India in future.
- In many of the multilateral platforms in India’s neighbourhood (an area India seeks to influence), Bangladesh is also a member, for e.g., SAARC, BIMSTEC, and IORA.
- The country’s support is, therefore, necessary, if India’s G20 aspiration is to find a reflection in regional multilateral platforms.
Conclusion
- As India tries to shape the global agenda through G20 it needs Bangladesh’s support to translate many of these ideas into action in its neighbourhood. This will lend further credibility to its presidency and in the long run, some of these nascent areas of cooperation may add pages to the “Golden Chapter” in India-Bangladesh relations.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Agriculture related schemes
Mains level: Doubling Farmers income, challenges and way ahead
Central Idea
- Recently, Prime Minister shared his dream of doubling farmers’ incomes in the year when India completes 75 years of Independence and enters Amrit Kaal. Now that we have entered Amrit Kaal, it is a good time to revisit that dream and see if it has been fulfilled, and if not, how best it can be done. It was a noble dream because unless the incomes of farmers go up, we cannot have sustained high growth of overall GDP.
- Doubling farmers’ income is a target set by the government of India in February 2016 to be achieved by 2022-23.
- To promote farmers’ welfare, reduce agrarian distress and bring parity between income of farmers and those working in non-agricultural professions.
- Doubling Farmers Income can directly have a positive effect on the future of agriculture.
Doubling Farmers Income: A Noble Vision
- Improved Farm Machinery and Advanced Technologies: If the income earned by the farmer is doubled, they will have access to better farm machinery and advanced technologies, leading to increased productivity, better quality of seeds, and improved farming techniques.
- Increased Agricultural Productivity: Doubling farmers’ income means increasing agricultural productivity, which is essential for meeting the growing demand for food in the country.
- Improved Quality of Crops: Increasing the income of farmers will not only increase agricultural production but also improve the quality of crops, which is crucial for ensuring food security and meeting quality standards for exports.
- Growth of Indian Economy: Doubling farmers’ income will contribute to the growth of the Indian economy by increasing rural demand for goods and services, creating employment opportunities, and boosting overall economic growth.
- Reduced Incidents of Farmer Suicides: Financial stress is one of the leading causes of farmer suicides in India. Doubling farmers’ income will provide them with financial security, which will reduce the incidents of farmer suicides and improve their overall well-being.
Government efforts in this direction
- Fertilizer subsidy: Fertilizer subsidy budget crosses Rs 2 lakh crore. Even when global prices of urea crossed $1,000/metric tonne, the Indian price of urea remained flat at around $70/tonne. This is perhaps the lowest price in the world.
- PM-Kisan: The government has allocated Rs 60,000 crore to its flagship PM Kisan Samman Nidhi Yojana for the financial year 2023-24.
- PM Garib Kalyan Anna Yojana: Further, many small and marginal farmers also get free ration of at least 5 kg/person/month through the PM Garib Kalyan Anna Yojana.
- Subsidies and crop insurance: There are also subsidies for crop insurance, credit and irrigation (drip). States also dole out power subsidies in abundance, especially on irrigation. Even farm machinery for custom hiring centres is being subsidised by many states.
Evaluation: Impact of all these policies on farmers’ incomes and on environment
- Impact of Input Subsidies and Output Trade Policies on Farmers’ Income: While Input subsidies help raise farmers’ incomes by reducing the cost of inputs such as seeds, fertilizers, and irrigation. Output trade and marketing policies adopted by the government, such as the ban on exports of wheat or the 20% export tax on rice, can suppress farmers’ incomes.
- Pro-Consumer Approach: The current policy approach is pro-consumer rather than pro-farmer, which is a fundamental problem with our policy framework.
- Environmental Damage Caused by Subsidized Inputs and Uncontrolled Procurement Policies: The excessive subsidization of inputs like fertilizers and power, coupled with uncontrolled procurement of paddy and wheat in certain states, is causing severe environmental damage. There is a growing need to rationalize these policies.
Way ahead
- It is crucial to assess the net impact of input subsidies and output trade policies on farmers’ income to understand where they stand.
- Realign the support policies keeping in mind environmental outcomes.
- Millets, pulses, oilseeds, and much of horticulture could perhaps be given carbon credits to incentivise their cultivation. They consume less water and fertilisers. We need to make subsidies/support crop-neutral.
- It is crucial to adopt policies that are pro-farmer and promote their interests, support income growth, and enhance overall economic growth.
- Agriculture today needs innovations in technologies, products, institutions and policies for more diversified high-value agriculture that is also planet friendly.
Notes for Good marks
Agriculture: Crucial sector of the Indian Economy
- Employment: Agriculture engages the largest share of the workforce (45.5 per cent in 2021-22 as per PLFS). Agriculture provides direct employment to around 50% of the Indian population, and it indirectly supports the livelihoods of millions more in allied industries such as agro-processing, transportation, and marketing.
- Food and nutritional security: Agriculture is essential for meeting the food requirements of the country. India is one of the largest producers of rice, wheat, and other cereals, and it is also a significant producer of fruits, vegetables, and spices.
- Contribution to GDP: Agriculture is a significant contributor to India’s Gross Domestic Product (GDP), accounting for around 17% of the country’s total GDP.
- Foreign exchange earnings: India is a leading exporter of agricultural products such as Basmati rice, spices, tea, and cotton. The export of these products earns valuable foreign exchange for the country.
- Rural development: Agriculture plays a vital role in the development of rural areas by providing employment and income opportunities, promoting entrepreneurship, and improving the standard of living in these areas.
- Environmental sustainability: Agriculture is closely linked to the environment, and sustainable agricultural practices can help conserve natural resources, reduce carbon emissions, and promote ecological balance.
Conclusion
- On the question of doubling farmers’ income, we must realize it is going to take time. It can be done by increasing productivity through better seeds and better irrigation. It will have to be combined with unhindered access to the markets for their produce. Further, diversifying to high-value crops, and even putting solar panels on farmers’ fields as a third crop will be needed. It is only with such a concerted and sustained effort we can double farmers’ incomes.
Mains Question
Q. What do you understand by Doubling famers income? Enumerate the efforts taken by the government and what needs to be done to achieve the target?
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Crops, climate change impact and Green Revolution
Mains level: State of the Indian Agriculture
Central Idea
- The statement made by the then viceroy, George Curzon in the early 20th century, that the Indian economy, particularly agriculture, is a gamble on the monsoon, may need to be rephrased in modern times. More than the monsoon, it is temperatures that are emerging as a greater source of uncertainty for farmers. Today, what India needs is Green Revolution 2.0.
The fact today: Rising Temperatures Threaten Winter-Spring Harvest in India
- Irrigation Prevents Winter-Spring Drought: The country now produces more foodgrains during the winter-spring season than in the post-monsoon season shows how irrigation has helped to prevent drought.
- Rising Temperatures Threaten Winter-Spring Harvest: However, the rising temperatures in February and March pose a threat to the winter-spring harvest, which was previously considered safe from rainfall-related problems.
- Shorter Winters, Earlier Summers Increase Crop Risks: Although thunderstorms and hail have always been a risk for winter-spring crops, they are now overshadowed by the risks from shorter winters and earlier summers.
Heat Waves and wheat yield at present
- Surge in temperature last year: The impact of temperature surge was seen in March 2022, when the wheat crop had just entered its final grain formation and filling stage. The heat stress led to early grain ripening and reduced yields.
- Record-high temperatures in February this year: In February of this year, the maximum temperatures recorded were the highest ever seen. This is attributed to the absence of active western disturbances that bring rain and snowfall over the Himalayas, whose cooling effect percolates into the plains.
- Rising Temperatures in Wheat-Growing Areas: Currently, minimum and maximum temperatures in most wheat-growing areas are ruling 3-5 degrees Celsius above normal. The next couple of weeks or more are going to be crucial. As long as the maximum remains within 35 degrees, there should be no danger of March 2022 repeating itself.
Green Revolution in India
- In India, the Green Revolution was mainly led by M.S. Swaminathan.
- In 1961, M.S. Swaminathan invited Norman who suggested a revolution like what has happened in Mexico, Japan, etc in Indian agriculture.
- Green Revolution was introduced with the Intensive Agriculture District Program (IADP) on an experimental basis in 7 districtin India.
- In 1965-66 the HYV program was started which is the starting point of the Green Revolution in India.
- The Green Revolution, spreading over the period from 1967-68 to 1977-78, changed India’s status from a food-deficient country to one of the world’s leading agricultural nations.
- The Green Revolution resulted in a great increase in production of food grains (especially wheat and rice) due to the introduction into developing countries of new, high-yielding variety seeds, beginning in the mid-20th century.
Why India Need another Green Revolution?
- Climate change and food insecurity: Climate change poses a significant risk to Indian agriculture. The changing weather patterns, extreme temperatures, and rainfall variations are causing unpredictability in crop production, leading to food insecurity and farmer distress.
- Declining Soil Fertility: Soil degradation and depletion of nutrients have affected the productivity of the land. It is necessary to develop crops that require less water and fertilizers and are disease-resistant.
- For example: The development of genetically modified (GM) cotton has led to higher yields, less pesticide use, and improved soil health.
- Price volatility: In addition to climate change, Indian farmers are also struggling with price volatility, as seen in the recent crash of onion and potato prices. This dual risk of climate and prices requires urgent attention from policymakers, farmers, and scientists to develop resilient crop varieties and effective crop planning and management.
- Sustainable crop varieties: The need of the hour is to develop crop varieties that can withstand extreme temperature and rainfall variations while yielding more with less water and nutrients.
- For instance: The use of precision agriculture techniques can help farmers manage their crops efficiently and minimize losses due to climate and price fluctuations.
- Coordinated efforts: Improving market intelligence and access to markets is also crucial to ensure that farmers receive fair prices for their produce. This will require a coordinated effort from both the government and private sector to create efficient supply chains and distribution networks.
- Success of the First Green revolution: The success of the first Green Revolution in India was built on scientific research, policy support, and effective implementation. Similarly, addressing the current challenges facing Indian agriculture will require a comprehensive approach that involves research, policy, and implementation at all levels of government and society.
Prelims Shot: All you need to know about “Wheat”
- Climate: It is a crop of temperate climate. It can be grown in the drier areas with the help of irrigation.
- Temperature: 15°-20°C
- Rainfall: 25-75 cms.
- Soil: Well drained loamy and clayey soils are ideal.
- Cultivation: On about 14% of the total arable area of the country.
- Two important wheat producing zones in the country: The Ganga-Satluj plains in the north-west and the black soil region in the Deccan.
- In north India: wheat is sown in October –November and harvested in March – April.
- In south India: It is sown in September-October and harvested in December – January.
- Uttar Pradesh (highest producer), Punjab (highest yield per hectare), Madhya Pradesh, Haryana, Rajasthan, Bihar, Gujarat, Maharashtra, West Bengal, Uttarakhand.
- Important varieties: Sonalika, Kalyan, Sona, Sabarmati, Lerma, Roso, Heera, Shera, Sonara-64.
- “Wheat takes lesser time in ripening in south India than that in the north because of hotter climatic conditions in the south.”
Conclusion
- India needs a new agricultural transformation to overcome the challenges it faces. Green Revolution 2.0 can help develop crops that are climate-resilient, require less water and fertilizers, and are disease-resistant. By investing in research and development of new technologies, India can achieve a more sustainable and profitable agriculture sector. Farmers must know what to plant, how to manage their crop at various stages under different stress scenarios, and when to sell. Agriculture for today and tomorrow cannot be the same as it was yesterday.
Mains Question
Q. Indian agriculture is under stress due to rising temperatures and climate change. In this light discuss why India need green revolution 2.0?
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: CAPEX
Mains level: Capital Expenditure by the Centre and states
Central Idea
- The budget’s clear thrust towards capital expenditure is evident in the 33% increase in its allocation. The primary goal of this allocation is to bolster aggregate demand in the short term and enhance the economy’s productive capacity in the long term. This strategy is widely regarded as beneficial, especially considering the crucial role that infrastructure plays in the growth and development of any economy.
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Capital Expenditure of the states
- Capex of the states exceed than the central govt: The combined spending of Indian states on capital expenditure now exceeds that of the central government.
- For example: In 2021-22, this figure combined for states and Union territories, according to budget estimates, was ₹10.5 trillion. The Centre’s effective capital expenditure that year was ₹8.4 trillion, including ₹2.5 trillion as grant for creation of assets.
What is Capital Expenditure (CAPEX)?
- Capital expenditure refers to investments in upgrading existing or building new physical assets by the government or private businesses.
- As businesses expand, capex has a multiplier effect on the economy, creating demand and unleashing animal spirits.
Main types of Capex
- Infrastructure development: This includes building and upgrading public infrastructure such as roads, highways, railways, ports, airports, power plants, and water supply systems.
- Defence and security: This involve the acquisition and maintenance of defence equipment, weapons systems, and other security-related investments.
- Social sector spending: This includes investment in areas such as education, healthcare, and social welfare programs to improve the quality of life of the citizens.
- Rural development: This includes spending on agricultural and rural infrastructure such as irrigation systems, rural electrification, and rural housing.
- Capital investments in public sector enterprises: The government may also invest capital in public sector enterprises to improve their efficiency and profitability
Key reasons why the Indian government emphasizes Capex?
- Promoting economic growth: Capital expenditure is critical for promoting economic growth by creating demand for goods and services, boosting private sector investment, and increasing employment opportunities. By investing in infrastructure, the government can provide the necessary framework for businesses to grow and thrive.
- Improving public services: Capital expenditure is required to build and upgrade public facilities such as hospitals, schools, and water supply systems, and provide necessary equipment and supplies. This investment in public services is crucial for improving the quality of life of citizens and promoting social and economic development.
- Infrastructure development: It is critical for promoting trade, commerce, and investment, and improving the country’s overall competitiveness. By investing in infrastructure, the government can create new economic opportunities, support the growth of existing industries, and attract foreign investment.
- Creating employment opportunities: Capital expenditure creates employment opportunities in the short term through the construction of infrastructure projects and in the long term by supporting economic growth and promoting private sector investment.
- Attracting private sector investment: The government’s emphasis on Capex can also help attract private sector investment by providing the necessary infrastructure and a favourable business environment.
What are the concern over State capex?
- Uneven capacity CAPEX: One general macro-economic challenge is to address this uneven inclination of states or capacity for capital expenditure, which adds uncertainty to the impact of an expansionary fiscal policy led by capex, thus weakening its potential benefits.
- The ultimate aim of all CAPEX is to enhance the productive capacity of the economy: The nature of state capital expenditure drawn in is also vitally important. Ideally, the nature of state capital expenditure drawn in by central capital expenditure should be such that it dovetails with the latter to optimize long-term enhancements of economic capacity.
- States have tendency to postpone capex: The Union budget for 2023-24 encourages states to make reforms in urban local bodies to become creditworthy for municipal bond issuance. However, states have a tendency to postpone capital expenditure until revenue streams firm up.
- States need to improve their execution capacity and establish an enabling regulatory environment to ensure quality and speed of expenditure.
- The planning and budgeting cycle of states should also be aligned with fund releases to fully utilize resources within the available time.
- States play a crucial role in capital expenditure and must not only budget more but also spend fully and uniformly throughout the year.
Conclusion
- States need to prioritize timely and efficient execution of capital expenditure and fully utilizing budgeted capital amounts uniformly throughout the year. The RBI report, while acknowledging that Indian states made higher capital outlays in 2022-23, notes that states would do well to mainstream capital planning rather than treating them as residuals and first stops for cutbacks in order to meet budgetary targets.
Mains Question
Q. What do you understand by Capital Expenditure (CAPEX)? Highlight the concerns over capex by the states and suggest a way ahead.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Constituent assembly
Mains level: Women participation in constituent assembly
Central idea
- The process of drafting our Constitution during Partition and after a long period of colonization was a magnificent and dynamic process. Despite being part of the Assembly, voices and contributions of women have been neglected and overshadowed. The riveting work by Achyut Chetan,” The Founding Mothers of the Republic” published by Cambridge University Press in 2022 serves as a means of rectifying this historical omission and giving due credit to the women who played a crucial role in shaping India’s democracy.
Women In constitutional Assembly
- When the Constitution was completed, there were 11 women members of the Constituent Assembly who signed onto it.
- These drafters were G Durgabai, Ammu Swaminathan, Amrit Kaur, Dakshayani Velayudhan, Hansa Mehta, Renuka Ray, Sucheta Kripalani, Purnima Banerjee, Begum Qudsiya Aizaz Rasul, Kamala Chaudhri and Annie Mascarene.
- The Constituent Assembly first met on December 11, 1946 and had 169 sessions before all its members signed the document on January 24, 1950
How do we know what happened in the Constituent Assembly?
- Constituent Assembly Debates (CAD) is the only source: A rich but by no means the only source is the 12 volumes of the Constituent Assembly Debates (CAD), consisting of speeches made by members and the amendments to the draft articles.
- CAD misses no. of reports and notes pf various committes: However, what the CAD does not have are the reports and notes of the various committees of the CA.
- For instance: Much groundbreaking work was done in the Advisory Committee (chaired by Vallabhbhai Patel), which in turn had two sub-committees the Fundamental Rights Sub Committee and the Minorities Sub-Committee.
Role of Women in the constituent assembly
- Hansa Mehta and Amrit kaur: Hansa Mehta and Amrit Kaur were on the Advisory Committee, with both being members of the Fundamental Rights Sub Committee and Kaur serving also on the Minorities Sub-Committee.
- G Durgabai: G Durgabai occupied effective positions on two important committees on procedural affairs The Steering Committee and the Rules Committee.
- Women were highly active: Women members were present and highly active on almost all significant committees and subcommittees.
- Women members often faced disrespect and discrimination: For instance, Renuka Ray opposed the clause on the Right to Property which put the compensation given within the purview of courts. During the debates on the floor of the Assembly too she was constantly interrupted and heckled even by the men of the eminence and tried to deride their amendments
- Women members made their opinions known and stood firm: In the settings of the committees they wrote notes of dissent, Amrit Kaur and Hansa Mehta wrote notes of dissent against decisions that relegated the uniform civil code to the non-justiciable rights, allowed the state to impose conscription for compulsory military service, at each stage when the committees made their official recommendations to the higher bodies of the Assembly
For Instance: Views of Dakshayani Velayudhan on reservation
- Dakshayani Velayudhan, the only woman member from the Scheduled Castes communities, argued against reservations.
- She refused by saying “to believe that 70 million Harijans are to be considered as a minority and argued that reservations would not be in the best interests of them.
- She also argued that “the working of the Constitution will depend upon how the people will conduct themselves in the future, not on the actual execution of the law. When this Constitution is put into practice, what we want is not to punish the people for acting against the law, but for the state to take on the task of educating citizens for a transformation.”
- Representative governments increased but women count remains low: According to UN Women, as of September 2022, there were 30 women serving as elected heads of state and/or of government in 28 countries (out of a total of 193 UN member states).
- Dichotomy in active participation: There is the dichotomy between the rapid increase of women’s participation as voters in elections and other political activities, and the slow rise of female representation in Parliament.
- Global average women representation: As of May 2022, the global average of female representation in national parliaments was 26.2 percent.
- Above average representation: The Americas, Europe, and Sub-Saharan Africa have women’s representation above the global average;
- Below average representation: Asia, the Pacific region, and the Middle East and Northern Africa (MENA) region, are below average.
- Varied representation within Asian countries:
- The South Asian countries faring worse than the others.
- IPU data of May 2022 showed that women’s representation in Nepal, for example, was 34 percent, in Bangladesh 21 percent, in Pakistan 20 percent, in Bhutan 17 percent and in Sri Lanka 5 percent.
- For India, women’s representation in the Lok Sabha (the Lower House) has remained slightly below 15 percent.
- The study does not include Afghanistan, but World Bank data of 2021 stated that female representation in the country’s last parliament was 27 percent.
Conclusion
- As we approach 75 years of our Constitution, it’s time for scholars, teachers, students, lawyers, judges and all others who engage with our constitution-making efforts to look to sources that tell a more complete story of our drafters. The quiet women and the more visible men should both be recalled, for their roles and their contributions. That would be an accurate telling of how our founding document came to be.
Mains Question
Q. The role of women in constitution making has often been neglected. In light of this illustrate the participation of women during India’s constitution making process.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Renewable Energy
Mains level: Distributed Renewable Energy and women , advantages and challenges
Central Idea
- Women from rural India are adopting clean energy-based livelihood technologies to catalyse their businesses. From solar refrigerators to silk-reeling machines and biomass-based cold storage to bulk milk chillers, distributed renewable energy (DRE) is transforming women’s livelihoods at the grassroots.
What is Distributed Renewable Energy (DRE)?
- DRE refers to the generation and distribution of electricity from renewable energy sources, such as solar, wind, hydro, geothermal, and biomass, through small-scale, decentralized systems.
- These systems are often installed in remote or rural areas where it is difficult or expensive to connect to a centralized power grid.
- DRE systems can range from individual rooftop solar panels to small-scale wind turbines, mini-hydro systems, and biomass generators.
- They are typically designed to serve a single household or community, rather than a large urban or industrial center.
- DRE systems are also known as off-grid or mini-grid systems, and they can be standalone or connected to a larger power grid.
Recent Statistics
- More than 80% are women: A recent Council on Energy, Environment and Water (CEEW) study has shown that out of the 13,000 early adopters of clean tech livelihood appliances, more than 80% are women.
- Future projection: By 2030, India is expected to see 30 million women-owned micro, small and medium enterprises (MSMEs) employing around 150 million people. DRE livelihood technologies a $50 billion market opportunity in India alone have the potential to transform rural livelihoods, with women at the core of this transition.
Advantages of DRE systems
- Several advantages: They are more resilient to natural disasters and grid failures, they can reduce energy costs for communities and households, and they can increase energy access in areas that are not served by the main power grid.
- Reduce carbon emissions: Additionally, DRE systems can reduce carbon emissions and help to mitigate the impacts of climate change.
- DRE advantages for women: DRE-powered technologies provide an additional advantage to women farmers and microentrepreneurs by enhancing income opportunities through mechanization. They also free women from several gender-assigned manual activities that are laborious.
Steps to scale up this impact
- Leverage the experience of early women adopters: The technology providers must leverage early users to share their experiences with potential customers, becoming demo champions/sales agents to market these products, based on their first-hand product experience and local credibility.
- For example: Kissan Dharmbir, an energy-efficient food processor manufacturer, engaged Neetu Tandan, an Agra-based micro-entrepreneur using the processor to produce fruit squashes and jams, as a demo champion. Her demonstrations are generating sales leads.
- Organise hyperlocal events and demos: These events also create spaces for women to network, become aware of the product and connect with people who can help them procure, finance and use these machines.
- For example: At an event in Hamirpur, Uttar Pradesh, more than 200 women booked seven appliances on the spot, including solar sewing machines and multi-purpose food processors.
- Enable easy finance to purchase products: Limited avenues to avail financing for these clean technology products remain a bottleneck. Financiers supporting women farmers and microentrepreneurs should consider the technologies themselves as collaterals while easing the loan application process.
- For example: Samunnati Finance, a financier in the agri-value chain, availed an 80% first-loan default guarantee to support six women-led FPOs in Andhra Pradesh that purchased 100-kg solar dryers.
- Support backwards and forward market linkages: Only technology provision is not enough in all cases. Many rural products have larger market potential. Thus, finding and connecting producers to consumption hubs in urban areas are equally important to generate higher incomes.
- Ensure adequate after-sales services buy backs: Technology manufacturers and promoters should also ensure adequate after-sales services and buy-backs. To build financiers’ confidence, evidence on the economic viability of these technologies should be shared and promoters must offer partial default guarantees.
- Enable policy convergence: No private sector entity has the kind of reach and scale government institutions have, so leveraging their reach is imperative to exponentially scale up. Multiple Ministries are working towards promoting livelihoods for women from State rural livelihood missions, horticulture and agriculture departments, Ministry of Micro, Small and Medium Enterprises, to the Ministry of Textiles. They should embrace clean energy solutions to further their respective programmes and outcomes.
- Perception of high risk: The high starting price and newness of DRE appliances can create a perception of high risk, particularly for women users who may have a lower risk appetite due to socio-economic factors.
- Low belief: Due to historical limitations on women’s access to new information, people tend to want to physically touch and see high-tech, high-priced DRE products before believing in their ability and promised benefits.
- Limited network: Women often struggle with established market linkages because of their limited mobility and networks outside their villages.
Conclusion
- Much like it takes a village to raise a child, scaling the impact of clean energy solutions on women’s livelihoods needs a village of policymakers, investors, financiers, technology promoters and other ecosystem enablers. Only then can we truly unlock the potential of rural women and clean technologies simultaneously.
Mains question
Q. What do you understand by Distributed Renewable Energy (DRE)? What is to be done scale up this impact from thousands of women to millions of them?
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Artificial Intelligence, Update: AI tools
Mains level: AI future and challenges, AI arms race
Central Idea
- Hosting the G20 leaders’ summit later this year is an excellent opportunity for India to demonstrate its capabilities and contributions to information technology and the digital economy. The newest weapons will not be the biggest bombs, tanks or missiles but AI-powered applications and devices which will be used to wage and win wars. India must wake up to the challenge to protect itself against the potential consequences of an AI war.
(Source: Indian Express, Article is written by Aasif Shah, a fellow from IIT Madras and winner of the Young Researcher Award 2022 from Indian Commerce Association)
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Interesting: Message from Robot
- Recalling the conversation between the world’s first human robot Sophia and CNBC’s Andrew Ross, in which he voiced his concerns about advancements in Artificial intelligence (AI), We all want to prevent a bad future where robots turn against humans,
- Sophia retorted, don’t worry if you’re nice to me, I will be nice to you.
- The message was clear: It is up to humans and nations how they utilise AI and appreciate its advantages.
- The astonishing AI advancements are nothing but a warning to prepare for the unexpected.
What is Artificial Intelligence (AI)?
- AI is a constellation of technologies that enable machines to act with higher levels of intelligence and emulate the human capabilities of sense, comprehend and act.
- The natural language processing and inference engines can enable AI systems to analyze and understand the information collected.
- An AI system can also take action through technologies such as expert systems and inference engines or undertake actions in the physical world.
- These human-like capabilities are augmented by the ability to learn from experience and keep adapting over time.
- AI systems are finding ever-wider application to supplement these capabilities across various sectors.
- AI has grown significantly in recent times: There is widespread fear that as the usage of AI increases, both blue- and white-collar workers may be replaced and rendered unemployed. But despite criticism in some parts of the world, AI has grown significantly in recent times.
- Global Market size: The global AI market size was estimated at $65.48 billion in 2020 and is expected to reach $1,581.70 billion by 2030, according to a recent Bloomberg report.
- Applications and global impact: The growing impact of AI on banking and financial markets, e-commerce, education, gaming and entertainment is changing the world order.
- Driving forces: The driving forces behind the evolution of AI growth are greater availability of data, higher computing power and advancements in AI algorithms.
- Many people believe that AI has little bearing on their daily lives: In actuality, we all interact with AI through social media, transportation, banking, cell phones, smartwatches, and other devices.
The Real AI threat: AI arms race
- An Iranian nuclear scientist was hit by machine gun fire in 2020.
- It was later discovered that the scientist was actually targeted and killed by an Israeli remote-controlled machine gun using AI.
- There are a series of similar adverse incidents that spark moral discussions regarding the potential benefits and drawbacks of AI.
- The AI arms race between countries like the US, China and Russia, points to the possibility that AI can escalate global conflict and pose significant security risks.
- Smaller countries like Israel and Singapore are also in the lead.
Where does India stand in the AI ecosystem?
- Investments in India is increasing: According to a Nasscom report, investments in AI applications in India are expected to increase at a compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of 30.8 per cent and reach $881 million during 2023.
- Contribution of India: The report further added that although there is a massive increase in global investments in AI, the contribution of India has remained at 1.5 per cent.
- Centres of Excellence for artificial intelligence (AI): In the Budget 2023-24 speech, finance minister made an announcement about the government’s intent to establish three Centres of Excellence for artificial intelligence (AI) in prestigious educational institutions in India.
Conclusion
- Of late India has made considerable strides in digital technology. It is currently the third-largest startup hub in the world and is home to many leading technology companies. However, India still lags behind China in terms of overall AI capabilities. China is leading the way in terms of research, development and AI applications, including development of intelligent robots, autonomous systems, and intelligent transportation systems. The current trend of AI development suggests that it will determine future economies and national security to influence world politics.
Mains Question
Q. The newest weapons will not be the biggest bombs, tanks or missiles but AI-powered applications and devices which will be used to wage and win wars. Discuss.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Election Commission
Mains level: Executive and judiciary, Election Commission, appointments and issues
Central Idea
- The Supreme Court of India (SC) remains the most powerful centre of political power in the country at a time when almost every political issue is a matter of adjudication before the Court. A neutral body for the selection of the Chief Election Commissioner (CEC) and other Election Commissioners was the principal relief sought in Anoop Baranwal v. Union of India, which has been granted by the Court as per Thursday’s verdict. The judgment revives the era of judicial activism.
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Anoop Baranwal v. Union of India: The chronology
- PIL: Current system of appointing Election Commissioners is unconstitutional: In January 2015, Anoop Baranwal filed a PIL on the ground that the current system for appointing members of the Election Commission of India (ECI) is unconstitutional. Currently, the Executive enjoys the power to make appointments.
- Pleads for Independent system: The PIL pleads for the Court to issue directions to set up an independent, Collegium-like system for ECI appointments.
- Article 324:
- Article 324 specifies that while the Chief Election Commissioner and Election Commissioners will be appointed by the President, this is subject to Parliamentary law (if such law exists).
- While this provision places an expectation on Parliament to draft a relevant a law, it has not done so up until now. In the absence of such a law, the President has been making appointments as per the recommendations of the Prime Minister.
- Union government’s defence: The Union has defended the current mechanism of appointments, citing the honest record of all past Chief Commissioners.
- Urged court not to intervene: It has urged the Court to not intervene, submitting that the matter falls within the executive domain.
- Recent verdict: The Supreme Court held that a committee comprising the Prime Minister, the Leader of the Opposition and the Chief Justice of India will advise the President on appointments to the Election Commission of India until Parliament enacts a law on the subject.
- The bone of contention: Petitioners argued that as per Article 324(2), CEC and ECs appointments must be based on a law, but no law was enacted. Taking advantage of this scenario, the dispensation at the Centre chooses the CEC and ECs, who are often seen to act in tune with those in power and those who select them. Therefore, the petitioners pleaded for an independent body for appointments.
- Immunity for CEC and Susceptibility of ECs: Article 324(5) provides immunity to CEC but not to other ECs. CEC can only be removed like a Supreme Court judge. Other ECs may be more susceptible to the executive due to lack of security of tenure.
- CEC and EC’s autonomy is linked to their selection process. In an electoral autocracy, executive control undermines fair elections.
Back to Basics: What is judicial activism and judicial overreach?
- Judicial Review: It is the process by which a court reviews the constitutionality of a statue or the application of a statute, and rules either for it or against it on that basis.
- Judicial Activism: It is the view that courts make political rather than legal decisions to further some agenda, rather than strictly reviewing the legality of a law under the letter of the law and prior precedent. It refers to the process in which judiciary steps into the shoes of legislature and comes up with new rules and regulations, which the legislature ought to have done earlier.
- Judicial Overreach: It refers to an extreme form of judicial activism where arbitrary, unreasonable and frequent interventions are made by judiciary into the legislature’s domain, often with the intention of disrupting the balance of powers between executive, legislature and judiciary.
Supreme court’s Judgement: A great leap
- Great leap towards a sustainable democracy: An independent committee consisting of the prime minister, leader of the opposition in the Lok Sabha or the leader of the largest party in opposition and the Chief Justice of India for selecting the CEC is a great leap towards a sustainable democracy.
- Total Independence: The far-reaching verdict also means the Election Commission will have an independent secretariat, rule-making powers, an independent budget, and equal protection from impeachment.
- Bench remarks: Democracy can succeed only if all stakeholders work on it to maintain the purity of the election process, so as to reflect the will of the people.
Conclusion
- The recent SC verdict regarding the selection of the commission is not a cure-all solution for electoral democracy. However, it corrects an unjust method of selection and significantly improves the legitimacy of the process.
Mains Question
Q. A Constitution Bench of the Supreme Court has ordered that the election commissioners will be appointed on the advice of a committee. Discuss what led to this judgment?
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: South Asian region
Mains level: South Asia, Human capital, economic growth and challenges
Central Idea
- The last few years have ushered in a harsh new reality where crises are the norm rather than the exception. Pandemics, economic slumps and extreme weather events were once tail-end risks, but all three have hit South Asia in rapid succession since 2020. To strengthen resilience and protect the well-being of future generations, governments across South Asia need to take urgent policy action and invest in human capital.
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South Asia Overview
- Countries: Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan, and Sri Lanka.
- Population: The region has a total population of over 1.8 billion people, making it the most populous region in the world.
- Geography: South Asia has a diverse geography, with mountain ranges such as the Himalayas and Hindu Kush, major rivers like the Ganges, Indus, and Brahmaputra, and coastal areas along the Arabian Sea, Bay of Bengal, and Indian Ocean.
- Economy: India is the largest economy in the region, accounting for more than 70% of the region’s total GDP. Agriculture is a major employer in most countries, with rice and wheat being staple crops. The manufacturing sector is also a significant contributor to the region’s economy, with textiles, garments, and leather products being major exports
- Climate: The climate of South Asia is varied, with the monsoon season bringing heavy rainfall to much of the region and causing flooding in some areas. The region’s geography and size also result in varying climate patterns. In general, the region experiences hot and humid summers and mild winters.
- Climate Change Risks: Climate change poses significant risks to the region, with some areas, such as the Maldives, at risk of sea level rise. Other risks include increased frequency and severity of extreme weather events, such as floods and droughts. The region is also vulnerable to the impacts of climate change on health, including increased incidence of heat-related illness and infectious diseases.
- Biodiversity and Environmental Threats:
- South Asia is home to several biodiversity hotspots, such as the Western Ghats in India and the Eastern Himalayas.
- However, the region faces significant environmental threats, such as deforestation, air and water pollution, and climate change.
- Deforestation is a major problem in the region, with logging and land use change leading to habitat destruction and loss of biodiversity.
An underutilized asset of South Asia: Analysis
- South Asia’s people are its biggest asset but remain wastefully underutilized:
- With nearly half its population under the age of 24 and over one million young people set to enter the labour force every month until 2030, the region could reap an enviably high demographic dividend.
- Stunting one of the significant challenges: South Asia is also home to over one third of the world’s stunted children. And a child born in the region today can, by the age of 18, expect to attain only 48% of their full productive potential.
- Governments spending on Health and education: South Asian governments on average spend just 1% of GDP on health and 2.5% on education. In comparison, the global average is 5.9% on health and 3.7% on education.
- COVID-19 pandemic, a blow to regions human capital: The COVID-19 pandemic, which pushed an additional 35 million people across South Asia into extreme poverty, dealt an unprecedented blow to the region’s human capital. Among its most woeful impacts is a rise in learning poverty, or the inability to read and understand a simple text by age 10. Ineffective remote instruction, during the pandemic increased South Asia’s learning poverty from 60% to 78%.
- The poorest and most vulnerable people fell further behind: For example, in Bangladesh, the poorest students lost 50% more in terms of learning than the richest students. Several countries still show little to no signs of recovery, and South Asia’s students could lose up to 14.4% of their future earnings.
- Affordable education: Recent evidence suggests that even simple and low-cost education programmes can lead to sizable gains in skills.
- For instance:
- In Bangladesh attending a year of additional pre-school through two-hour sessions significantly improved literacy, numeracy, and social-development scores.
- In Tamil Nadu, six months of extra remedial classes after school helped students catch up on about two-thirds of lost learning linked to 18 months of school closures.
- In Nepal, government teachers ran a phone tutoring programme that helped increase students’ foundational numeracy by 30%.
- Robust systems for crisis management: The need for countries to have robust systems in place to support individuals and families during times of crisis. Such systems, which can include social safety nets, health care, and education programs, can help to mitigate the impact of crises like the pandemic, protect vulnerable populations, and promote resilience. By investing in these systems before a crisis strikes, countries can better prepare themselves to respond to the challenges that may arise.
- Use data and technology: Effective systems are needed to respond to crises quickly and maintain vital services like healthcare and education. Coordination across sectors is important. Data and technology play a crucial role in the delivery of services, human development systems should ensure they are effectively used.
World Bank study: Interdependence of health, education and skills for human development
- A new World Bank study, Collapse and Recovery: how COVID eroded human capital and what to do about it, analyses the pandemic’s impacts on young people, stresses the multi-dimensional and complementary nature of human development.
- The health, education, and skills people acquire at various stages of their lives, build and depend on each other.
- To be effective, human development systems must recognise and exploit these overlapping connections. In other words, they should be agile, resilient and adaptive.
Conclusion
- The road ahead for South Asia is rocky. The next crisis may be just around the corner. A robust human development system would not only mitigate the damage but also help ensure lives and livelihoods are protected. It could provide the resilience South Asia needs to prosper in an increasingly volatile world. While the outlook is grim, it is important to remember that well-designed and implemented interventions can make a difference if governments act fast.
Mains question
Q. South Asia possesses remarkable human capital, but it remains underutilized and has been further impacted by the COVID-19 pandemic. Discuss and suggest what can be done to address the issues?
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Heat waves
Mains level: Climate Change induced rising temperatures, Heatwaves, Socio-economic impact and measures
Central Idea
- Heat waves have become a major concern for India this year. The scorching summer heat has started prematurely, as per the recent IMD reports. If the record temperatures of the recent past are any indication, the heat wave is likely to become more intense. Rising temperatures lead to several health problems, from dehydration and heat exhaustion to more severe conditions like heatstroke. They also affect the economy and the environment.
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What is Heat wave?
- A heatwave is a prolonged period of abnormally hot weather.
- Heatwaves usually last for several days or weeks and can occur in both dry and humid climates. They are characterized by temperatures that are significantly higher than the average for a particular region during that time of year.
- This is because climate change is causing a rise in global temperatures. As the planet heats up, it leads to more extreme weather events, such as heat waves. Its geography makes India particularly vulnerable to these events.
Heatwaves in India
- In India Heat waves typically occur from March to June, and in some rare cases, even extend till July.
- On an average, five-six heat wave events occur every year over the northern parts of the country.
- Single events can last weeks, occur consecutively, and can impact large population.
- Its geography makes India particularly vulnerable to these events.
Some of the hottest summers on record in recent years that India has experienced
- In May 2016, Phalodi in Rajasthan registered 51 degrees Celsius, the highest temperature ever recorded in the country.
- In 2021, India saw its hottest day on May 22, with the temperature touching 48 degrees Celsius in Barmer, also in Rajasthan.
- In 2022, Jaipur experienced a severe heatwave. Rajasthan’s capital recorded 45 degrees Celsius in April a record for the city for the month.
- Delhi, Agra, Pilani and Rohtak are among the well-known hot cities in India, where temperatures, of late, have gone up to 43 degrees Celsius in early summer
Link: Climate change and Heat waves
- Rising heat waves: Climate change is directly linked to the increase in the frequency, intensity, and duration of heatwaves around the world.
- More severe and more frequent: As the Earth’s climate continues to warm, heatwaves are becoming more severe and occurring more frequently.
- Global warming: This is because global warming is causing changes in the atmosphere, such as increased greenhouse gas concentrations, which trap heat and cause temperatures to rise.
- For instance: Climate change is also causing heatwaves to last longer. A study published in the journal Environmental Research Letters found that heatwaves are lasting an average of 2.5 days longer than they did in the middle of the 20th century.
- Impact on Health: Heat-related illnesses, such as heat exhaustion and heatstroke, are becoming more common, particularly among vulnerable groups such as the elderly, children, and outdoor workers.
- In addition, heat waves can exacerbate existing health problems, such as respiratory and cardiovascular diseases.
- Impact on the environment
- One of the biggest problems is the depletion of water resources:
- Water sources are drying up as temperatures rise, leading to crises in many parts of the country.
- As people try to keep cool, they use more air conditioning, increasing electricity use. This leads to an increase in the use of fossil fuels, which significantly contributes to air pollution.
- Impact on agriculture:
- Impact on environment in turn, leads to agricultural problems, with crops failing and farmers struggling to make a living.
- Given that around 40 per cent of India’s population is engaged in agriculture, this is a significant concern.
- Reports are already coming from Punjab and Western Uttar Pradesh that the early heatwave has affected the growth of wheat crops and is expected to negatively affect the crop to the tune of 20 per cent.
- Impact on growth:
- The healthcare costs associated with heat-related illnesses can be significant, particularly for vulnerable groups who may not have access to affordable healthcare.
- In addition, heat waves can lead to a decrease in worker productivity, which can impact economic growth.
What can be done to deal with such problems?
- Increase public awareness: People need to be educated about the impact of rising temperatures on their health, the environment, and the economy. This can be done through public campaigns, schools, and the media.
- Increase the use of renewable energy: India has already made significant progress in this area. However, much remains to be done. The government could incentivise individuals and businesses to invest in renewable energy, such as solar panels. This would help reduce the impact of rising temperatures, create new jobs, and stimulate economic growth.
- Improving water management: This could include introducing more efficient irrigation systems, better rainwater harvesting, and using recycled water for non-potable purposes. This would help to conserve water resources and reduce the impact of rising temperatures on agriculture.
- Investing in infrastructure that can cope with extreme temperatures: This could include the construction of roads and buildings that are designed to withstand high temperatures, as well as the development of more efficient cooling systems that use less energy.
Conclusion
- The rising heat wave in India is a serious concern that needs to be addressed urgently. The impacts of rising temperatures on human health, the environment, and the economy are significant. However, with the right strategies in place, it is possible to mitigate the impact of rising temperatures and ensure a sustainable future for the country.
Mains Question
Q. Climate change is exacerbating the problem of heat waves. In this backdrop discuss its socioeconomic impact and what measures can be done to tackle this problem?
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Sustainable Development Goals
Mains level: India's progress in achieving SDG targets
Central Idea
- A recent analysis published in The Lancet has concluded that India is not on-target to achieve 19 of the 33 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) indicators. The critical off-target indicators include access to basic services, wasting and overweight children, anaemia, child marriage, partner violence, tobacco use, and modern contraceptive use.
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Analysis
- On-Target: Districts that have not met the SDG target by 2021 and have observed a magnitude of improvement between 2016 and 2021 sufficient to meet the target by 2030.
- Off-Target: Districts that have not met the SDG target by 2021 and either observed worsening between 2016 and 2021 or observed an insufficient magnitude of improvement between 2016 and 2021. If these districts continue with either of these trends, they will not meet their targets by 2030.
- Progress in: Indicators shows the progress in reducing adolescent pregnancy, tobacco use in women, multidimensional poverty, teenage sexual violence, and improving electricity access.
- Areas where more efforts are needed: More efforts are needed for reducing anaemia in women, improving access to basic services, providing health insurance for women, and reducing anaemia in pregnant women.
Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)
- The SDGs, otherwise known as the Global Goals, are a universal call to action to end poverty, protect the planet and ensure that all people enjoy peace and prosperity.
- The SDGs were adopted by the United Nations in 2015 with a vision to achieve a better and more sustainable future for all. The 17 SDGs came into force with effect from 1st January 2016 as a part of 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development.
- India is one of the signatory countries that has committed to achieving these goals by 2030.
- Though not legally binding, the SDGs have become de facto international obligations and have the potential to reorient domestic spending priorities of the countries during the next fifteen years.
- Countries are expected to take ownership and establish a national framework for achieving these goals.
Targets set for each of the SDGs
- No Poverty: By 2030, eradicate extreme poverty for all people everywhere, currently measured as people living on less than $1.25 a day.
- Zero Hunger: By 2030, end hunger and ensure access by all people, in particular the poor and people in vulnerable situations, including infants, to safe, nutritious and sufficient food all year round.
- Quality Education: By 2030, ensure that all girls and boys complete free, equitable and quality primary and secondary education leading to relevant and effective learning outcomes.
- Gender Equality: End all forms of discrimination, violence, harmful practices against all women and girls everywhere. Ensure women’s full and effective participation and equal opportunities for leadership at all levels of decision-making in political, economic, and public life.
India’s progress towards achieving SDGs so far
- SDG 1 (No Poverty): India has made significant progress in reducing poverty, with the poverty rate declining from 21.9% in 2011-12 to 4.4% in 2020. The government’s efforts to provide financial inclusion and social protection schemes have contributed to this progress.
- SDG 2 (Zero Hunger): India has made progress in reducing hunger, with the prevalence of undernourishment declining from 17.3% in 2004-06 to 14% in 2017-19. The government’s initiatives such as the National Food Security Act and the Pradhan Mantri Garib Kalyan Anna Yojana have contributed to this progress.
- SDG 3 (Good Health and Well-being): India has made progress in improving maternal and child health, with maternal mortality ratio declining from 167 per 100,000 live births in 2011-13 to 113 in 2016-18. The government’s efforts to strengthen health systems and increase access to healthcare services have contributed to this progress.
- SDG 4 (Quality Education): India has made progress in improving access to education, with the gross enrolment ratio for primary education increasing from 93.4% in 2014-15 to 94.3% in 2019-20. The government’s initiatives such as the Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan and the Right to Education Act have contributed to this progress.
- SDG 5 (Gender Equality): India has made progress in improving gender equality, with the sex ratio at birth increasing from 918 in 2011 to 934 in 2020. The government’s initiatives such as the Beti Bachao Beti Padhao and the Maternity Benefit Programme have contributed to this progress.
- Multidimensional poverty declined: At a compounded annual average rate of 4.8 per cent per year in 2005-2011 and more than double that pace at 10.3 per cent a year during 2011-2021.
- Declining child mortality: There are some issues with the 2011 child-mortality data, but for each of the 10 components of the MPI index, the rate of decline in 2011-2021 is considerably faster than in 2005-2011.
- Average decline in overall indicators: The average equally weighted decline for nine indicators was 1.9 per cent per annum in 2005-2011 and a rate of 16.6 per cent per annum, more than eight times higher in 2011-2021.
- Consumption inequality decline: Every single household survey or analysis has shown that consumption inequality declined during 2011-2021. This is consistent with the above finding of highly inclusive growth during 2011-2021.
Conclusion
- The analysis provides a valuable tool for policymakers to address the gaps and focus on the indicators that require more attention, thereby improving the well-being of its citizens and creating a sustainable future for all.
Mains question
Q. What are Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)? Discuss India’s progress made so far in achieving these targets
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Earthquakes, India's earthquake prone regions
Mains level: India's policy on Earthquake preparedness
Central Idea
- The destruction caused by earthquakes in Turkey should be alarming for India. Over the last three weeks, tremors have been felt in Himalayan states. Moreover, geologists have warned of a probable massive earthquake in the Himalayan state. In this context the Delhi High Court asked the state government to file a status report and action plan on the structural safety of buildings in Delhi. Nearly 58 per cent of the Indian landmass is vulnerable to earthquakes and the concerns that have been raised by the court need a policy response instead.
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- According to the theory of plate tectonics, the Earth’s crust and upper mantle are made of large rigid plates that can move relative to one another.
- Slip on faults near the plate boundaries can result in earthquakes.
- The point inside the Earth where the earthquake rupture starts is called the focus or hypocentre.
- The point directly above it on the surface of the Earth is the epicentre.
What is missing in India’s policy on earthquake preparedness?
- Current policy operates primarily at the scale of structural details: Guided by the National Building Codes, this includes specifying dimensions of the structural members columns, beams, etc. and details of the reinforcements that join these elements together.
- While scientifically sound, this view on earthquake preparedness is myopic:
- It ignores the buildings that were constructed before such codes were published in 1962. Such buildings form a large part of our cities.
- It assumes infallibility in the processes of enforcement, relying only on penalisation and illegalities.
- It treats earthquakes as a problem of individual buildings, as if they exist and behave in complete isolation from their urban context.
What needs to be done?
- Preparedness at Building and City Scale through policy: Earthquake preparedness, therefore, needs to act at the scale of building details as well as that of cities. Moreover, we must think about it in the realm of policy and not just legal enforcement.
- Need for Comprehensive Policy: At the scale of building details, we need to create a system of retrofitting existing structures and enforcing seismic codes with more efficiency. While there has been political talk and piecemeal efforts towards retrofitting, we still lack a comprehensive policy.
A policy should include two measures
- Retrofitting Buildings to Seismic Codes:
- To create a system of tax-based or development rights-based incentives for retrofitting one’s building up to seismic codes.
- Such a system of incentives will enable the growth of an industry around retrofitting and will generate a body of well-trained professionals and competent organisations.
- Improving Seismic Code Enforcement:
- By ensuring better enforcement of seismic codes through a similar model. A step forward in this direction was the National Retrofitting Programme launched in 2014.
- Under the programme, the Reserve Bank of India directed banks to deny loans for any building activity that does not meet the standards of earthquake-resistant design.
Case study: Japan
- Japan has invested heavily in technological measures to mitigate the damage from the frequent earthquakes that it experiences.
- Skyscrapers are built with counterweights and other high-tech provisions to minimise the impact of tremors.
- Small houses are built on flexible foundations and public infrastructure is integrated with automated triggers that cut power, gas, and water lines during earthquakes.
- All of this has been a result of cultivating an industry around earthquake mitigation and fostering expertise.
Criteria for an urban-level policy to generate earthquake vulnerability maps
- The percentage of vulnerable structures in the area;
- The availability of evacuation routes and distances from the nearest open ground;
- Density of the urban fabric;
- Location of nearest relief services and the efficiency with which these services can reach affected sites.
- For example: Flood zone mapping is a good example of such an exercise that has proven to be successful in terms of timely evacuation and efficient implementation.
Conclusion
- Governments and policymakers ought to know better than act in a piecemeal manner. Programmes like the ongoing Urban 20 meetings are an excellent opportunity for international knowledge exchange on earthquake preparedness. The Delhi High Court’s directions must act as a reminder for the inclusion of an earthquake preparedness policy in urban renewal programmes such as the Smart Cities Mission. A policy on earthquake preparedness requires a visionary, radical and transformative approach.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: G20
Mains level: India's Multilateralism amidst the global power struggle
Central Idea
- The inability of the G20 finance ministers to agree on a joint statement last week points to an important reality about multilateralism. When great powers are at peace with each other, multilateralism has reasonable chances of success; but when they are at each other’s throats, the room for global cooperation shrinks.
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What is multilateralism?
- Multilateralism is an approach in which multiple countries or parties come together to address and solve common problems, through negotiations and cooperation, while respecting each other’s sovereignty and interests.
- In international relations, multilateralism can take different forms, such as multilateral agreements, treaties, and organizations.
- The United Nations (UN) is an example of a multilateral organization, which brings together almost all countries in the world to promote peace, development, and cooperation.
Multilateralism and Major Powers: From Cooperation to Conflict
- The Cold War and Multilateralism:
- Lack of cooperation during the Cold War, except in a few areas such as nuclear arms control
- The formation of the UN after the Second World War with the expectation of great power cooperation.
- Allies turning into adversaries and sharp division of the world into competing economic and military blocs.
- Post-Cold War Multilateralism:
- Collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991 led to an expansive phase of multilateralism
- Great power cooperation at the UN and creation of the WTO
- The financial crisis of 2008 and the rallying of the top 20 economies to stabilise the global economy.
- Current State of Multilateralism
- World of shared interests among top nations no longer exists
- Simmering political conflict between Russia and the West, possibility of military conflict between the US and China.
- Consensus on key issues eludes the G20 today
- Rising geopolitical conflict mirrored in the economic domain
- Efforts by the US and China to reduce their massive economic exposure to each other
- Economic conflict enveloping emerging technologies, especially in the digital domain.
- Multilateralism and G20: As the current chair of the G20 in 2023, India has to steer the group amidst the renewed rivalry between the major powers. Reducing the impact of the political conflicts on the G20 would be a diplomatic achievement for India.
- Delhi’s Troubled Relationship with Beijing: India is part of the great power rivalry with China. The conflict is not just about military assertiveness but also deep differences on multilateral issues
- Need to Balance China: India cannot stand apart from the great power conflict while representing the Global South at the G20. India has to balance its cooperation and contestation with China in various multilateral forums.
- India’s Participation in Multiple Multilateral Institutions: India’s approach to multilateralism has evolved from a focus on the UN and NAM to participation in multiple institutions including the Quad and the G7. It is also working to strengthen its coalition with the Global South.
Conclusion
- The diversity of India’s multilateralism reflects the structural imperatives of global politics. Delhi must cooperate with adversaries for regional and global problem-solving while wrestling with rivals and collaborating with like-minded countries. Cooperation and contestation balance depend on the issue and context.
Mains Question
Q. What do you understand by Multilateralism? India is continuously expanding its multilateral approach. Discuss.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: NA
Mains level: Tobacco consumption, Health and socio economic impact
Central Idea
- The share of smokers is declining in India, but smokeless tobacco consumption continues unabated. Smokeless tobacco use is widespread and is a significant public health challenge. The use of smokeless tobacco in India is deeply ingrained in cultural and traditional practices, making it difficult to address through public health interventions.
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- High Consumption in north eastern states: In the north-eastern States of India, consumption of tobacco among men in both smokable and chewable forms was higher than the rest of India in 2019-21.
- Consumption in southern states is relatively low: In the southern States, the share was relatively low with regard to both forms of tobacco consumption. However, among those who smoked, the share of those who consumed more than five sticks a day was much higher in many southern States. So, while smokers were fewer in the south, those who smoked did so heavily.
- Smokable forms: If only the smokable forms were considered, the share was higher in the northern States of Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Haryana, J&K U.T. and the eastern State of West Bengal.
- Chewable forms: If only the chewable forms were considered, the share was higher in the east Jharkhand, Bihar and Odisha and in Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh and Gujarat.
- Share of cigarette/bidi smokers is coming down: Overall, in India, the share of cigarette/bidi smokers is coming down. Compared to 2005-06, the share of smokers came down by over 10% points in 2019-21.
Why is this trend?
- Increase in prices of smokable forms: According to health economists the reduction in cigarette smoking may be attributed to the increase in the prices of the commodity over time.
- Price of chewable form have not increased: On the other hand, the prices of bidis and other chewable forms have not increased much, and so consumption too has not reduced much.
Why price and taxation of tobacco matters?
- Effective way to reduce consumption: Research from many countries around the world including India shows that a price increase induces people to quit or reduce tobacco use as well as discourages non-users from getting into the habit of tobacco use.
- For example: a study conducted in India found that a 10% increase in the price of tobacco products led to a 6.4% reduction in tobacco consumption among adults.
- Higher prices can also discourage young people from taking up smoking: According to the World Health Organization, increasing tobacco prices by 10% can reduce tobacco use among young people by about 4%. This is particularly important as most tobacco users start smoking during adolescence.
Tobacco consumption: Negative health effects
- Cancer: Tobacco use is the leading cause of preventable cancer. It can cause cancer of the lungs, mouth, throat, larynx, pancreas, bladder, kidney, and cervix.
- Respiratory diseases: It may cause chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), which includes chronic bronchitis and emphysema. It can also worsen asthma symptoms.
- Cardiovascular diseases: Consumption increases the risk of heart attack, stroke, and other cardiovascular diseases. It damages blood vessels and increases the risk of blood clots.
- Reproductive health: Tobacco use can lead to infertility, premature birth, and low birth weight in babies.
Tobacco consumption: Social-Economic Impact
- On an individual level:
- Tobacco consumption can lead to decreased productivity and increased healthcare costs.
- Smoking-related illnesses can result in absenteeism from work, decreased work performance, and increased medical expenses.
- In addition, tobacco consumption can lead to decreased life expectancy, which reduces the overall productive years of an individual.
- On a societal level:
- Tobacco consumption can lead to decreased economic development due to the increased burden of healthcare costs and decreased productivity.
- According to a study conducted by the World Health Organization (WHO), tobacco-related illnesses cost India about $22.4 billion in healthcare costs and lost productivity annually
Conclusion
- Tobacco consumption in India has significant socioeconomic and health impacts, particularly on the poor and marginalized sections of the population. Worryingly, after GST implementation, cigarette prices have not increased much. Increasing the price of tobacco products through taxation is a key strategy for reducing tobacco consumption and its associated health and economic costs.
Mains Question
Q. Tobacco consumption in India has significant socioeconomic and health impacts? Discuss. Do you think increase in price of tobacco commodities reduces its consumption?
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Current Account Deficit
Mains level: CAD and deficit financing
Central Idea
- As per the RBI’s quarterly statistics, the current account deficit (CAD) widened to 4.4 per cent of GDP in the second quarter of 2022-23, down from 2.2 per cent in the preceding quarter. This marks a reversal from an unusual surplus of 0.9 per cent of GDP in 2020-21. In the third quarter of this financial year, while the merchandise trade deficit has widened, the CAD may witness a fall.
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What is Current Account Deficit (CAD)?
- Current Account Deficit (CAD) = Trade Deficit + Net Income + Net Transfers
- A current account is a key component of balance of payments, which is the account of transactions or exchanges made between entities in a country and the rest of the world.
- This includes a nation’s net trade in products and services, its net earnings on cross border investments including interest and dividends, and its net transfer payments such as remittances and foreign aid.
- A CAD arises when the value of goods and services imported exceeds the value of exports, while the trade balance refers to the net balance of export and import of goods or merchandise trade.
Components of Current Account
- Trade Deficit
- Trade Deficit = Imports – Exports
- A Country is said to have a trade deficit when it imports more goods and services than it exports.
- Trade deficit is an economic measure of a negative balance of trade in which a country’s imports exceeds its exports.
- A trade deficit represents an outflow of domestic currency to foreign markets.
- Net Income
- Net Income = Income Earned by MNCs from their investments in India.
- When foreign investment income exceeds the savings of the country’s residents, then the country has net income deficit.
- Net income is measured by Payments made to foreigners in the form of dividends of domestic stocks, Interest payments on bonds and Wages paid to foreigners working in the country.
- Net Transfers
- In Net Transfers, foreign residents send back money to their home countries. It also includes government grants to foreigners. It also Includes Remittances, Gifts, Donation etc.
India’s CADs have both desirable and undesirable components
- Desirable:
- A desirable deficit is a natural reflection of rising investment, portfolio choices and the demographics of the country.
- If CADs can be financed by stable capital inflows, such as FDI inflows, they are desirable as they are less prone to capital flight.
- Stable capital flows are desirable as they allow debtor countries, such as India, to utilize and allocate them into sectors that may yield long-term productive gains and foster higher economic growth.
- Undesirable:
- Large and persistent CADs can be undesirable if they reflect bigger problems such as poor export competitiveness and are financed by unstable financing.
- If deficits are financed by volatile capital flows such as portfolio flows, there may be a cause of concern. Portfolio flows are capricious and more susceptible to reversals in case of any global financial shock.
- Dominance of external shocks: Research suggests that the country’s CAD rises when output falls rather than when demand rises, indicating the dominance of external shocks.
- For instance: If oil prices rise, and as oil is an input in the production process, it raises the cost of production and leads to a fall in economic growth. In this case, CADs rise with falling growth due to both the inelasticity of oil import demand as well as its major share in India’s total imports.
Remarks to be Noted
- Remittances and services exports have provided a counter-balance to rising merchandise trade deficits.
- India’s services exports grew at 23.5 per cent in 2021-22.
- While capital flows are pro-cyclical and react negatively to contractionary monetary policy by the Fed, remittances have exhibited remarkable stability.
Challenges and a Way ahead
- The composition of financing is crucial. While FDI inflows were enough to finance the deficit in 2021-22, these inflows have been weak in the current fiscal year.
- Over the medium term, policymakers need to arrest the negative spillovers from the slowdown in global trade on merchandise exports.
- Further rate hikes by the US Fed may lead to capital outflows leading to additional exchange rate market pressures. This could be challenging in the current situation as a weaker currency, coupled with a sticky import basket will lead to imported inflation.
- Policy measures thus must facilitate exports by focusing on structural reforms to improve trade competitiveness, alongside which the government must sign free trade agreements.
Conclusion
- India is currently facing the twin-deficit problem of high fiscal and CADs. While aggressive fiscal consolidation may be undesirable in the face of rising fears about a global slowdown, a comfortable external environment can be maintained by ensuring stable financing, along with using exchange rates as a shock absorber to weather the adverse global economic situation.
Mains Question
Q. Explain the concept of Current account deficit? India’s CAD have both desirable and undesirable components. Discuss.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: e-waste
Mains level: e-waste, impact, recycling challenges and management
Central Idea
- The burgeoning problem of managing e-waste is a cross cutting and persisting challenge in an era of rapid urbanisation, digitalisation and population growth. In November 2022, the Ministry of Environment and Forests notified a new set of e-waste rules, which will come into force from April 1, 2023. These rules address some of the critical issues but are silent on others.
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What is e-Waste?
- e-waste refers to electronic waste, which includes any discarded electronic or electrical device, such as computers, mobile phones, televisions, and refrigerators.
- These devices contain hazardous substances such as lead, mercury, cadmium, and polyvinyl chloride (PVC) that can pose significant environmental and health risks if not disposed of properly.
- Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR): The first set of e-waste Rules was notified in 2011 and came into effect in 2012. An important component of the Rules (2011) was the introduction of EPR. Under EPR compliance, producers are responsible for the safe disposal of electronic and electric products once the consumer discards them.
- Authorization and product stewardship: E-waste rules 2016, which were amended in 2018, were comprehensive and included provisions to promote authorisation and product stewardship. Other categories of stakeholders such Producer Responsibility Organisations (PRO) were also introduced in these rules.
- A digitalized systems approach, introduced in the new rules (2022): Standardizing the e-waste value chain through a common digital portal may ensure transparency and is crucial to reduce the frequency of paper trading or false trail i.e., a practice of falsely revealing 100% collection on paper while collecting and/or weighing scrap to meet targets
e-waste recycling: Analysis
- Two important stages of efficient e-waste recycling:
- 1. Component recovery (adequate and efficient recoveries of rare earth metals in order to reduce dependence on virgin resources) and
- 2. Residual disposal (safe disposal of the leftover residual during e-waste recycling).
- Concern: The rules briefly touch upon the two aspects, but do not clearly state the requirement for ensuring the recovery tangent.
- The new notification does away with PRO and dismantlers: All the responsibility of recycling vests on authorised recyclers; they will have to collect a quantity of waste, recycle them and generate digital certificates through the portal.
- Concern: Fresh challenges might emerge as companies are no longer required to engage with PROs and dismantlers, who partially ensured double verification in terms of quantity and quality of recycling.
- Lack of recognition to informal sector: The new rules for e-waste management in India do not recognize the crucial role played by the informal sector, which handles 95% of e-waste in the country. This lack of recognition may be due to the sector’s “illegality
- Concern: This move could further push e-waste handling into the shadows and make it more difficult to monitor and regulate. This could lead to environmental pollution, health hazards for workers, and inefficient e-waste management.
Impact on Health
- Incineration and leaching: Open incineration and acid leeching often used by informal workers are directly impacting the environment and posing serious health risks, especially to child and maternal health, fertility, lungs, kidney and overall well-being.
- Occupational health hazards: In India, many of these unskilled workers who come from vulnerable and marginalised are oblivious to the fact that that what they know as ‘black plastics’ have far reached occupational health hazards especially when incinerated to extract copper and other precious metals for their market value.
- Exposures to children: This ‘tsunami of e-waste rolling out of the world’, as described in an international forum on chemical treaties, poses several health hazards for women in this sector as they are left exposed to residual toxics elements mostly in their own households and often the presence of children.
- Constant contact with organic pollutants: According to a recent WHO report, a staggering 18 million children, some as young as five, often work alongside their families at e-waste dumpsites every year in low- and middle-income countries. Heavy metals such as lead, as well as persistent organic pollutants (POPs), like dioxins, and flame retardants (PBDEs) released into the environment, have also added to air, soil, and water pollution
Way ahead
- In order to ensure maximum efficiency, the activities of the recyclers must be recorded in the system.
- The authorities should periodically trace the quantity of e-waste that went for recycling vis-à-vis the recovery towards the end.
- Recognising the potential of informal sector in e- waste handling.
- For instance, ‘Karo Sambhav’, a Delhi-based PRO, has integrated informal aggregators in its collection mechanism. Through this initiative, e-waste is entered in a safe and structured system and the informal sector also has an advantage in terms of financial and legal security.
- In order to ensure the efficient implementation of the law, stakeholders must have the right information and intent to safely dispose of e-waste.
- There is need of strengthening reverse logistics, building capacity of stakeholders, improving existing infrastructure, enhancing product designing, rationalising input control and adopting green procurement practices.
- Provide doorstep collection to consumers.
Conclusion
- e-waste recycling and management have become a major environmental challenge in the modern world, as the volume of e-waste generated continues to grow rapidly. Simultaneous efforts needed to increase awareness and improve infrastructure for effective e-waste management. Moreover, robust collection and recycling system and required to meet legislative requirements.
Mains Question
Q. What is e- waste? Discuss the set of e-waste rules in India and suggest what needs to be done for effective e- waste management?
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Budget
Mains level: Government capex, debt, investments and social welfare
Central Idea
- The world is indeed looking up to the Indian economy as a bright star, as the finance minister noted in the Budget speech on February 1. In 2020, India accounted for 20.6% of the worldwide population of 15- to 29-year-olds. Which means that in the years ahead, one out of every five workers deployed globally could be an Indian. No doubt, the rest of the world foresees a fortune in India’s young population. But are our policymakers doing enough to realise the possibilities that are unfolding?
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The key proposals in this year’s Union budget are the following
- Increase in capital expenditures for infrastructure: There will be a considerable increase in capital expenditures, for the building of physical infrastructure, mainly in transport, energy and defence. The figures under this head are expected to be higher in 2023-24 compared to the corresponding level in 2022-23 (revised estimates).
- Modest tax revenue: The growth of the tax revenues is going to be modest, the government is nevertheless committed to reducing the fiscal deficit to 5.9% of GDP. That could have been achieved only by reducing the spending on some other sectors
- The axe has fallen on subsidies and social sector expenditures: Compared to its previous year, in 2023-24, the Union government’s expenditure on food subsidy will fall by ₹0.9 trillion (or 90,000 crore), on fertilizer subsidy by ₹0.5 trillion, and on the Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (MGNREGA) by ₹0.3 trillion.
- Marginal increase unlikely to make impact: The marginal increases in the allocations on health, education, agriculture and the Angwandi scheme are unlikely to make an impact, after taking into account the effect of inflation.
Public-private complementarities
- Capital spending indicates country’s productive capability: A jump in capital spending by the government, as proposed in the Budget, is a much-needed step to reinvigorate the Indian economy. Investment as a proportion of income or GDP indicates the rate at which a country’s productive capabilities are growing.
- High rates of investment; Fast rates of economic progress: In India, this proportion rose steadily during the mid-2000s and peaked at 42% in 2007, which was even better than China’s record at that point in time. High rates of investment translated into extremely fast rates of economic progress in the country, which lasted until the early 2010s.
- Crowd in Private investments: If the proposed investments by the government come through, and they indeed crowd in private investments as the finance minister has predicted, that can set the stage for a revival of the Indian economy.
Global financial crisis in 2007-08 was a turning point
- China responded with high domestic investment: China responded to the crisis by increasing domestic investment, a large part of which coming from its public sector.
- India restrained its expenditures: In India, the government restrained its expenditures, worrying about the rising fiscal deficits. As public expenditures nosedived, private investors lost confidence as well. Investment as a proportion of GDP was on a steady downward slide
Investing in people is an investment in the future
- Expenditure on social sector: Public expenditures on the social sectors constitute an investment for the future more so for a country with a predominantly young population.
- For instance: The income a destitute mother receives for work through MGNREGA may ensure that her children do not have to go to school with empty stomachs.
- Underinvestment in education: Underinvestment in education and health will undercut India’s chances in a global economy that is increasingly dominated by knowledge. Millions of young people are denied access to affordable education and decent jobs, leading to frustration.
- For instance: In 2022, only 2.6% of the nearly 1.9 million candidates who wrote the NEET managed to secure a seat for MBBS in a government college.
- Government expenditure to boost to supply and demand: Government expenditure on health and education can provide a boost to both the supply and the demand fronts in a knowledge-driven economy, more new jobs as teachers and doctors, especially for women, and a greater supply of younger professionals and skilled workers.
- Contrasting Capital Expenditures with Social Sector Spending: Unlike capital expenditures, which are generally considered productive, subsidies and social sector spending are often labeled as wasteful. It is commonly believed that cutting social sector spending will not harm economic growth; however, this perception is incorrect.
- The Negative Impact of Reducing Social Sector Spending: Cutting social sector spending not only exacerbates existing social inequalities but also dampens the prospects for long-term growth.
- For instance: In India, for example, only 9.8% of workers have access to regular jobs that provide some form of social security. Therefore, measures such as the Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (MGNREGA) and the free provision of food have been a lifeline for millions of poor Indians who have been affected by the COVID-19 pandemic and joblessness.
Unwarranted fears about fiscal deficit
- The Counterproductive Nature of Inflated Fears: Inflated fears about the fiscal deficit and government debt will only be counterproductive in a country possessing vast reserves of untapped human and other resources as India does.
- India’s government debt is held largely by domestic financial institutions does not pose threat: Only a small portion of India’s public debt is owed to external agencies (amounting to 4.2% of GDP in 2022), which does not pose a threat. India’s public debt is held largely by domestic financial institutions, including public sector banks, insurance companies. This is a debt the government owes to the people of this country, whose savings the financial institutions have mobilised.
- For example: Greece and the most recent example of Sri Lanka’s economic crisis was a result of external debt.
- A Virtuous Cycle of Debt: Higher levels of development and incomes will lead to the creation of fresh savings, which can help pay off the debts. Borrowing to feed and educate all of its young citizens will provide asset-poor and socially disadvantaged households the opportunity to pick up qualifications required to enter the new job market.
Conclusion
- For a generation of young Indians, this is, without a doubt, a ‘make or break moment’. without increased public spending on human capabilities, there is little hope for them to escape poverty, lack of skills, and discontent. However, if the government invests in food security, health, and education, India’s young people can thrive and become bright stars that illuminate the world.
Mains question
Q. Without increased public spending on human capabilities, there is little hope for young Indians to escape poverty and discontent. Discuss.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Surya Nutan solar cook-stove
Mains level: India Energy week 2023
Central Idea
- The formal launch of the Indian Oil Corporation’s patented solar cook-stove at the India Energy Week 2023 (February 6-8, 2023 in Bengaluru as part of the G-20 calendar of events) by the Prime Minister Narendra Modi must be looked at closely from the point of view of India’s national energy story. While Mr. Modi claimed the stove would soon reach three crore households within the next few years, Union Minister for Petroleum and Natural Gas Hardeep Singh Puri called it a catalyst in accelerating adoption of low-carbon options along with biofuels, electric vehicles, and green hydrogen.
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Salient features of Surya Nutan solar cook-stove
- Indoor solar cooking: Surya Nutan is a Stationary, rechargeable, and always kitchen-connected indoor solar cooking.
- Patented by Indian Oil: This is a patented product designed and developed by Indian Oil R&D Centre, Faridabad.
- Maximum utilization of solar energy: It offers online cooking mode while charging through the Sun which maximizes the system efficiency and ensures high utilization of energy from Sun.
- How it will work?: It collects energy from the sun, converts it into heat through a specially designed heating element, stores thermal energy in a scientifically proven thermal battery and reconverts the energy for use in indoor cooking. The energy captured not just covers day time cooking needs of a family of four but also the night meal.
- Hybrid mode: It works on a Hybrid Mode (i.e. can work on both solar & auxiliary energy source simultaneously) which makes the Surya Nutan a reliable cooking solution for all weather conditions.
- Minimises heat loss: Insulation design of Surya Nutan minimizes radiative and conductive heat losses.
- Surya Nutan is available in three different models: The premium model (Breakfast +Lunch+Dinner) of Surya Nutan can cook all the meals for family of four.
- What will be the cost: Initially, cost of the product is around Rs 12,000 for base model, and Rs. 23,000 for Top Model. However, the cost is expected to reduce substantially with economies of scale. At a price of Rs. 12,000-14,000/- for Top Model, assuming annual consumption of 6-8 LPG cylinders, this product can pay back the buyer in first 1-2 years itself.
- Inbuilt Safety aspects: All the safety aspects required in any indoor appliances are inbuilt in Surya Nutan.
- substitute for fossil fuels: The stove, which entails a one-time procurement cost and has zero maintenance, is being touted as a substitute for fossil fuels. It does not have a traditional battery that needs replacement. Also, the solar panel has a 25-year life.
- Modular system: Surya Nutan is a modular system and can be designed in different sizes as per the requirement.
India’s national energy story
- In 1950s, the National Physical Laboratory (NPL) fabricated a solar cooker and state-led hydroelectric power but failed to address rural energy consumption.
- Parallel efforts to improve the traditional stove proved unsuccessful, such as the Hyderabad Engineering Research Laboratories smokeless chulha.
- 1980s government launched improved chulhas program to reduce fuelwood consumption and benefit women’s health/finances with 50% subsidy incentive. But the program failed due to construction, maintenance, and corruption issues. Women still rely on chulha despite hazards.
- Cooking is 80% of rural Indian household’s energy use. 668m people in India use biomass for cooking/lighting, despite LPG scheme success. Fuel price inflation and subsidy withdrawal force women to use chulha with hazards.
- India’s G20 Presidency: India Energy Week 2023 is being organised during India’s G20 Presidency, under the tagline “Growth, Collaboration, Transition”, from 6-8 February 2023 in Bengaluru.
- Opportunity for India: It provided a unique opportunity to showcase India as both an engine of global economic growth and a driver for global consumption, supported by a conducive and investment-friendly environment, and a skilled workforce.
- Opportunity for strategic policy making and knowledge sharing: IEW 2023 was an unprecedented opportunity for regional, international leaders and CEOs to come together for strategic policy making and technical knowledge sharing.
Why In India?
- India is projected to witness the largest increase in energy demand of any country over the next two decades, as its economy continues to grow and create opportunities for its people to fulfil their potential.
- India’s share in global energy consumption will rise from 7% to 14% by 2050
- IEA predicts India will account for 25% of energy demand growth from 2020 to 2040
- India’s oil and gas demand will triple by 2050
- Gas consumption to grow threefold by 2030
- Share of gas in energy mix to rise from 6.3% today to 15% by 2030
Do you know “THE PANCHAMRIT” (The five-nectar-element commitments)?
- Indian Will take its non-fossil energy capacity to 500 GW by 2030.
- Indian will meet 50 % of its energy requirements from renewable energy by 2030.
- India will reduce the total projected carbon emissions by one billion tonnes from now till 2030.
- By 2030, India will reduce the carbon intensity of its economy by less than 45 percent.
- By the year 2070, India will achieve the target of net zero
Conclusion
- Surya Nutan has the potential to transform our energy security situation, as India currently imports 50% of its LPG requirements. It also reduces India’s CO2 emissions drastically and keeps our citizens insulated from the vagaries of the high international fossil fuel prices. India’s energy transition will play a pivotal role in global energy markets. India Energy Week comes at a critical time, with the challenges of energy security and environmental sustainability impacting long-term energy transition and paths towards decarbonisation.
Mains Question
Q. Indian Oil Corporation recently launched the Surya Nutan a solar cook-stove at the India Energy Week 2023. Discuss its salient features and potential benefits for energy security for rural households.
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