Modern Indian History-Events and Personalities

In news: Women Revolutionaries of Bengal

Prelims Only | History | Mains Paper 1: Modern Indian History

Why in the News?

This newscard is an excerpt from the original article published in the Indian Express.

Women in Revolutionary Movements:

Pritilata Waddedar:

Early Life: Born on 5 May 1911 in Chittagong. One of the first Bengali women to lead an armed revolutionary group.
Education: Graduated in philosophy from Bethune College, Kolkata; became a school teacher.
Inspiration: Influenced by revolutionary literature and women’s activism; joined Deepali Sangha.
Role: Collected bomb cases, distributed pamphlets, gathered jail intelligence by posing as relatives.
Legacy: Left a suicide note explaining her cause; remembered as a fearless martyr.

Kalpana Datta:

Early Life: Born in 1913 in Sripur, Chittagong; studied at Bethune College, joined Chhatri Sangha.
Activities: Conducted reconnaissance before the European Club attack; arrested a week earlier.
Later Role: Joined bombing attempt to free Surya Sen; sentenced to life, released in 1939.
Post-freedom: Became a Communist Party leader, focused on social activism.

Bina Das:

Early Life: At 21, attempted assassination of Governor Stanley Jackson (1932) with a revolver supplied by Kamala Das Gupta.
Networks: Part of secret revolutionary student circles.
Court Statement: Famous for her passionate resistance plea before Calcutta High Court.

Begum Rokeya Sakhawat Hossain:

Early Life: Born on 9 December 1880; pioneer of women’s rights and education.
Writings: Authored “Sultana’s Dream” (1908), envisioning a feminist utopia.
Institutions: Founded the first school for Muslim girls in Kolkata; formed Muslim Women’s Association (1916).
Activism: Led women’s conferences, challenged purdah, advocated education.

Kamala Das Gupta:

Early Life: Born in Dhaka; completed MA in history at Kolkata. Initially Gandhian, later joined Jugantar.
Role: Provided shelter, weapons, and materials; arrested multiple times.
Connection: Supplied Bina Das with revolver for her assassination attempt.
Legacy: Wrote “Rakter Akshare” and “Swadhinata Sangrame Nari”; led refugee relief and vocational training.

Nanibala Devi:

Early Life: Disguised as a revolutionary’s wife; spied in prisons for intelligence.
Sacrifice: Endured brutal police torture (including red chili powder) without revealing secrets.
End: Died in poverty but symbolised courage and resilience.

Labanya Prabha Ghosh:

Early Life: Born on 14 August 1897, Purulia.
Contribution: Helped establish Shilpashram, hub of revolutionaries like Subhas Bose, C.R. Das.
Political Role: First woman MLA from Purulia; wrote and edited nationalist journals.
Later Activism: Led movements for land rights, justice for the poor.

Matangini Hazra (“Gandhi Buri”):

Early Life: Born in 1870, Hogla village, Midnapore; widowed young, lived in poverty.
Freedom Struggle: Joined Salt Satyagraha, arrested for making salt; resisted chowkidari tax.
Repression: Imprisoned and beaten; served the sick during epidemics.
Martyrdom: Killed by police firing while leading Quit India procession (1942), holding the tricolour until death.

[UPSC 2009] During the freedom struggle, Aruna Asaf Ali was a major woman organizer of underground activity in

Options:

(a) Civil Disobedience Movement

(b) Non-Cooperation Movement

(d) Swadeshi Movement

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Urban Transformation – Smart Cities, AMRUT, etc.

Census 2027 and Urban Area Definition

Prelims Only | Indian Society | Mains Paper 1: Urbanization, Their Problems & Remedies

Why in the News?

The Registrar General of India (RGI) has announced that the same definition of “urban area” used in Census 2011 will be retained in Census 2027 to ensure comparability of data and analysis of urbanisation trends.

Background and Urbanisation Trends:

Census 2011 Data: India’s population was 121 crore – 68.8% rural (83.3 crore) and 31.2% urban (37.7 crore).
Trend: Urban share grew from 17.3% in 1951 to 31% in 2011, showing rapid urbanisation.
Units: 6,40,867 villages and 15,870 urban units recorded in 2011.

Definition of Urban Area:

Statutory Towns: Include municipal corporations, nagar palikas, town panchayats, cantonment boards, and notified town area committees.
Census Town Criteria:
- Minimum population of 5000;
- Population Density ≥ 400 persons per sq. km;
- Workforce: ≥ 75% of male workers in non-agricultural activities.
District HQs: Headquarters not legally notified as towns will be Census Towns only if they meet criteria.
Exclusions: Plantations and orchards outside statutory towns will not be treated as “forests” under this definition.

Special Features of Census 2027:

Caste Data: For the first time, caste enumeration included (approved April 2024).
Worker Classification: Male agricultural workers (cultivators, labourers, livestock, forestry, fishing, hunting, plantations) excluded when calculating non-agricultural engagement.
Error Correction: Grouping multiple villages into one Census Town discontinued; identification now at village level.

Preparatory Work and Timelines:

Jurisdiction Updates: All changes in villages/towns/wards updated till 31 December 2025.
Boundary Freeze: Administrative boundaries fixed on 1 January 2026.
Village Review: Villages with 4,000+ population in 2011 re-examined to meet 5,000 threshold by 2027.
Phases:
- Houselisting & Housing Census (HLO) – April 2026.
- Population Enumeration (PE) – February 2027.

[UPSC 2002] Consider the following statements about the megacities of India:

I. Population of each megacity is more than 5 million.

II. All the megacities are important sea ports.

III. Megacities are either national or State capitals.

Which of these statements are correct?

(a) I, II and III

(b) I and II

(d) I and III *

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Innovations in Biotechnology and Medical Sciences

Asgard Archaea and the Evolution of Complex Cells

Prelims Only | Science Tech | Mains Paper 3: Awareness in various sc and tech fields

Why in the News?

Recent research by IISc on Asgard archaea — the closest living relatives of eukaryotes — has shed new light on how simple prokaryotic cells evolved into complex eukaryotic cells with nuclei, cytoskeletons, and organelles.

About Asgard Archaea:

Nature: Tiny microbes living in deep-sea mud and extreme environments.
Evolutionary Link: Closest relatives of eukaryotic cells (plants, animals, humans).
Importance: Help explain how simple prokaryotic cells (bacteria/archaea) evolved into complex eukaryotic cells.
Significance: Considered the “missing link” in the origin of complex life.

Findings from Indian Institute of Science (IISc) Study:

Focus: Scientists studied a subgroup called Odinarchaeota.
Discovery: Found two FtsZ genes (most microbes have one) and a tubulin-like gene.
- FtsZ1: Works like bacterial proteins → forms straight filaments and attaches to cell membranes.
- FtsZ2: Builds spiral structures but needs helper proteins to stick to membranes.
Division of Labour: Cooperation of FtsZ1 and FtsZ2 shows early signs of cellular specialisation.
Clue for Evolution: Suggests Asgard microbes were already experimenting with primitive “cytoskeleton” systems, paving way for complex cells.

[UPSC 2012] Which one of the following sets of elements was primarily responsible for the origin of life on the Earth?

Options:

(a) Hydrogen, Oxygen, Sodium

(b) Carbon, Hydrogen, Nitrogen*

(d) Carbon, Hydrogen, Potassium

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Indian Missile Program Updates

Integrated Air Defence Weapon System (IADWS)

Prelims Only | Security Issues | Mains Paper 3: Indigenization Of Technology

Why in the News?

The DRDO has successfully conducted the maiden flight-tests of the Integrated Air Defence Weapon System (IADWS) off the coast of Odisha.

Integrated Air Defence Weapon System (IADWS)

About the Indigenous Air Defence Weapon System (IADWS):

Overview: A multi-layered indigenous system developed to neutralise a wide spectrum of aerial threats.
Integration: Combines 3 components viz. Quick Reaction Surface-to-Air Missiles (QRSAM), Very Short Range Air Defence System (VSHORADS), and Directed Energy Weapon (DEW).
Control: All systems are networked through a Command-and-Control Centre developed by the Defence Research and Development Laboratory (DRDL), Hyderabad.

Key Components of IADWS:

QRSAM:
- Short-range missile system for protecting moving Army armoured formations.
- Range: 3–30 km.
- Equipped with 360° surveillance and tracking radars.
- Fully automated, mobile, and capable of “search on move” and “track on move.”
VSHORADS:
- Fourth-generation man-portable air defence system (MANPAD).
- Range: 300 m – 6 km.
- Targets include drones, UAVs, and low-altitude aerial threats.
- Deployable across Army, Navy, and Air Force.
Directed Energy Weapon (DEW):
- Vehicle-mounted laser system.
- Range: <3 km.
- Proven in field trials against UAVs and drone swarms.

Strategic Significance:

Multi-Layer Defence: Provides aerial protection up to 30 km against threats from drones to fighter jets.
Self-Reliance: Enhances indigenous capability, reducing dependence on imported defence systems.
National Security: Strengthens preparedness for Mission Sudarshan Chakra — India’s planned national air defence shield.
Technological Integration: Demonstrates India’s leap in combining missile and laser-based defence on a single platform.
Geostrategic Importance: Seen as a milestone in India’s path to advanced, self-reliant defence systems.

[UPSC 2018] What is “Terminal High Altitude Area Defense (THAAD)”, sometimes seen in the news?

Options:

(a) An Israeli radar system

(b) India’s indigenous anti-missile programme

(d) A defence collaboration between Japan and South Korea

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Wildlife Conservation Efforts

Nepal officially joins IBCA

Prelims Only | Enviro & Biodiversity | Mains Paper 3: Conservation, Environmental Pollution & Degradation, Eia

Why in the News?

Nepal has officially joined the International Big Cat Alliance (IBCA), an India-led global initiative to protect seven species of big cats.

About the International Big Cat Alliance (IBCA)

Overview: A global multi-country, multi-agency alliance of 95 countries (range and non-range) focused on conserving big cats and their habitats.
Launch: Proposed by PM Modi in 2019; officially launched in April 2023 on Project Tiger’s 50th anniversary.
Conservation Scope: Works to protect 7 species of big cats — tiger, lion, leopard, snow leopard, cheetah, jaguar, and puma.
Functions: Operates through advocacy, knowledge-sharing, eco-tourism promotion, and resource mobilisation.
Conflict Mitigation: Aims to reduce human–wildlife conflict and restore degraded habitats.
Institutional Structure:
- Governance: Managed by a General Assembly, elected Council, and Secretariat headed by a Secretary-General.
- Headquarters: Permanent base established in India following ratification of the HQ agreement.

Global Participation

Membership: Includes 95 countries across Asia, Africa, the Americas, and Europe/Central Asia. Examples:
- Asia: India, China, Nepal, Pakistan, Iran.
- Africa: Kenya, Congo, Ghana.
- Americas: Brazil, Ecuador, United States.
- Europe/Central Asia: Russia, Kazakhstan.
Ratification: Bhutan, Eswatini, Cambodia, Guinea, India, Liberia, Nicaragua, Somalia, and Suriname have deposited ratification instruments.

India’s Role:

Biodiversity Hub: India hosts 5 of the 7 big cats — tiger, lion, leopard, snow leopard, and cheetah — and holds 70% of global tiger population.
Funding: Government committed ₹150 crore for 2023–2028; mobilising international contributions.
Leadership: India sets global benchmarks in wildlife conservation and ecological stewardship, positioning itself as a leader in big cat protection.

[UPSC 2024] Consider the following statements:

1. Lions do not have a particular breeding season.

2. Unlike most other big cats, cheetahs do not roar.

3. Unlike male lions, male leopards do not proclaim their territory by scent marking.

Which of the statements given above are correct?

(a) 1 and 2 only * (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 2

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Festivals, Dances, Theatre, Literature, Art in News

NCERT textbooks introduce Indian Art Forms

Prelims Only | Art and Culture | Mains Paper 1: Arts & Culture

Why in the News?

For the first time, the National Council of Educational Research and Training (NCERT) has introduced Indian classical music, dance, theatre, and visual arts into primary and middle school textbooks (Classes 3 to 8).

About Classical Arts in School Textbooks

For the first time, NCERT has integrated Indian classical arts (music, dance, theatre, and visual arts) into textbooks for Classes 3 to 8.
The reform aligns with the National Education Policy (NEP) 2020, which mandates rooting education in India’s ethos and cultural heritage.
Music content includes swar, laya, shabd, Sanskrit shloka recitations, folk songs, ragas from Hindustani & Carnatic music.
Dance content covers 8 classical dance forms — Bharatnatyam, Kathak, Kathakali, Kuchipudi, Manipuri, Mohiniyattam, Odissi, and Sattriya.
Draws from ancient texts like Natyashastra, Brihaddeshi, Sangita Damodara, Abhinaya Darpanam.
Pedagogy: Emphasis on exposure, appreciation, and creativity rather than mastery. Includes storytelling, abhinaya (expressions), theatre, group performances.

Classical Dance Forms Mentioned:

Dance Form	Details
Bharatnatyam (Tamil Nadu)	Oldest dance form; temple origins; fixed torso, bent legs, intricate footwork; emphasis on abhinaya and mudras; devotional themes (Bhakti rasa).
Kathak (North India)	Storytelling tradition (katha = story); features fast spins (chakkars) and rhythmic footwork; evolved in temples & Mughal courts; uses ghungroo.
Kathakali (Kerala)	Dance-drama with elaborate costumes, makeup, masks; based on Ramayana, Mahabharata, Puranas; strong gestures, expressions (navarasas).
Kuchipudi (Andhra Pradesh)	Blend of dance & drama with dialogue; famous Tarangam item (dance on brass plate); Vaishnav themes (Krishna stories); brisk, graceful movements.
Manipuri (Manipur)	Graceful, devotional form linked to Ras Lila of Krishna; lyrical movements, cylindrical skirt for women; avoids forceful footwork; spiritual style.
Mohiniyattam (Kerala)	“Dance of the enchantress”; soft, feminine style; gentle swaying movements; solo, mostly by women; white-golden costume; mood of lasya (grace).
Odissi (Odisha)	Temple dance linked to Jagannath worship; tribhangi posture and chauka stance; sculptural quality like temple carvings; strong Vaishnava themes.
Sattriya (Assam)	Introduced by Srimanta Sankardev in monasteries (sattras); devotional Vaishnava themes; combines dance, drama, music; recognised as classical in 2000.

[UPSC 2012] How do you distinguish between Kuchipudi and Bharatanatyam dances?

1. Dancers occasionally speaking dialogues is found in Kuchipudi dance but not in Bharatanatyam.

2. Dancing on the brass plate by keeping the feet on its edges is a feature of Bharatanatyam but Kuchipudi dance does not have such a form of movements.

Options:

(a) 1 only*

(b) 2 only

(d) Neither 1 nor 2

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ISRO Missions and Discoveries

Lunar Module Launch Vehicle (LMLV)

Prelims Only | Science Tech | Mains Paper 3: Achievements Of Indians In S&T

Why in the News?

The Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) is developing its heaviest-ever rocket, the Lunar Module Launch Vehicle (LMLV).

About Lunar Module Launch Vehicle (LMLV):

Overview: India’s heaviest rocket under development by the Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO).
Purpose: Designed mainly for lunar exploration, including India’s first human mission to the Moon by 2040.
Strategic Role: Replaces the Next Generation Launch Vehicle (NGLV) plan and will support India’s space station programme.
Scale: As tall as a 40-storey building, far larger than the current LVM-3.

Key Features:

Payload Capacity: Can carry 80 tonnes to Low Earth Orbit (LEO) and 27 tonnes to the Moon, suitable for human-rated spacecraft.
Three-stage: Partially reusable super heavy-lift vehicle with:
- First two stages using liquid propellants.
- Third stage using cryogenic propellant.
- Strap-on boosters taller than the entire LVM-3 rocket.
- 27 engines in the first stage (core + boosters).
Timeline: Expected completion by 2035.
Indigenous Development: Conceived by ISRO within months; aligned with India’s long-term space exploration goals.

Future Missions based on LMLV:

Human Lunar Mission (2040 target): Capable of carrying 18–20 tonne crew modules for India’s first astronaut landing on the Moon.
Bharatiya Antariksh Station (BAS): Will deploy heavy modules for India’s planned five-module space station by 2035.
Lunar Cargo Missions: Can transport ~27 tonnes to the Moon, supporting logistics and lunar infrastructure.
Deep Space Exploration: Its heavy-lift capacity could enable interplanetary missions in the 2040s, extending beyond lunar exploration.

[UPSC 2018] With reference to India’s satellite launch vehicles, consider the following statements:

1.PSLVs launch the satellites useful for Earth resources monitoring whereas GSLVs are designed mainly to launch communication satellites.

2.Satellites launched by PSLV appear to remain permanently fixed in the same position in the sky, as viewed from a particular location on Earth.

3.GSLV Mk III is a four-stage launch vehicle with the first and third stages using solid rocket motors, and the second and fourth stages using liquid rocket engines.

Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

Options: (a) 1 only* (b) 2 and 3 (c) 1 and 2 (d) 3 only

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Foreign Policy Watch: India-Nepal

In news: Lipulekh Pass

National Parks/WS Prelims Only | International Relations | Mains Paper 2: India & Its Neighborhood – Relations

Why in the News?

India has rejected Nepal’s objection to resumption of India–China border trade through the Lipulekh Pass in Uttarakhand.

About Lipulekh Pass:

Location: High-altitude Himalayan pass (~17,000 ft) near the trijunction of India, Nepal, and China (Tibet).
Connectivity: Links Uttarakhand’s Kumaon region with Taklakot in Tibet.
Cultural Role: Serves as the shortest route for the Kailash Mansarovar Yatra.
Trade Importance: Historic India–China trade route since 1954; disrupted during COVID-19 but later resumed.
Strategic Significance: Crucial for India due to its proximity to the India–China–Nepal border.

What is Limpiyadhura–Lipulekh–Kalapani Dispute?

Origin: Rooted in the 1815 Treaty of Sugauli (Nepal–British East India Company), fixing Nepal’s western boundary at the Kali (Mahakali) River.
India’s Position: Claims Kali River originates near Lipulekh, placing Lipulekh and Kalapani within India.
Nepal’s Position: Claims Kali River originates at Limpiyadhura, extending Nepal’s boundary east to include Lipulekh and Kalapani.
Disputed Area: About 370 sq. km., under Indian administration since the 19th century.
Recent Development: In 2020, Nepal issued a new map showing Limpiyadhura, Lipulekh, and Kalapani as its territory; India rejected the claim citing lack of historical basis.

Back2Basics: India–Nepal Border Disputes

Border Length: India and Nepal share a 1,770 km long open border across five Indian states – Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, West Bengal, and Sikkim.
Key Disputes:
- Kalapani–Lipulekh–Limpiyadhura (Uttarakhand): Discussed above.
- Susta (Uttar Pradesh–Nepal border): Caused by Gandak River’s shifting course, leading to encroachments and overlapping claims.
Tensions: Despite close ties, disputes often cause diplomatic strains.
Positions: India relies on historical treaties and long-standing administration, while Nepal asserts sovereignty and constitutional recognition of disputed territories.

[UPSC 2007] Which one of the following Himalayan passes was reopened around in the middle of the year 2006 to facilitate trade between India and China?

Options : (a) Chang La (b) Jara La (c) Nathu La* (d) Shipki La

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Modern Indian History-Events and Personalities

Gopal Patha and Direct Action Day

Prelims Only | History | Mains Paper 1: Modern Indian History
Why in the News?

A recent movie depicted the 1946 “Great Calcutta Killing” — four days of communal riots on Direct Action Day (August 16, 1946), spotlighting Gopal Patha’s role in mobilising Hindu youth.

About Direct Action Day:
- Declaration: Called by the All-India Muslim League to press for Partition and creation of Pakistan.
- Bengal Role: Muslim League’s H. S. Suhrawardy (then Bengal Premier) declared 16 August a public holiday.
- Mass Rally: Nearly 1,00,000 gathered at the Maidan, Calcutta; addressed by Suhrawardy and Khwaja Nazimuddin.
- Violence: Immediate communal clashes broke out, remembered as the Great Calcutta Killing.
- Casualties: 5,000–10,000 killed; ~15,000 injured.
- Spread: Violence lasted four days (16–19 August), army intervention required; later spread to Bombay, Noakhali, Bihar, Punjab.
Who was Gopal Patha (Gopal Mukherjee)?
- Background: Born 1916 in Bowbazar, Calcutta; nicknamed Patha (goat) since family ran a College Street mutton shop.
- Gang Leader: Headed a street group of ~800 men; mobilized masses for defense during riots.
- Approach: Declared aim was to retaliate against rioters but forbade harm to women, children, or ordinary people.
- Links: Associated with revolutionary groups like Atma Unnati Samiti; influenced by Subhas Chandra Bose.
[UPSC 2002] The last opportunity to avoid the partition of India was lost with the rejection of:

Options: (a) Cripps Mission (b) Rajagopalachari Formula (c) Cabinet Mission* (d) Wavell Plan
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Goods and Services Tax (GST)

Simplified two-rate GST Structure

Prelims Only | Economics | Mains Paper 3: Indian Economy

Why in the News?

The Group of Ministers (GoM) on Rate Rationalisation has accepted the Centre’s proposal to simplify GST into a two-rate structure.
The recommendation will now be placed before the GST Council for final approval.

About Goods and Services Tax (GST):

Nature: Comprehensive, multi-stage, destination-based indirect tax on goods and services.
Introduction: Launched July 1, 2017, via the 101st Constitutional Amendment Act, 2016.
Replaced Taxes: Subsumed excise duty, value-added tax (VAT), service tax, etc.
Objectives: One Nation–One Tax, reduce cascading taxation, simplify compliance, expand tax base.
Structure: Five slabs – 0%, 5%, 12%, 18%, 28%, with cess on luxury/sin goods (tobacco, cars, online gaming).
Exemptions: Essential goods (food, medicines, education items) in 0% slab. Petroleum, alcohol, and electricity remain outside GST.

Proposed Two-Rate GST Structure:

Reforms: Removal of 12% and 28% slabs; only 5% and 18% to remain.
Reclassification: 99% of 12% items → 5% slab; 90% of 28% items → 18% slab.
New Slab: 40% rate for demerit goods (tobacco, luxury cars, real-money gaming).
Cess: Compensation cess on 28% items to end.
Timeline: Implementation expected October 2025 (Diwali).

Policy Rationale & Concerns:

Simplification: From four slabs to two, easing compliance and transparency.
Consumption Boost: Lower rates on daily goods to benefit households and Micro, Small and Medium Enterprises (MSMEs).
Compliance Gains: Less scope for disputes, litigation, and evasion.
Economic Signal: Projects confidence in domestic consumption as growth driver.
State Concerns: States, including Kerala, warn of revenue loss; call for compensation mechanism.

[UPSC 2018] Consider the following items:

1. Cereal grains hulled 2. Chicken eggs cooked 3. Fish processed and canned 4. Newspapers containing advertising material

Which of the above items is/are exempted under GST (Goods and Services Tax)?

Options: (a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 1, 2 and 4 only *(d) 1, 2, 3 and 4

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Type: Prelims Only

Why in the News?

Women in Revolutionary Movements:

Pritilata Waddedar:

Kalpana Datta:

Bina Das:

Begum Rokeya Sakhawat Hossain:

Kamala Das Gupta:

Nanibala Devi:

Labanya Prabha Ghosh:

Matangini Hazra (“Gandhi Buri”):

Why in the News?

Background and Urbanisation Trends:

Definition of Urban Area:

Special Features of Census 2027:

Preparatory Work and Timelines:

Why in the News?

About Asgard Archaea:

Findings from Indian Institute of Science (IISc) Study:

Why in the News?

About the Indigenous Air Defence Weapon System (IADWS):

Key Components of IADWS:

Strategic Significance:

Why in the News?

About the International Big Cat Alliance (IBCA)

Global Participation

India’s Role:

Why in the News?

About Classical Arts in School Textbooks

Classical Dance Forms Mentioned:

Why in the News?

About Lunar Module Launch Vehicle (LMLV):

Key Features:

Future Missions based on LMLV:

Why in the News?

About Lipulekh Pass:

What is Limpiyadhura–Lipulekh–Kalapani Dispute?

Back2Basics: India–Nepal Border Disputes

Why in the News?

About Direct Action Day:

Who was Gopal Patha (Gopal Mukherjee)?

Why in the News?

About Goods and Services Tax (GST):

Proposed Two-Rate GST Structure:

Policy Rationale & Concerns: