Why in the News?
The mineral-rich Donbas region remains central to future of Russia-Ukraine peace talks.
About Donbas Region:
- Constituent Areas: Includes Donetsk and Luhansk oblasts in eastern Ukraine.
- Geographical Position: Bordered by the Sea of Azov in the south, which connects to the Black Sea via the Strait of Kerch.
- Industrial Hub: Known as Ukraine’s industrial heartland due to large mineral and energy resources.
- Coal Reserves: Ukraine possesses ~32 gigatonnes of hard coal, most concentrated in Donbas (IEA estimate).
- Shale Gas Potential: Yuzivska shale gas field (Donetsk–Kharkiv) holds 1.2–2 trillion cubic metres of gas in place, one of Europe’s largest untapped reserves.
- Salt Production: Home to Artemsil, once among Europe’s largest salt mines, producing ~2 million tonnes annually until closed in 2022 due to conflict.
Strategic Significance of the Region:
- For Russia:
- Resources: Rich in coal, shale gas, salt, and coal bed methane, enhancing its resource security.
- Geography: Provides land link to Crimea and direct access to the Sea of Azov.
- Demographics: Large Russian-speaking population offers political and cultural leverage.
- For Ukraine:
- Economy: Core to industrial base, especially steel production.
- Energy Security: Control of Yuzivska shale gas could reduce reliance on imports.
- Sovereignty: Represents a vital part of national unity and territorial integrity.
- Geopolitical Dimension: Sea of Azov crucial for connecting Donbas resources to Black Sea trade routes.
- Conflict Relevance: Since Crimea’s annexation (2014) and escalation in 2022, control of Azov and Kerch Strait vital for Russia’s naval dominance.
| [UPSC 2023] Consider the following pairs: Area of conflict mentioned in news : Country where it is located
1. North Kivu and Ituri : War between Armenia and Azerbaijan
2. Nagorno-Karabakh : Insurgency in Mozambique
3. Kherson and Zaporizhzhia : Dispute between Israel and Lebanon
How many of the above pairs are correctly matched?
Options: (a) Only one (b) Only two (c) All three (d) None* |
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Why in the News?
The African Union (AU) has endorsed the Correct the Map campaign to replace the 16th-century Mercator projection with more accurate maps.
About the African Union (AU):
- Establishment: Formed in 2002, replacing the Organisation of African Unity (1963).
- Membership: 55 African countries.
- Headquarters: Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
- Vision: “An Integrated, Prosperous, and Peaceful Africa, driven by its own citizens.”
- Agenda 2063: Blueprint for socio-economic growth and continental unity.
- Main Organs: Assembly, Executive Council, AU Commission, Peace and Security Council.
What is a Mercator Map?
- Creation: Designed in 1569 by Gerardus Mercator.
- Projection: Cylindrical map with straight longitude and latitude lines intersecting at 90°.
- Purpose: Enabled sailors to plot straight-line courses for compass navigation.
- Adoption: Became the standard map in schools, atlases, and wall charts by the 19th century.
Issues with the Mercator Map:
- Distortion: Enlarges high-latitude regions (Europe, Russia, North America) while shrinking Africa and South America.
- Example: Greenland appears equal to Africa, though Africa is ~14 times larger.
- Colonial Bias: Reinforced Western dominance narratives and downplayed Africa’s size and importance.
- Impact: Supported marginalisation and exploitation during colonialism.
- Alternatives: Gall-Peters (1970s) and Equal Earth (2018) projections show continents in correct proportion.
- AU Stand: Advocates replacing Mercator maps to restore Africa’s rightful global image.
| [UPSC 2024] The longest border between any two countries in the world is between:
Options: (a) Canada and the USA * (b) Chile and Argentina (c) China and India (d) Kazakhstan and Russian Federation |
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Why in the News?
United States President Donald Trump and his Russian counterpart Vladimir Putin are set to meet in Anchorage, Alaska to discuss how to end the war in Ukraine.
About Alaska:
- Acquisition: Largest U.S. state; Purchased from Russia in 1867 for $7.2 million.
- Mountains: Includes Alaska Range with Mount Denali (20,310 ft), the highest peak in North America.
- Geography: Brooks Range separates central Alaska from the Arctic far north.
- Tundra: Northern regions feature vast tundra, permafrost, and Arctic coastal plains.
- Glaciers: Hosts 100,000+ glaciers, including Bering Glacier, the largest in North America.
- Forests: About 5% glacier ice, with extensive boreal and temperate rainforests in the south.
- Volcanoes: More than 70 active volcanoes in Aleutians and Alaska Peninsula.
- Seismic Activity: Located on the circum-Pacific seismic belt, prone to powerful quakes (e.g., 1964 Alaska earthquake).
- Water Resources: Contains 3 million+ lakes and 3,000+ rivers, among the most water-rich regions globally.
- Peninsulas: Includes Alaska Peninsula, Kenai Peninsula, and Seward Peninsula (linked to ancient Bering land bridge).
Why did Russia sell Alaska to the US?
- After the Crimean War (1853–56), Russia was financially strained and needed funds.
- Alaska was seen as a remote, unprofitable liability with declining fur trade.
- Russia feared Britain might seize Alaska easily from nearby Canada in a future war.
- Selling it to the United States ensured goodwill and balanced British power.
- The $7.2 million sale (1867) turned a weakly defended outpost into cash for reforms.
|
Geopolitical Significance of Alaska:
- Natural Resources: Rich in oil, gas (e.g., Prudhoe Bay discovery, 1968), fisheries, and minerals vital for U.S. energy security.
- Shipping Routes: Offers access to Arctic Sea routes, increasingly navigable due to climate change.
- Strategic Gateway: Provides access to the Arctic and Pacific, enhancing U.S. naval and air capabilities.
- Defense Value: Proximity to Russia made it critical in the Cold War and remains vital in Arctic competition.
- Military Presence: Hosts major U.S. bases and radar systems for missile defense and surveillance.
- Arctic Council Role: Strengthens U.S. claims in polar governance and Arctic Council negotiations.
- Scientific Hub: Serves as a center for climate, seismic, and polar ecosystem research.
| [UPSC 2025] Consider the following statements:
I. Anadyr in Siberia and Nome in Alaska are a few kilometers from each other, but when people are waking up and getting set for breakfast in these cities, it would be different days.
II. When it is Monday in Anadyr, it is Tuesday in Nome.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
(a) I only * (b) II only (c) Both I and II (d) Neither I nor II |
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Why in the News?
The 3rd UN Conference on Landlocked Developing Countries (LLDC3) in Awaza, Turkmenistan, adopted the Awaza Declaration to boost investment, address challenges, and promote sustainable growth in 32 landlocked nations.
About Landlocked Developing Countries (LLDCs):
- Overview: 32 UN-recognized countries with no direct access to the sea, collectively home to over 600 million people.
- List of LLDCs:
-
- Africa: Botswana, Burkina Faso, Burundi, Central African Republic, Chad, Eswatini, Ethiopia, Lesotho, Malawi, Mali, Niger, Rwanda, South Sudan, Uganda, Zambia, Zimbabwe.
- Asia: Afghanistan, Bhutan, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Lao People’s Democratic Republic, Mongolia, Nepal, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan.
- Europe: Armenia, Azerbaijan, North Macedonia, Moldova, Serbia.
- South America: Bolivia, Paraguay.
- Challenges:
- Dependence on transit countries for global market access.
- Higher trade and transport costs (often twice those of coastal countries).
- Limited connectivity, slower growth, and vulnerability to climate impacts.
- Past Conferences:
- 2003 (Almaty) – Almaty Programme of Action.
- 2014 (Vienna) – Vienna Programme of Action (2014–2024).
- 2025 (Awaza) – Awaza Programme of Action (2024–2034).
Structure and Functioning:
- LLDC Conferences: Held every 10 years to review progress and set a new action framework.
- Awaza Programme of Action (2024–2034) – Priority Areas:
- Structural transformation, science, technology, and innovation.
- Trade facilitation and regional integration.
- Transit, transport, and connectivity.
- Climate resilience and adaptation.
- Monitoring and implementation.
- Stakeholder Participation:
- UN member states, transit countries, donor agencies, NGOs, private sector, and academia.
- Mechanisms:
- UN-wide monitoring framework covering 323 initiatives.
- Partnerships for infrastructure and digital connectivity.
- Climate Negotiating Group under UNFCCC for LLDC-specific challenges.
| [UPSC 2013] Which one of the following countries is landlocked?
Options: (a) Bolivia* (b) Peru (c) Suriname (d) Uruguay |
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Why in the News?
The Dardanelles Strait in northwestern Turkey has been temporarily closed to maritime traffic due to forest fires near Canakkale, prompting evacuations and firefighting operations.
About Dardanelles Strait:
- Location: Northwestern Turkey; separates Gallipoli Peninsula (Europe) from Troad/Biga Peninsula (Asia).
- Connection: Links Aegean Sea → Sea of Marmara → Bosporus → Black Sea.
- Dimensions: Length 61 km, width 1.2–6.5 km, average depth 55 m, max depth 103 m.
- Historical Name: Hellespont, named after mythical princess Helle; current name from ancient city of Dardanus.
- Currents: Surface current flows from Sea of Marmara to Aegean; saline undercurrent in reverse.
- Ports: Gallipoli, Eceabat, Çanakkale.
Strategic & Economic Importance:
- Part of Turkish Straits system with Bosporus; only maritime link between Black Sea and Mediterranean.
- Critical for Black Sea nations’ trade (Russia, Ukraine, Bulgaria, etc.).
- Major route for grain, oil, energy shipments from Black Sea region to global markets.
- Governed by Montreux Convention (1936) for warship passage.
- Vital for NATO naval strategy and maritime security.
| [UPSC 2008] Through which one of the following Straits does a tunnel connect the United Kingdom and France?
Options: (a) Davis Strait (b) Denmark Strait (c) Strait of Dover* (d) Strait of Gibraltar |
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Why in the News?
An 8.8 magnitude earthquake hit off Russia’s Kamchatka Peninsula, triggering 16-foot tsunamis that reached Hawaii and northern California in the US.
About Earthquakes:
- Overview: Sudden ground shaking caused by release of stored energy in Earth’s crust due to tectonic stress.
- Cause: Occurs when tectonic plates slip at fault lines where stress had built up due to friction.
- Seismic Waves: Energy travels as:
- Primary Waves (P-waves): Fastest, compressional.
- Secondary Waves (S-waves): Slower, shear motion.
- Key Terms:
- Focus (Hypocenter): Underground origin point.
- Epicenter: Surface point directly above the focus.
- Measurement:
- Magnitude: Energy released (Richter Scale, logarithmic).
- Intensity: Observed ground shaking (varies by location).
- Seismograph: Records seismic wave activity.
How Earthquakes Trigger Tsunamis?
- Underwater Epicenter: Must occur beneath oceans to displace water.
- Shallow Depth: Quakes at <70 km transfer energy more efficiently to water surface.
- Reverse Faulting: One tectonic plate pushes over another, vertically shifting the seafloor.
- Rapid Displacement: Sudden seafloor uplift/downthrust generates massive water waves.
- High Magnitude: Quakes >7.0 (especially >8.0) likely to trigger tsunamis.
About the Kamchatka Region:
- Overview: Russian Far East; borders the North Pacific Ocean.
- Tectonic Zone: Sits on the Kuril-Kamchatka Trench—Pacific Plate subducting under Okhotsk Plate at ~86 mm/year.
- Seismic Hotspot: Historical major quakes in 1841, 1923, 1952, 2006, and 2020.
- Ring of Fire: Part of the 40,000 km Pacific Ring of Fire , known for quakes and volcanoes.
- 2025 Earthquake:
- Depth:3 km (shallow)
- Impact: Triggered tsunami waves up to 16 ft—one of the strongest earthquakes since 1900.
| [UPSC 2004] Consider the following geological phenomena:
1. Development of a fault 2. Movement along a fault 3. Impact produced by a volcanic eruption 4. Folding of rocks
Which of the above cause earthquakes?
Options: (a) 1, 2 and 3 (b) 2 and 4 (c) 1, 3 and 4 (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4* |
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Why in the News?
The Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC) has launched oil exploration over 124 million hectares of the Cuvette Centrale peatlands raising global ecological risk.
About the Cuvette Centrale Peatland Complex:
- Location: Central Congo Basin, spanning the Democratic Republic of the Congo and the Republic of Congo.
- Size: Covers approximately 145,000–167,600 sq. km—larger than England and about 10% of the Congo Basin.
- Peat Coverage: Around 40% of the region is underlain by peat—formed over 10,000 years due to flat terrain, rainforest climate, and slow-moving water.
- Landscape: Features a mosaic of seasonal lakes, floating prairies, swamp forests, rivers, and grasslands.
- Global Status: The world’s largest near-contiguous tropical peatland complex.
Ecological Significance:
- Carbon Storage: Holds about 30–30.6 gigatonnes of carbon—
- Equal to 3 years of global fossil fuel emissions.
- Nearly 15 years of U.S. emissions.
- About 28% of global tropical peat carbon stock.
- Climate Impact: Acts as a major carbon sink, critical for regulating global temperatures and mitigating climate change.
- Biodiversity: Habitat for forest elephants, lowland gorillas, and rare plant species.
- Local Importance: Sustains indigenous livelihoods and maintains regional water cycles.
- Conservation Status: Recognized as a transnational Ramsar wetland site, highlighting its international ecological value.
| [UPSC 2024] One of the following regions has the world’s largest tropical peatland, which holds about three years’ worth of global carbon emissions from fossil fuels, and the possible destruction of which can exert a detrimental effect on the global climate. Which one of the following denotes that region?
Options: (a) Amazon Basin (b) Congo Basin* (c) Kikori basin (d) Rio De La Plata Basin |
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Why in the News?
Iran’s Parliament has approved a motion to block the Strait of Hormuz, raising concerns worldwide.
About the Strait of Hormuz:
- Geographic Location: The Strait of Hormuz is a narrow waterway that connects the Persian Gulf to the Gulf of Oman and eventually to the Arabian Sea.
- Dimensions: It is about 167 km long and 33 km wide at its narrowest, making it one of the world’s most strategic maritime chokepoints.
- Bordering Countries: The strait lies between Iran (north) and Oman (south), with nearby cities such as Bandar Abbas, Khasab, and Dubai.
- Shipping Lanes: It contains designated lanes just 3 km wide in each direction to manage heavy oil tanker traffic.
- Key Islands: Important islands include Qeshm, Hormuz, and Hengam (controlled by Iran) and disputed ones like Abu Musa and the Tunbs, claimed by both Iran and the UAE.
- Naval Depth Advantage: Waters near the Musandam Peninsula reach depths over 650 feet, ideal for deep-draft oil tankers.
- Security Risks: Due to its narrowness, the strait is vulnerable to disruption from mining, military action, or cyber interference.
- Historical Tensions: It has witnessed frequent maritime tensions, especially during Iran–West conflicts but has never been fully blocked.
Its significance:
- Global Oil Flow: Over 20 million barrels of crude oil per day pass through the strait, accounting for 25% of seaborne oil trade and 20% of global consumption.
- Gas Exports: It is vital for LNG exports, especially from Qatar, reaching markets across the globe.
- Asian Dependence: Countries like India, China, Japan, and South Korea import 69% of the oil that flows through the strait.
- Market Sensitivity: Any disruption can spike global oil prices, increasing fuel and commodity costs worldwide.
- Limited Alternatives: Overland pipelines like Saudi Arabia’s East-West (5 million bpd) and UAE’s Habshan-Fujairah (1.8 million bpd) offer only partial alternatives.
Implications of Blockade:
- Shipping Costs: During geopolitical tensions, insurance and freight charges for using the strait surge significantly.
- India’s Vulnerability: India relies heavily on the region for oil imports, so instability could raise inflation, disrupt energy supplies, and impact the trade balance.
- Strategic Response: A full blockade could trigger direct military action, particularly from the US 5th Fleet based in Bahrain.
- Mutual Economic Impact: Disruption would affect both exporters and importers, including Iran and its major customer, China.
| [UPSC 2010] Which one of the following can one come across if one travels through the Strait of Malacca?
Options: (a) Bali (b) Brunei (c) Java (d) Singapore* |
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Why in the News?
Mount Etna, Europe’s largest active volcano, has erupted sending ash, smoke, and rock fragments several kilometres into the sky.
Why do Volcanoes Erupt?
- Magma Formation: Deep within Earth, high temperature and pressure melt rocks into magma.
- Gas Expansion: Magma contains gases like water vapor, CO₂, and SO₂. As magma rises, the pressure drops, allowing these gases to form bubbles, increasing internal pressure.
- Crustal Weaknesses: At tectonic boundaries or mantle plumes, cracks and faults in Earth’s crust provide pathways for magma to escape.
- Eruption Mechanism:
- As pressure builds, magma is pushed upwards.
- If blocked, the gas expansion can explode through the crust, ejecting lava, ash, and gases.
- Signals: If magma flow is suddenly stopped by solid rock, it may create low-frequency seismic waves (pre-eruption tremors).
|
About Mount Etna:
- Location: Situated on the east coast of Sicily, Italy, near the city of Catania.
- Type: Mount Etna is a stratovolcano (also called a composite volcano), which is formed from layers of hardened lava, volcanic ash, and rocks.
- Height: It stands at approximately 3,300 meters, making it the tallest volcano in Europe south of the Alps.
- Recognition: Declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 2013, with documented volcanic activity for at least 2,700 years.
- Eruption Record: Etna is almost constantly active. Notable eruptions have occurred in 1400 B.C., 1669, 2001, 2018, 2021, 2024, and 2025.
- Volcanic Activity Style: Known for Strombolian and effusive eruptions, with occasional Plinian eruptions (rare and more explosive).
Reasons Behind the June 2025 Eruption:
- Nature of Eruption: The eruption is classified as either Strombolian or possibly Plinian, depending on interpretation:
- Strombolian Eruption: Characterized by moderate explosive bursts, caused by gas bubbles in magma suddenly bursting at the surface.
- Plinian Eruption: Some volcanologists suggest this classification due to the large ash column that may have reached the stratosphere.
- Eruption Trigger: The eruption likely began due to pressure buildup from gas within the magma chamber, leading to collapse of the southeast crater and lava flows.
| [UPSC 2024] Consider the following:
1. Pyroclastic debris
2. Ash and dust
3. Nitrogen compounds
4. Sulphur compounds
How many of the above are products of volcanic eruptions?
Options: (a) Only one (b) Only two (c) Only three (d) Only four* |
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Why in the News?
The aftermath of Operation Sindoor highlights India’s strategic concerns over the proposed Zangezur Corridor in Armenia backed by Azerbaijan and Turkiye.
About the Zangezur Corridor:
- What it is: The Zangezur Corridor is a proposed land route through Armenia’s Syunik Province that would connect Azerbaijan to its Nakhchivan region, cutting across Armenian land.
- Who supports it: Azerbaijan and Turkiye back the project. They want a direct link without Armenian border checks or customs interference.
- Route Details: The corridor would be about 43–44 km long and pass near the Iran-Armenia border, giving it high geopolitical value.
- Why it’s controversial:
- Azerbaijan sees it as a post-war right after its win in the 2020 Nagorno-Karabakh conflict.
- Armenia insists it must have full control and sovereignty over any transport through its territory.
- Turkiye’s Interest: It wants to use this corridor as part of its Middle Corridor project to connect with Central Asia and Europe via land routes.
- Opposition: Iran and Armenia oppose the corridor, fearing it could:
- Isolate Armenia,
- Weaken Iranian access, and
- Threaten Armenia’s territorial integrity.
How it concerns India?
- Strategic Ties: India is a key defence partner for Armenia and supports regional stability in the South Caucasus.
- Trade Ambitions: India is:
- Developing Chabahar Port in Iran,
- Working on a transport route via Iran–Armenia–Georgia to Europe, bypassing Pakistan and the Suez Canal.
- Concerns: If the Zangezur Corridor bypasses Armenian control, it could:
-
- Disrupt India’s land trade route to Europe,
- Reduce Iran’s regional access,
- Weaken India’s strategic reach.
- Larger Geo-Politics: Turkiye and Azerbaijan’s growing influence in the region is worrying for India, especially since Turkiye opposes India’s IMEC (India-Middle East-Europe Corridor).
- India’s Stand: India supports Armenia’s sovereignty and opposes unilateral moves, aiming to:
- Protect its trade routes,
- Preserve strategic balance, and
- Counter regional encirclement.
| [UPSC 2023] Consider the following pairs:
Regions often mentioned in news : Reason for being in news
1. North Kivu and Ituri : War between Armenia an Azerbaijan
2. Nagorno-Karabakh : Insurgency in Mozambique
3. Kherson and Zaporizhzhia : Dispute between Israel and Lebanon How many of the above pairs are correctly matched?
Options: (a) Only one (b) Only two (c) All three (d) None * |
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Heard and McDonald Islands
Why in the News?
Donald Trump imposed a 10% tariff on imports from the Heard and McDonald Islands, despite no human presence there for nearly a decade.
About the Heard and McDonald Islands
- The Heard and McDonald Islands are located in the Southern Ocean, approximately 4,100 km south-west of Perth, Australia, and 1,600 km to the north of the Antarctic coast.
- The islands are unincorporated external territories of Australia, meaning they are not part of any Australian state but are directly administered by the Australian government.
- The islands are home to seals, penguins, and albatrosses, and serve as crucial breeding grounds for these species.
- The islands have been designated as UNESCO World Heritage Sites due to their ecological significance, particularly their rich biodiversity.
- Heard Island:
- Heard Island spans an area of approximately 368 square kilometers.
- The island’s highest point is Mawson Peak, an active volcano standing 2,745 meters (9,006 feet) above sea level.
- Mawson Peak is one of the most active volcanoes in the southern hemisphere, with eruptions as recent as 2016.
- McDonald Islands:
- It is much smaller, covering only 2.5 square kilometers.
- Geological Nature: These islands are volcanic and part of the same volcanic chain as Heard Island.
- Climate
- Both islands experience an extremely cold subantarctic climate, with heavy winds, snow, and ice for much of the year.
- Temperatures rarely exceed 5°C (41°F) even in summer.
Strategic Significance
- The islands are strategically located between Australia and Antarctica, important for monitoring the Southern Ocean, vital for global biodiversity and climate studies.
- They play a key role in scientific research, particularly in volcanology, glaciology, and climate change, with Australia operating a research station on Heard Island.
- The islands are protected under the Antarctic Treaty System, ensuring no military activity or commercial exploitation in the region.
- Rich in marine resources, the surrounding waters are also safeguarded to prevent overfishing and environmental harm.
- Their geopolitical importance grows as international competition and territorial claims around Antarctica and the Southern Ocean increase.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Gulf of Eilat
Why in the News?
Researchers have discovered a significant pause in coral reef growth in the Gulf of Eilat/Aqaba during the late Holocene period.
Key Highlights of the Study:
- The study identified a 4,400 – 1,000-year hiatus in coral growth, similar to events observed in Mexico, Brazil, and Australia.
- Scientists attribute this temporary halt to a sea-level drop caused by tectonic activity and cooling events, which exposed coral reefs and disrupted their development.
- Despite this, the reef recovered by recolonizing from deeper coral communities, showcasing its natural resilience.
|
About Gulf of Eilat
- Also known as the Gulf of Aqaba, it is a narrow extension of the Red Sea, located between the Sinai Peninsula (Egypt) and the Arabian Peninsula.
- It connects to the Red Sea through the Strait of Tiran and borders Egypt, Israel, Jordan, and Saudi Arabia.
- The city of Eilat (Israel) and Aqaba (Jordan) lie along its shores, making it a strategic trade and tourism hub.
Geographical and Political Significance:
- Strategic Trade Route: Provides access to the Indian Ocean via the Red Sea, critical for Israel and Jordan’s maritime trade.
- Bordering Multiple Nations: Shares coastlines with Egypt, Israel, Jordan, and Saudi Arabia, making it a key area for regional diplomacy and security.
- Tourism & Marine Biodiversity: Known for coral reefs and marine life, attracting divers and boosting the economies of Eilat and Aqaba.
- Geopolitical Sensitivity: The Strait of Tiran has been historically significant in Arab-Israeli conflicts, especially during the Six-Day War (1967) when Egypt blocked Israeli access.
- Energy & Trade Importance: It is an alternative route for oil shipments and goods trade, reducing reliance on the Suez Canal.
PYQ:
[2014] Which of the following have coral reefs?
1. Andaman and Nicobar Islands
2. Gulf of Kachchh
3. Gulf of Mannar
4. Sunderbans
Select the correct answer using the code given below:
(a) 1, 2 and 3 only
(b) 2 and 4 only
(c) 1 and 3 only
(d) 1, 2, 3 and 4 |
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Kurdistan Region
Why in the News?
India has dispatched a humanitarian aid consignment to the Kurdistan region of Iraq.
What is the Kurdistan Region?
- The Kurdistan Region refers to areas inhabited by ethnic Kurds, primarily in Iraq, Iran, Syria, and Turkey.
- The Kurdistan Regional Government (KRG) administers Iraqi Kurdistan, an autonomous region in northern Iraq.
- The Kurds, a distinct ethnic and linguistic group, have long sought independence and greater autonomy.
- Geographical Significance:
- Spans across Turkey, Iraq, Iran, and Syria, covering the Zagros Mountains and fertile plains.
- Rich in oil and natural gas, particularly in Iraqi Kurdistan, making it geopolitically significant.
- Controls key border regions and trade routes, influencing regional stability.
- Political Implications:
- The Kurdish struggle for autonomy has led to tensions with central governments, particularly in Iraq and Turkey.
- Kurdish forces (Peshmerga) have played a key role in fighting ISIS and maintaining security in northern Iraq.
- The KRG has diplomatic ties with Western countries but lacks full sovereignty.
Ongoing Dispute:
- The Kurdish independence movement faces opposition from Iraq, Turkey, Iran, and Syria, fearing territorial fragmentation.
- Iraq rejected the 2017 Kurdistan independence referendum, leading to military and economic retaliation.
- Turkey continues military operations against Kurdish groups, considering them a security threat.
- The Turkey-ISIS-Kurd relationship remains controversial, with allegations that Turkey indirectly enabled ISIS against the Kurds.
|
PYQ:
[2018] The term “two-state solution” is sometimes mentioned in the news in the context of the affairs of:
(a) China
(b) Israel
(c) Iraq
(d) Yemen |
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Darfur Region
Why in the News?
At least 70 people were killed in a drone strike on the last working hospital in Sudan’s North Darfur capital.
About the Darfur Region
| Details |
- Conflict-prone region in western Sudan, affected by ethnic violence and resource conflicts since 2003.
- Site of one of the world’s worst humanitarian crises, with mass killings and displacement.
- Home to multiple ethnic groups, with tensions between Arab pastoralists and non-Arab farming communities.
- Janjaweed militias, backed by the Sudanese government, accused of genocide and mass atrocities.
- Rapid Support Forces (RSF), formerly Janjaweed, play a key role in ongoing instability.
- Renewed violence in 2023, worsening the humanitarian situation.
|
| Geographical Location |
- Located in western Sudan, bordering Chad, Libya, and the Central African Republic.
- Covers an area of about 493,180 sq. km, nearly the size of France.
- Predominantly arid and semi-arid, with desert in the north and more fertile land in the south.
- Climate-driven water and grazing conflicts, worsened by desertification and climate change.
- Composed of five states: North, South, West, Central, and East Darfur.
- El Fasher is the capital and largest city, serving as an administrative and humanitarian hub.
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Impact of Conflict
|
- Politically marginalized for decades, leading to armed uprisings against Sudan’s government.
- Conflict escalated in 2003 with rebel groups like the Sudan Liberation Movement (SLM) and Justice and Equality Movement (JEM) demanding greater autonomy.
- Remains a stronghold of rebel activity, contributing to Sudan’s broader instability.
- Ongoing violence impacts regional security, affecting neighboring countries like Chad and the Central African Republic.
|
PYQ:
[2024] Consider the following statements :
Statement-I: There is instability and worsening security situation in the Sahel region.
Statement-II: There have been military takeovers/coups d’état in several countries of the Sahel region in the recent past.
Which one of the following is correct in respect of the above statement?
a) Both Statement-I and Statement-II are correct and Statement-II explains Statement-I
b) Bothe Statement-I and Statement-II are correct, but Statement-II does not explain Statement-I
c) Statement-I is correct, but Statement-II is incorrect
d) Statement-I is incorrect, but Statement-II is correct |
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Lao PDR
Why in the News?
The Indian Embassy in Lao PDR has successfully rescued 67 Indian nationals who were trafficked and forced to work in cyber scam centres in the Golden Triangle Special Economic Zone (GTSEZ).
Golden Triangle Special Economic Zone (GTSEZ)
- It is a semi-autonomous economic zone located in Bokeo Province, Lao PDR (Laos), near the borders of Thailand and Myanmar.
- It is situated within the infamous Golden Triangle region, historically known for opium production and drug trafficking.
- It was established to promote tourism, trade, and investment but has been widely criticized for illegal activities, including human trafficking, cyber fraud, and illicit gambling.
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About Lao PDR (Laos)
| Details |
- Officially known as the Lao People’s Democratic Republic (Lao PDR).
- Gained independence from France in 1953.
- Experienced a civil war (1959–1975), leading to the communist Pathet Lao taking control and abolishing the monarchy in 1975.
- One-party communist state under the Lao People’s Revolutionary Party (LPRP).
- Economic growth driven by hydropower, mining, and agriculture, but remains one of ASEAN’s least developed nations.
- 2023 economic distress due to high debt and inflation, linked to China-backed infrastructure projects like the China-Laos Railway.
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| Geographical Location |
- Landlocked country in Southeast Asia, bordered by China (north), Vietnam (east), Cambodia (south), Thailand (west), and Myanmar (northwest).
- Capital city: Vientiane, located along the Mekong River near Thailand.
- Total area: 236,800 sq. km, with a mountainous landscape and dense forests.
- The Mekong River flows through Laos, supporting trade, agriculture, and hydropower projects.
- Tropical monsoon climate with a wet season (May-Oct) and a dry season (Nov-Apr).
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| Political Aspects |
- One-party communist state, ruled by the Lao People’s Revolutionary Party (LPRP) since 1975.
- The most heavily bombed country per capita in history due to the US Secret War (1964–1973).
- Acts as a buffer state between China, Vietnam, and Thailand, playing a role in Mekong River trade and energy exports.
- ASEAN Membership: Joined ASEAN in 1997, contributing to regional diplomacy and economic cooperation.
Challenges:
- Major recipient of Chinese investment under the Belt and Road Initiative (BRI), with concerns over debt sustainability.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Kerch Strait
Why in the News?
Two Russian ships spilled 3,350 tonnes of low-grade fuel into the Kerch Strait in Crimea, posing an environmental threat to the biodiversity hotspot.
About the Kerch Strait
- The Kerch Strait is a narrow, strategically crucial waterway connecting the Black Sea and the Sea of Azov.
- It serves as a natural maritime corridor between the Crimean Peninsula and the Russian mainland.
- It stretches approximately 41 kilometers in length and varying between 4-15 kilometers in width.
- The strait features the Kerch-Yenikalsky canal, a critical maritime passage enabling larger vessels to traverse between the Black and Azov Seas.
- Port facilities at Kavkaz and Kerch serve as essential transportation hubs, facilitating significant cargo and passenger movements.
- Geopolitical Significance
- Since Russia’s annexation of Crimea in 2014, the Kerch Strait has become a focal point of international tension.
- The construction of the Crimean Bridge in 2018 provides a direct land connection between Russian territory and the Crimean Peninsula.
PYQ:
[2008] Which one of the following straits is nearest to the International Date Line?
(a) Malacca Strait
(b) Bering Strait
(c) Strait of Florida
(d) Strait of Gibraltar |
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From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Gulf of Mexico
Why in the News?
Donald Trump has proposed to change the name of the Gulf of Mexico to the “Gulf of America” after his plans for purchasing Greenland.
About the Gulf of Mexico
- The Gulf of Mexico is a marginal sea of the Atlantic Ocean.
- It is bordered by:
- United States: States of Florida, Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana, and Texas.
- Mexico: Eastern coast, including the Yucatán Peninsula.
- Cuba: Southeastern boundary.
- It is believed to have formed around 300 million years ago during the late Paleozoic era.
- Its formation is linked to the breakup of the supercontinent Pangaea.
- The Gulf has a subtropical to tropical climate.
- It is prone to hurricanes and tropical storms
- The Gulf is one of the world’s most significant oil-producing regions. It contains over 17% of global proven petroleum reserves.
Strategic Location:
- The Gulf is a crucial artery for international shipping, particularly between the Americas and Europe.
- It connects to the Caribbean Sea and Atlantic Ocean through the Straits of Florida and to the Pacific Ocean via the Panama Canal.
- The Gulf serves as a key area for U.S. naval operations.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Trinidad and Tobago
Why in the News?
The government of Trinidad and Tobago declared a state of emergency on December 30, 2024, in response to escalating violence in the Caribbean nation.
About Trinidad and Tobago
- Geography:
- Located in the southern Caribbean, near Venezuela.
- A dual-island nation consisting of Trinidad (4,768 sq. km) and Tobago (300 sq. km).
- Total land area: 5,128 sq. km.
- Climate: Tropical, with a dry season from January to May and a rainy season from June to December.
- Population:
- Approximately 1.5 million people.
- Ethnic Composition: African (36.3%), Indian (35.4%), Mixed (22.8%), European, Chinese, and others.
- Religions: Christianity (64%), Hinduism (18%), Islam (5%), and others.
- Capital and Cities:
- Capital: Port of Spain (Trinidad).
- Other key cities: San Fernando, Chaguanas, and Scarborough (Tobago).
- Political System:
- Government Type: Parliamentary democracy under a constitutional republic.
- Member of the Commonwealth of Nations.
- Gained independence from the UK on August 31, 1962, and became a republic in 1976.
- Infrastructure:
- Ports: Port of Spain, Point Lisas, and Scarborough are critical for trade.
- Airports: Piarco International Airport (Trinidad) and A.N.R. Robinson International Airport (Tobago).
- Culture and Heritage:
- Known for the Carnival, one of the world’s largest pre-Lenten celebrations.
- Birthplace of Calypso music, Soca, and the Steelpan (the only acoustic musical instrument invented in the 20th century).
Geo-Political Significance
- T&T is a major exporter of liquefied natural gas (LNG) and petrochemicals (methanol and ammonia), supplying markets in the U.S., Europe, and Latin America.
- It is positioned at the crossroads of the Caribbean Sea and Atlantic Ocean, serving as a gateway between North and South America.
- It is a founding member of the Caribbean Community (CARICOM) advocating for regional economic integration, disaster response, and collective security.
- It is a active member of the Commonwealth and the United Nations, pushing for climate change resilience and sustainable development initiatives.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Urengoy-Pomary-Uzhgorod pipeline;
Mains level: Geopolitical tension in Europe;
Why in the News?
For over 40 years, Russian gas has been transported to Europe through Ukraine, but these supplies are set to cease on January 1, following Ukraine’s Naftogaz decision not to renew its most recent five-year transit agreement with Russia’s Gazprom.
Note: Student you can use this content in Prelims for facts related to map and mains exam for substantiate the argument related to geopolitical tension in Europe.
Do you know about the Urengoy-Pomary-Uzhgorod pipeline?
- The Urengoy-Pomary-Uzhgorod pipeline, also known as the Brotherhood pipeline, is a significant natural gas export route from Russia to Europe, primarily traversing Ukraine. The pipeline starts at the Urengoy gas field in northwest Siberia and extends southwest to Uzhhorod, Ukraine, near the Slovakian border.
- It spans approximately 4,500 kilometers (2,800 miles), with about 1,160 kilometers (720 miles) located in Ukraine.
- The pipeline was commissioned in 1984 and has been a crucial part of Russia’s gas export strategy to Europe.
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What is the volume of gas supplied through Ukraine?
- Historical Context: At its peak, the pipeline system, including the Urengoy-Pomary-Uzhgorod pipeline, delivered approximately 201 billion cubic meters (bcm) of gas to Europe in 2018. However, this volume has drastically decreased over the years due to geopolitical tensions and the ongoing conflict in Ukraine.
- Recent Figures: In 2023, only about 15 bcm of gas was shipped through Ukraine, a significant drop from 65 bcm when the last five-year contract began in 2020.
What are the Possible Impacts?
- Economic Consequences for Ukraine: Ukraine is expected to lose up to $1 billion annually in transit fees due to the cessation of gas flows. To mitigate this loss, it plans to quadruple gas transmission tariffs for domestic consumers, which could burden its industry with additional costs exceeding $38.2 million per year.
- Impact on Gazprom: Russia’s Gazprom is projected to lose around $5 billion in gas sales as a result of this halted transit.
- European Energy Security: The European Union has prepared for this transition and does not anticipate immediate impacts on consumer prices.
- Countries like Slovakia and Austria have secured alternative gas supplies from sources such as Norway and LNG imports from the U.S. and Qatar.
- Hungary will continue receiving Russian gas through the TurkStream pipeline under the Black Sea.
TurkStream pipeline
- Energy Crisis in Moldova: The cessation has led to an energy emergency in Transdniestria, a breakaway region of Moldova that relies on these transit flows, resulting in cutoffs of heating and hot water supplies for residents
Way forward:
- Enhanced Energy Diversification: Europe and Ukraine should continue to strengthen alternative energy supply routes, including LNG imports and renewable energy projects, to reduce reliance on Russian gas and ensure long-term energy security.
- Support for Affected Regions: Provide immediate humanitarian and financial assistance to regions like Transdniestria and Moldova for energy infrastructure upgrades, while encouraging energy-efficient solutions to mitigate the crisis.
Mains PYQ:
Q What is the significance of Indo-US defence deals over Indo-Russian defence deals? Discuss with reference to stability in the Indo-Pacific region. (UPSC IAS/2020)
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From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Nicaragua and its location
Why in the News?
- Indian and Nicaragua has signed an umbrella agreement on Quick Impact Projects (QIPs).
- The agreement aims at socio-economic development by implementing QIPs in Nicaragua, which will directly benefit local communities.
About Nicaragua: Quick Facts
- Nicaragua is located in Central America, bordered by Honduras to the north, Costa Rica to the south, the Pacific Ocean to the west, and the Caribbean Sea to the east.
- The capital of Nicaragua is Managua; official language spoken in Nicaragua is Spanish; currency is the Nicaraguan córdoba (NIO).
- Nicaragua operates as a unitary presidential republic.
- The country’s economy is primarily based on agriculture, including coffee, bananas, and sugar, along with manufacturing and mining.
Geographical Features:
- Nicaragua’s topography is predominantly mountainous in the interior, with lowland plains along its Pacific and Caribbean coasts.
- The country is home to over 20 volcanoes, with active ones such as Masaya and San Cristóbal.
- The largest lake in Nicaragua is Lake Cocibolca, also known as Lake Nicaragua, which is one of the largest lakes in Latin America.
- Nicaragua is also known for its significant rivers, including the San Juan River, which flows into the Caribbean Sea, and the Río Coco, the longest river in Central America.
India- Nicaragua Relations:
- Diplomatic relations were established in March 1983, and the Indian Embassy in Panama is concurrently accredited to Nicaragua.
- Nicaragua’s embassy in India was closed in 1990, and currently, Nicaragua is represented in India through its Embassy in Tokyo.
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What are Quick Impact Projects (QIPs)?
- QIPs are initiatives designed to deliver rapid and visible benefits to local communities, especially in areas with critical infrastructure and social development needs.
- These projects are often implemented in a short time frame.
- They are focused on addressing urgent and immediate issues that can have a significant positive impact on the community.
- The term is commonly used by organizations like the UNHCR to describe such initiatives in crisis or displacement situations.
- Examples of QIPs may include:
- Building roads in remote areas to improve connectivity.
- Establishing community centers that serve as hubs for local services.
- Improving healthcare facilities with basic medical equipment and services.
- Upgrading educational infrastructure by building schools or providing learning materials.
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