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Climate Change Negotiations – UNFCCC, COP, Other Conventions and Protocols

[30th October 2025] The Hindu Op-ed: A decade after Paris Accord, an unstoppable transition

op-ed snap | Enviro & Biodiversity | Mains Paper 3: Conservation, Environmental Pollution & Degradation, Eia

PYQ Relevance

[UPSC 2022] Discuss global warming and mention its effects on the global climate. Explain the control measures to bring down the level of greenhouse gases which cause global warming, in the light of the Kyoto Protocol, 1997.

Linkage: The question provides a thematic continuum from Kyoto-Paris-Post-Paris climate architecture, illustrating the evolution of global carbon governance and collective climate responsibility.

Mentor’s Comment

Ten years after the Paris Agreement, the world stands at a pivotal juncture. Despite unprecedented challenges, rising global temperatures, extreme weather, and persistent dependence on fossil fuels, the Paris framework has redefined multilateral climate cooperation. This article examines how the Paris Agreement has evolved into a transformative global instrument, its tangible outcomes, India’s role, and the emerging roadmap for climate justice and transition.

Introduction

Adopted at COP21 in 2015, the Paris Agreement marked a watershed in global climate diplomacy. It sought to limit global warming well below 2°C and ideally to 1.5°C above pre-industrial levels. A decade later, while emissions continue to rise and devastating consequences are visible, from floods in Uttarakhand and Punjab to glacial melt in Jammu & Kashmir. The Agreement has managed to bend the trajectory of warming from a catastrophic 4°C-5°C to approximately 2°C-3°C by the century’s end. This course correction, though insufficient, underscores that collective climate action works, and that multilateralism remains the only viable path to sustainable futures.

Why in the News

The year 2025 marks a decade of the Paris Agreement, a milestone being commemorated at COP30 in Belém, Brazil, where nations are reviewing global progress toward climate neutrality by 2050.

What makes the Paris Agreement a Turning Point?

  1. Low Carbon Transition Catalyst: The Agreement has been instrumental in shifting the global economy from fossil fuels to renewable and efficient energy systems.
    • Example: Solar, wind, and hydroelectricity now anchor new job creation and green industries worldwide.
  2. End of Fossil Dominance: Ten years ago, fossil fuel use dominated energy production. Today, clean energy is mainstream, driven by technological and policy innovation.
  3. Global Policy Integration: The Paris framework integrates differentiated responsibilities, ensuring fairness for developing countries while enabling ambition from industrialised economies.

How Has International Collaboration Strengthened Climate Action?

  1. International Solar Alliance (ISA): A joint initiative by India and France, launched at COP21, represents a symbol of cooperative multilateralism in climate governance.
    • Impact: Expanded to 120+ member countries, delivering results through capacity building, training, and renewable energy transitions.
    • Example: The 8th Assembly of the ISA in 2025 reaffirmed its mission of universal solar access and climate resilience.
  2. France-India Climate Partnership: Reinforced at the COP30 session, this partnership embodies shared leadership in sustainable energy and adaptation.

How Has Climate Finance Evolved in the Last Decade?

  1. Predictable and Inclusive Finance: France and other EU members advocate for innovative, predictable climate finance through instruments like the Green Climate Fund and Loss and Damage Fund.
    • Example: One-third of France’s climate finance supports adaptation and early warning systems (CREWS).
  2. Global Solidarity Vision: At COP30, France emphasized “Global Solidarity Levers” ahead of 2030, urging equity in climate transition financing.
  3. Bridging the North-South Divide: The Paris framework institutionalized common but differentiated responsibilities (CBDR), making financial and technological flows more equitable.

What Are the Emerging Priorities in the Climate Transition?

  1. Natural Carbon Sinks: Ecosystems like forests, mangroves, and oceans, from the Amazon to the Sundarbans, are recognized as vital allies in carbon sequestration.
    • Policy Implication: Strengthening biodiversity conservation underpins adaptation and mitigation goals.
  2. Empowerment of Non-State Actors: Climate progress now depends on the collective efforts of local governments, businesses, and citizens to translate ambition into implementation.
    • Example: Broad-based agreements post-COP21 enable tangible, community-level results.
  3. Science and Disinformation: The IPCC’s evidence-based advocacy remains central to the fight against climate misinformation, ensuring that policy aligns with scientific truth.

What Lies Ahead?

  • Irreversibility of the Transition: The Paris transition cannot be reversed, it is now a necessity, not a choice.
  • Challenges Ahead: While adaptation and mitigation face obstacles, technological innovation, renewable investment, and inclusive policy frameworks are defining the next decade.
  • Global Cooperation Imperative: The next phase must focus on accelerating collective ambition, ensuring climate justice, and empowering vulnerable communities.

Conclusion

The Paris Agreement, despite its limitations, symbolizes the enduring power of collective resolve. The decade-long experience affirms that sustained multilateral action, grounded in fairness and scientific integrity, can bend the arc of climate destiny. The transition is not just unstoppable, it is the blueprint for humanity’s survival in the Anthropocene.

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Electoral Reforms In India

An amended Constitution Bill, its contentious issue

Explained | Polity | Mains Paper 2: Representation Of People's Act

Introduction

The recently introduced Constitution (One Hundred and Thirtieth Amendment) Bill has ignited a significant constitutional and political debate. The Bill seeks to amend Articles 75, 164, and 239AA of the Constitution concerning the Union and State Councils of Ministers. It stipulates that if a Minister is arrested and detained in custody for 30 consecutive days for an alleged offence punishable with imprisonment of two years or more, they shall be removed from office by the President or Governor, acting on the advice of the Prime Minister or Chief Minister respectively.

This proposal, though seemingly procedural, has sparked controversy due to ambiguities around the word “arrest”, the discretionary power of the police, and the possible misuse of detention provisions in politically motivated cases.

Why in the News?

The Bill marks the first constitutional attempt to link a Minister’s continuation in office directly with their criminal custody status, a move never before codified in such explicit terms. It comes amidst increasing arrests of Opposition leaders under stringent laws like PMLA and UAPA, raising concerns about political misuse of arrest powers. The Bill’s intent to ensure ministerial accountability has thus clashed with fears of executive overreach and erosion of constitutional safeguards.

What are the Contentious Provisions of the Bill

  1. Arrest-Based Removal: The Bill mandates removal if a Minister is detained for 30 days for offences punishable with over two years’ imprisonment.
  2. Discretionary Interpretation: The power of arrest under Section 41 CrPC remains discretionary, a police officer may arrest, not must.
  3. Ambiguous Time Limit: The “30 consecutive days” clause lacks clarity on interim bail, custody types, or political context.
  4. Governor/President’s Role: The constitutional head acts solely on the advice of the political executive, not on judicial pronouncements, weakening neutrality.

How Does the Law Currently Treat Arrest and Detention

  1. Judicial Observations: In Joginder Kumar v. State of UP (1994), the Supreme Court ruled that arrest is not mandatory for every cognisable offence; discretion must be exercised responsibly.
  2. Statutory Provisions: Section 41 CrPC empowers arrest without warrant for offences punishable with over seven years’ imprisonment, subject to recorded reasons.
  3. Requirement of Compliance: In Satender Kumar Antil v. CBI (2022), the Supreme Court directed agencies to follow Sections 41 and 41A CrPC before arrest, ensuring proportionality.
  4. BNSS Replacement Issue: The new Bharatiya Nagarik Suraksha Sanhita (BNSS) does not mandate arrest but allows discretion, leaving room for misuse.

Why Is the Opposition Concerned

  1. Political Misuse: The Opposition fears the amendment could become a tool for harassment, allowing governments to suspend rival Ministers on mere arrest, not conviction.
  2. Erosion of Autonomy: By relying solely on the executive’s advice, the amendment undermines institutional checks.
  3. Precedent of Selective Targeting: High-profile cases under PMLA and UAPA (where Opposition leaders remain under prolonged custody) demonstrate how arrest can substitute conviction in political contexts.
  4. Violation of Natural Justice: Removal from office before guilt is proven contradicts the principle of presumption of innocence.

What are the Judicial and Legal Concerns

  1. Triplet Test Ignored: Bail decisions require evaluation of flight risk, evidence tampering, and witness influence, but the Bill removes such proportionality.
  2. Default Bail Disregarded: Under Section 167(2) CrPC, failure to complete investigation grants bail after 60-90 days. The new Bill’s 30-day threshold ignores this safeguard.
  3. Discretionary Arrest Power: The term “arrest” remains undefined. Custody in economic offences or summons may trigger unjust removal.
  4. Unequal Treatment: The provision applies equally to Union, State, and Delhi Ministers, disregarding the distinct nature of governance in Union Territories under Article 239AA.

Could the Amendment Undermine the Principle of Rule of Law

  1. Blurred Accountability: Judicial oversight over arrests is weakened when executive advice replaces judicial findings.
  2. Undue Political Advantage: The amendment may allow ruling parties to destabilize Opposition governments through strategic arrests.
  3. Separation of Powers Risk: The President and Governor become ceremonial actors, undermining the spirit of checks and balances.
  4. Constitutional Morality at Stake: The move shifts India from rule of law to rule by law, where legality substitutes for legitimacy.

Conclusion

The Amendment Bill’s intent to ensure accountability among Ministers is commendable, but its drafting and scope risk undermining constitutional fairness. The absence of judicial oversight, vague definitions of “arrest,” and political discretion dilute the essence of the rule of law. A balanced reform must incorporate clear judicial safeguards, independent review mechanisms, and uniform arrest protocols, ensuring that no political executive is above the law, nor at its mercy.

PYQ Relevance

[UPSC 2021] To what extent, in your view, the Parliament is able to ensure accountability of the executive in India?

Linkage: Executive Accountability is a recurring theme in UPSC GS Paper 2, focusing on the balance between the executive’s power and parliamentary oversight. The Constitution (130th Amendment) Bill directly links to this theme as it alters how ministerial accountability is ensured shifting it from parliamentary control to executive discretion.

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Coal and Mining Sector

The race to break China’s rare earth stranglehold

Explained | Economics | Mains Paper 3: Effects Of Liberalization On The Economy, Changes In Industrial Policy and their effects on Industrial Growth

Introduction

Rare earth minerals form the backbone of modern industries, from smartphones and electric vehicles to solar panels and missiles. Yet, China controls nearly 70% of global mining and 90% of processing, weaponizing this dominance through export restrictions and technology control. The recent spate of US-led agreements with Australia, Thailand, and Malaysia signals a tectonic shift in global supply chain strategy aimed at ending China’s monopoly.

Why in the News

The US has signed multiple agreements to diversify sourcing of rare earth minerals, a sharp contrast to past decades when Western nations relied on China’s cheap supplies. This urgency arises as China restricts exports and machinery transfers, challenging global industrial autonomy. India too has proposed a ₹7,350-crore scheme to build domestic capacity, underscoring how critical and vulnerable this resource chain has become.

China’s Rare Earth Monopoly

  1. Dominance in Production: China accounts for 70% of global rare earth mining and 90% of processing, having invested heavily since the 1990s.
  2. Weaponization of Supply Chains: China uses export restrictions and licensing to maintain strategic leverage, especially in high-tech and defense manufacturing.
  3. Environmental Cost Advantage: Western nations avoided rare earth mining due to pollution concerns, allowing China to gain mastery in low-cost extraction and processing.
  4. Technology Restriction: Beijing limits the transfer of technology and machinery, preventing rivals from catching up.

Why Rare Earths Matter

  1. Strategic Applications: Essential for EV batteries, solar panels, semiconductors, consumer electronics, and defense equipment (missiles, fighter jets, submarines).
  2. Energy Transition Role: Critical to clean energy technologies and electrification, making them central to global climate goals.
  3. Industrial Dependency: Nearly all modern batteries and chips depend on rare earth inputs, linking them to national security and supply resilience.

The US-Led Diversification Push

  1. Recent Agreements: The US signed deals with Australia, Thailand, and Malaysia to source critical minerals and reduce Chinese dependence.
  2. Strategic Vision: Seeks a transparent and diversified market by 2030, per Lowy Institute projections.
  3. Optimism vs Reality: Despite US optimism, experts predict a decade-long transition before tangible independence from China.
  4. Australia’s Role: Emerging as a long-term alternative supplier, though benefits will accrue only post-2030.

India’s Position and Challenges

  1. Limited Domestic Reserves: India lacks sufficient rare earth resources and depends on imports from South America and Africa.
  2. Policy Push: A ₹7,350-crore scheme aims to boost domestic extraction and processing capacity.
  3. Technology Constraints: China’s machinery restrictions hinder India’s expansion; Japan and Germany’s tech is available but costly.
  4. Strategic Need: India’s electronics and defense manufacturing goals hinge on securing reliable rare earth access.

Why China’s Grip Is Hard to Break

  1. Cost Advantage: China’s large-scale, low-cost production undercuts global competitors.
  2. Controlled Liberalization: By restricting but not banning exports, China maintains market share while disincentivizing new investments abroad.
  3. Decades of Lead: Its dominance results from 30 years of investment, while other nations are only beginning their efforts.
  4. Market Manipulation: Price control and selective technology transfer ensure continued dependence.

Economic and Environmental Trade-Offs

  1. High Environmental Cost: Rare earth mining involves radioactive waste and groundwater contamination.
  2. Policy Dilemma: Nations balancing green commitments against strategic autonomy face a major contradiction.
  3. Australia’s Advisory: Buyers urged to prioritize secure supply chains over the lowest available price, signaling a policy shift from cost to security.

Conclusion

Breaking China’s rare earth stranglehold is not merely an economic goal but a geopolitical necessity. It will require sustained investments, technology-sharing frameworks, and environmental innovation. While the US, India, and allies are recalibrating, China’s cost, experience, and ecosystem advantages mean its dominance may persist until at least 2030. The world’s clean energy and defense ambitions hinge on how successfully nations can build resilient, transparent, and diversified critical mineral supply chains.

PYQ Relevance

[UPSC 2018] With growing energy needs should India keep on expanding its nuclear energy programme? Discuss the facts and fears associated with nuclear energy.

Linkage: Rare earths are critical for renewable and clean energy technologies (e.g., EVs, solar, wind). This question relates to energy diversification and sustainability, highlighting material dependencies that influence India’s clean energy choices.

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WTO and India

China’s WTO complaint against India’s PLI Schemes

Prelims Only | Economics | Mains Paper 3: Effects Of Liberalization On The Economy, Changes In Industrial Policy and their effects on Industrial Growth

Why in the News?

China has lodged a formal complaint at the World Trade Organisation (WTO) alleging that India’s Production-Linked Incentive (PLI) schemes for Advanced Chemistry Cell (ACC) batteries, Automobile and Auto Components, and Electric Vehicles (EVs) violate WTO subsidy rules.

About the Production Linked Incentive (PLI) Scheme:

  • Overview: Launched in 2020 under the Atmanirbhar Bharat initiative to strengthen domestic manufacturing and global competitiveness.
  • Objectives:
    • Provides financial incentives based on incremental sales of manufactured goods over a base year.
    • Aims to attract global investment, enhance exports, create jobs, and integrate MSMEs into value chains.
  • Coverage: Covers 14 strategic sectors, including electronics, autos, solar modules, textiles, and pharmaceuticals.
  • Incentive Design: Incentives are non-export linked, based on domestic sales and value addition achieved within India.

PLI Schemes Challenged by China:

  1. PLI for Advanced Chemistry Cell (ACC) Batteries: Incentivises giga-scale battery manufacturing with 25% Domestic Value Addition (DVA) requirement.
  2. PLI for Automobiles and Auto Components: Promotes Advanced Automotive Technology (AAT) products with 50% DVA target.
  3. PLI for Electric Vehicles (EVs): Encourages global EV manufacturers to establish production bases in India.

Issues Raised by China at WTO:

  • Complaint: In October 2025, China filed a case at the World Trade Organization (WTO) claiming that India’s PLI schemes violate global subsidy and trade rules.
  • Core Allegation – DVA Linkage:
    • The Domestic Value Addition (DVA) requirement in the PLI scheme, where incentives depend on how much of a product’s value is created within India, is the main point of dispute.
    • China argues that by linking financial incentives to DVA thresholds, India is indirectly forcing firms to use locally made components instead of imported ones.
    • This, China claims, acts as a “local content requirement”, which WTO rules prohibit because it discriminates against imported goods, especially Chinese batteries, auto parts, and electronic components.
  • Why China Objects to DVA:
    • According to China, the PLI design discourages import of foreign components, making it harder for Chinese products to compete in the Indian market.
    • It considers DVA-based incentives as “import substitution subsidies”, banned under the WTO’s Agreement on Subsidies and Countervailing Measures (SCM).
    • China also claims this approach distorts trade, reduces fair competition, and restricts market access for foreign suppliers.
  • Summary of the Dispute:
    • China’s view: DVA = hidden import restriction → violates WTO rules.
    • India’s view: DVA = measure of domestic value creation → fully WTO-compliant.

WTO Rules Cited by China:

  • Subsidies and Countervailing Measures (SCM) Agreement:
    • Article 1 – Defines subsidy as a financial benefit given by a government.
    • Article 3.1(b) – Bans subsidies that depend on using domestic goods over imports.
  • GATT 1994 (General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade):
    • Article III.4 – Ensures equal treatment for imported and domestic goods.
  • TRIMs (Trade-Related Investment Measures) Agreement:
    • Article 2.1 – Forbids policies that violate national treatment.
    • Annex – Lists Local Content Requirements (LCRs) as WTO-inconsistent.
  • China argues that India’s PLI incentives linked to DVA break all three rules and act as local content conditions.

India’s Response:

  • WTO Compliance: India says PLI is WTO-compliant and does not force local sourcing.
  • Clarification: DVA only measures economic value created in India, like labour, R&D, and innovation, not just use of local parts.
  • Open for Global Firms: Foreign companies can join and freely import materials; PLI only rewards domestic value creation.
  • Legal Justification: India cites GATT Article XX, allowing policies for environmental or developmental goals, especially for green tech like EVs and batteries.
  • Policy Standpoint: India argues that industrial subsidies are a sovereign tool to fix trade imbalances and promote sustainable growth.
  • WTO Procedure: India will first hold consultations with China (first step of dispute). If unresolved, a WTO panel may be formed, but no ruling will take effect soon as the Appellate Body is non-functional since 2019.
  • Practical Impact: India can continue the PLI schemes while the dispute is pending.
[UPSC 2023] Consider the following statements:
Statement I: India accounts for 3.2% of global exports of goods.
Statement II: Many local companies and some foreign companies operating in India have taken advantage of India’s ‘Production-linked Incentive’ scheme.
Which one of the following is correct in respect of the above statements?
(a) Both Statement-I and Statement-II are correct and Statement-II is the correct explanation for Statement-I
(b) Both Statement-I and Statement-II are correct and Statement-II is not the correct explanation for Statement-I
(c) Statement-I is correct but Statement-II is incorrect
(d) Statement-I is incorrect but Statement-II is correct *

 

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Coal and Mining Sector

[pib] Koyla Shakti Dashboard

Prelims Only | Economics | Mains Paper 3: Infrastructure: Energy, Ports, Roads, Airports, Railways Etc.

Why in the News?

The Union Minister of Coal and Mines has launched two major digital governance platforms, the KOYLA SHAKTI Dashboard and the Coal Land Acquisition, Management, and Payment (CLAMP) Portal, through video conference in New Delhi.

About Koyla Shakti Dashboard:

  • Overview: It is developed by the Ministry of Coal as a unified digital platform for coal sector management.
  • Purpose: Integrates the entire coal value chain, from production and logistics to dispatch and consumption, into a single real-time digital interface.
  • Key Features:
    • Data Integration: Consolidates inputs from coal PSUs, Indian Railways, ports, power utilities, and state mining departments, enabling end-to-end visibility across operations.
    • Real-Time Analytics: Employs AI-based predictive tools for demand forecasting, logistics optimisation, and supply chain efficiency.
    • Governance Impact: Enhances transparency, accountability, and data-driven decision-making through live dashboards and standardised performance indicators.
    • Utility for Policymakers: Provides a decision-support system for resource allocation, capacity utilisation, and production planning.
  • Sectoral Benefits: Reduces bottlenecks, improves coordination, and facilitates efficient coal dispatch and monitoring.
  • Reform Milestone: Marks a major step in India’s transition toward digital governance and operational transparency in the extractive sector.

About CLAMP Portal:

  • Overview: It is a centralised digital system to manage land acquisition, compensation, and R&R (Rehabilitation & Resettlement) in coal-bearing regions.
  • Developer: Implemented by the Ministry of Coal to streamline land-related processes for public sector coal companies.
  • Objective: Integrates land records, ownership details, compensation workflows, and payment tracking into one secure interface.
  • Key Features:
    • Transparency & Accountability: Enables real-time tracking of land acquisition progress and compensation disbursements, reducing disputes and delays.
    • Institutional Coordination: Acts as a single-window system linking coal PSUs, state revenue departments, and district administrations.
    • Efficiency Gains: Eliminates manual paperwork, ensures timely approvals, and improves compliance with land and rehabilitation laws.
    • Public-Centric Governance: Prioritises justice, equity, and procedural clarity for affected communities through digital grievance redressal and payment verification.
[UPSC 2022] In India, what is the role of the Coal Controller’s Organization (CCO) ?
1. CCO is the major source of Coal Statistics in Government of India.
2. It monitors progress of development of Captive Coal/Lignite blocks.
3. It hears any objection to the Government’s notification relating to acquisition of coal-bearing areas.
4. It ensures that coal mining companies deliver the coal to end users in the prescribed time.
Select the correct answer using the code given below :
Options: (a) 1, 2 and 3* (b) 3 and 4 only (c) 1 and 2 only (d) 1, 2 and 4

 

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Panchayati Raj Institutions: Issues and Challenges

[pib] Model Youth Gram Sabha (MYGS) Initiative

Prelims Only | Polity | Mains Paper 2:

Why in the News?

The cc, in collaboration with the Ministry of Education and the Ministry of Tribal Affairs, has launched the Model Youth Gram Sabha (MYGS) in New Delhi.

About the Model Youth Gram Sabha (MYGS):

  • Overview: Introduced on 30 October 2025 as a joint initiative of the Ministry of Panchayati Raj, Ministry of Education (Department of School Education and Literacy), and Ministry of Tribal Affairs.
  • Objective: Aims to promote public participation and youth engagement in grassroots democracy through simulated Gram Sabha sessions in schools.
  • Educational Integration: Designed under the National Education Policy, 2020, combining civic education with local self-governance to instil values of democracy, accountability, transparency, and leadership.
  • Implementation Scale: To be rolled out across 1,000+ schools, including Jawahar Navodaya Vidyalayas (JNVs), Eklavya Model Residential Schools (EMRSs), and State Government Schools.

Back2Basics: Gram Sabha

  • Overview: The Gram Sabha, under Article 243(b) of the Constitution, is the basic unit of direct democracy in the Panchayati Raj system.
  • Composition: Comprises all village residents aged 18 or above whose names appear on the electoral rolls.
  • Function: Central to village development planning, social audits, and Gram Panchayat accountability.
  • Meetings: Convened 2–4 times annually under State Panchayati Raj Acts, commonly on 26 January, 1 May, 15 August, and 2 October.
  • Authority: Organised by the Panchayat Secretary (Gram Sevak) with approval of the Sarpanch (village head).
  • Quorum Rule: Requires participation of 10% of total members or at least 50 villagers, notified five days in advance.
  • Decision-Making: Approves budgets, welfare schemes, beneficiary lists, and development priorities; no major Panchayat action is valid without its consent.
  • Purpose: Ensures public participation, transparency, and self-governance (Swaraj) through collective village-level decision-making.
  • Democratic Essence: Serves as the cornerstone of rural democracy, empowering citizens to shape governance and development outcomes directly.

 

[UPSC 2017] Local self-government can be best explained as an exercise in:

Options: (a) Federalism (b) Democratic decentralisation * (c) Administrative delegation (d) Direct democracy

 

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[pib] Rehabilitation Council of India (RCI)

Prelims Only | Governance | Mains Paper 2: Governance, Transparency & Accountability, Citizens Charters

Why in the News?

The Rehabilitation Council of India (RCI) has announced major reforms aimed at enhancing transparency, efficiency, and inclusivity in the national rehabilitation system.

About the Rehabilitation Council of India (RCI):

  • Overview: It is a statutory body established under the Rehabilitation Council of India Act, 1992, and came into statutory force on 22 June 1993.
  • Vision: To build a skilled, ethical, and inclusive rehabilitation workforce aligned with India’s disability rights framework and United Nations Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (UNCRPD) commitments.
  • Nodal Agency: Functions under the Ministry of Social Justice and Empowerment, Government of India.
  • Historical Background: Initially set up as a registered society in 1986, later granted statutory powers to regulate rehabilitation education and practice nationwide.
  • Regulatory Role: Acts as the national authority for training, education, and certification of professionals working in rehabilitation and special education.
  • Central Rehabilitation Register (CRR): Maintains and updates the CRR, a national database of all certified rehabilitation professionals in India.
  • Scope of Coverage: Regulates 16 professional categories including special educators, audiologists, physiotherapists, occupational therapists, and clinical psychologists.

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Global Geological And Climatic Events

[29th October 2025] The Hindu OpED: Relief, Rehabilitation: India’s east coast and cyclones

op-ed snap | Geography | Mains Paper 1: Geographical Features & Their Location

PYQ Relevance

[UPSC 2014] Tropical cyclones are largely confined to the South China Sea, Bay of Bengal and Gulf of Mexico. Why?

Linkage: Cyclones are a recurring topic in GS Paper 1 (Geography) and GS Paper 3 (Disaster Management) due to their climatic, socio-economic, and governance relevance. The PYQ links directly to this theme as it explains the geophysical reasons behind the east coast’s high cyclone frequency and sets the context for India’s preparedness and rehabilitation strategies.

Mentor’s Comment

The recurring cyclones on India’s eastern coast highlight not only the country’s growing vulnerability to extreme weather events but also the evolution of its disaster management framework. The recent Cyclone Montha once again tested India’s readiness, reflecting both commendable progress and continuing challenges in disaster response, livelihood security, and post-disaster rehabilitation.

Why in the News

Cyclone Montha, which began intensifying into a severe cyclonic storm over the Bay of Bengal on October 27-28, 2025, has revived memories of devastating cyclones such as the 1977 Andhra cyclone and the 1999 Odisha super cyclone, each claiming nearly 10,000 lives. Although Montha was not as intense, it tested disaster preparedness mechanisms across Andhra Pradesh and Odisha. The event underlines both improved resilience and the persisting socio-economic costs of cyclones in India’s coastal belt, a region that historically faces the brunt of Bay of Bengal storms during October-November.

Introduction

India’s eastern coastline, especially Odisha and Andhra Pradesh, has long been vulnerable to tropical cyclones. Historically, the Bay of Bengal has produced some of the world’s deadliest cyclonic events. While the India Meteorological Department (IMD) and National Disaster Response Force (NDRF) have strengthened forecasting and evacuation systems, the scale of livelihood disruption, property damage, and rural distress continues to make post-cyclone rehabilitation a critical governance concern.

Why is India’s East Coast So Vulnerable to Cyclones?

  1. Geographical Exposure: The Bay of Bengal’s funnel shape and warm waters create conditions for cyclogenesis, making the east coast more cyclone-prone than the west.
  2. Seasonal Concentration: Historically, October-November are peak months, with nine of twelve major cyclones (18th-20th century) recorded during this period.
  3. High Human Impact: The 1977 Andhra and 1999 Odisha cyclones each caused ~10,000 deaths, highlighting the historic vulnerability.

How Prepared Are India’s Coastal States Today?

  1. Institutional Mechanisms: Strengthened Union and State disaster management authorities and IMD’s early warning systems have made large-scale loss of life “a thing of the past.”
  2. Evacuation Efficiency: Nearly 10,000 people evacuated from Andhra’s Kakinada and Konaseema during Cyclone Montha.
  3. Red Alert Response: Prompt deployment of NDRF teams and coordinated district-level action in red-alert zones of southern Odisha.

What Are the Persisting Gaps and Challenges?

  1. Property and Livelihood Loss: Even with reduced fatalities, damage to homes, livestock, and agriculture remains high, affecting underprivileged sections.
  2. Economic Vulnerability: Cyclones disrupt milch animals, draught animals, and poultry, impacting rural incomes and food security.
  3. Infrastructure Fragility: Despite improvements, coastal roads, electricity grids, and communication lines remain highly exposed to storm surges and floods.

What Has Been Learnt from Past Disasters?

  1. Adaptive Governance: Following disasters like Cyclone Gaja (2018), governments have adopted structural and non-structural mitigation measures, including cyclone shelters, embankments, and mangrove restoration.
  2. Skill Enhancement: Continuous upgrading of disaster management knowledge and coordination among states such as Andhra Pradesh, Odisha, and Tamil Nadu.
  3. Community Engagement: Enhanced public awareness and local volunteer networks contribute to faster evacuations.

What Should Be the Way Forward for Relief and Rehabilitation?

  1. Holistic Recovery Approach: Combine immediate relief with long-term livelihood restoration and climate-resilient infrastructure.
  2. Inclusive Policy Execution: Focus on the most vulnerable coastal communities, particularly fishers and small farmers.
  3. Leadership Accountability: Political and administrative leadership must ensure effective implementation of rehabilitation and reconstruction measures post-disaster.

Conclusion

India’s eastern coastline remains a climatic frontier where human resilience is tested year after year. The evolution from reactive relief to proactive risk reduction marks a significant policy success. Yet, the persistence of livelihood loss and infrastructure fragility calls for stronger implementation, community engagement, and leadership accountability. Relief and rehabilitation must now evolve into a model of climate-adaptive, inclusive coastal development.

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Disasters and Disaster Management – Sendai Framework, Floods, Cyclones, etc.

Setting up an early warning system for the Himalayas poses unique challenges

Explained | Social Justice | Mains Paper 3: Disaster Management

Introduction

The recent rise in Himalayan disasters highlights the urgent need for early warning systems. The 2024 Down To Earth report shows that between 1900 and 2022, India recorded 687 disasters, with 240 in the Himalayan region alone. Disasters include glacial lake outbursts, flash floods, landslides, wildfires, and earthquakes. What was once a region of five disasters between 1902–1962 now witnesses a major event almost every month.

The combination of climate change, infrastructure expansion, and data inaccessibility has created a perfect storm for recurring disasters.

Why in the News?

In October 2025, Mount Everest’s Tibetan side witnessed a sudden blizzard and heavy snowfall, trapping climbers and villagers, a scene that epitomized the Himalayan fragility. At the same time, floods and landslides in Nepal and Darjeeling killed dozens. These incidents are part of an alarming rise in Himalayan disasters, making early warning systems a national security and developmental priority. Unlike coastal or plain regions, setting up Early Warning Systems (EWS) in the Himalayas poses terrain-specific, logistical, and data-related hurdles, which the government and scientists are now racing to overcome.

Why Are the Himalayas Experiencing So Many Disasters?

  1. Climate Change Impact: Rapid glacier retreat, erratic precipitation, and temperature rise have increased frequency of floods and glacial lake outbursts.
  2. Unregulated Development: Road expansion, hydropower tunnels, and tourism infrastructure disturb fragile slopes.
  3. Population Pressure: Rising habitation and migration to high-altitude zones expose more people to risk.
  4. Data Scarcity: Sparse weather stations and inaccessible terrain reduce real-time monitoring.
  5. Cascading Disasters: Earthquakes trigger landslides that block rivers, leading to floods and dam bursts.

Why Are Early Warning Systems Hard to Establish in the Himalayas?

  1. Topographic Challenge: Remote valleys, deep gorges, and shifting glaciers hinder sensor installation and data transmission.
  2. Energy & Connectivity Gaps: Lack of stable power and internet networks limit continuous monitoring.
  3. Institutional Fragmentation: Multiple agencies, IMD, NDMA, SASE, and state authorities, work in silos.
  4. High Cost of Equipment: Advanced sensors and AI-based models require large funding, which is often project-based, not permanent.
  5. Local Integration Issues: Absence of local awareness and training hinders EWS adoption and response effectiveness.

What Have Been the Major Successes or Promising Models?

  1. Swiss Alps Example: In Switzerland’s Blatten village, an EWS prevented a glacial lake collapse by alerting authorities, saving hundreds of lives.
  2. China’s EWS (2022): The Chinese Academy of Sciences created a Himalayan EWS using satellite and AI-based modeling to forecast flash floods and glacial lake outbursts.
  3. Indian Precedents:
    1. IMD and ISRO collaboration on satellite-based flood forecasting.
    2. Uttarakhand’s Rainfall & Landslide Monitoring Network under NDMA.
    3. AI-based predictive systems being piloted by IIT Roorkee for early landslide alerts.

What Are the Key Steps Needed for India’s Himalayan EWS Framework?

  1. Integration with National Data Systems: Unify IMD, ISRO, NDMA, and local data into a National Himalayan EWS Grid.
  2. Local Capacity Building: Train local panchayats, mountain police, and disaster volunteers in EWS interpretation.
  3. AI & Drone-Based Monitoring: Employ machine learning to analyze terrain shifts and use drones for data relay.
  4. Community Ownership: Encourage “Last-Mile Ownership”, enabling communities to maintain sensors and report anomalies.
  5. Cross-Border Cooperation: Engage with Nepal, Bhutan, and China under the HKH (Hindu Kush Himalaya) framework for data sharing.

Relevant Policy and Institutional Frameworks

  1. Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction (2015–2030): Calls for risk-informed, multi-hazard early warning systems.
  2. National Disaster Management Plan (2019): Prioritizes mountain-specific disaster risk management.
  3. National Mission for Sustaining the Himalayan Ecosystem (NMSHE): Focuses on climate-resilient planning for mountain ecology.
  4. NITI Aayog Report on Himalayan States (2018): Advocates “mountain-centric” governance and monitoring systems.

Conclusion

Himalayan resilience is India’s climate frontier. Without an integrated and accessible early warning system, each new disaster deepens ecological and social fragility. Establishing a rugged, community-driven, AI-supported Himalayan EWS is not just a scientific necessity, it is a moral and developmental imperative. Science, policy, and local wisdom must converge to safeguard India’s “Water Tower of Asia.”

 

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India’s diaspora diplomacy and the limits of cultural nationalism

Explained | Polity | Mains Paper 2: Indian Diaspora

Introduction

The Indian diaspora, among the world’s largest, has long been celebrated for fostering goodwill, investment, and soft power. Recently, however, incidents involving public religious celebrations such as Ganapati immersions and Deepavali fireworks in Western nations have drawn scrutiny. These events have ignited debate over “the limits of acceptable public behaviour” and whether expressions of cultural nationalism abroad risk alienating host nations or complicating India’s diplomacy.

Why in the News

A section of the Indian diaspora in developed countries, notably in Canada, the U.S., and Australia, has faced backlash after cultural events like Ganapati immersions in waterbodies and Diwali fireworks in public spaces. Following incidents such as houses catching fire during Deepavali celebrations in Edmonton, Canada, authorities issued advisories urging restraint. Anti-immigrant and nationalist groups in these countries are exploiting such events to fuel nativist campaigns against people of Indian origin. The issue is significant because it marks a new phase in diaspora visibility, from community pride to potential friction with local norms and foreign policy sensitivities.

India’s Diaspora Diplomacy: Changing Role

  1. Strategic Asset: The diaspora historically served as India’s cultural ambassador, strengthening trade, investment, and soft power links.
  2. Political Sensitivity: Earlier, India urged Persons of Indian Origin (PIOs) to remain apolitical in the domestic politics of their adopted countries, maintaining a careful balance.
  3. Policy Shift: With the rise of Hindutva-oriented nationalism since the 1990s, diaspora activism has gained a new ideological and political tone, extending beyond cultural identity into transnational nationalism.

Why has cultural assertion turned contentious?

  1. Rise of Hindutva Influence:
    • Ideological expansion: The ascent of Narendra Modi in 2014 intensified diaspora engagement rooted in nationalist pride.
    • Global networks: Indian-origin communities began hosting large-scale rallies reflecting Hindutva themes, echoing domestic politics abroad.
  2. Shift from cultural to political nationalism:
    • Earlier Indian nationalism emphasized universal human rights and secular inclusion.
    • Now, diaspora activism mirrors territorial or cultural nationalism, often perceived as exclusive.
  3. Public visibility: Increased religious processions and fireworks are seen as public displays of faith, once private, now overtly political in tone.

How are host nations responding to diaspora assertiveness?

  1. Heightened scrutiny: Countries like the U.S., Canada, and Australia view foreign-linked activism with caution, citing fear of interference in domestic politics.
  2. Parallel with other powers: While India avoids the level of hostility faced by Russia or China, New Delhi’s activities are increasingly monitored.
  3. Examples of scrutiny:
    • In the U.S., foreign influence laws allow diaspora political activity if registered transparently.
    • Far-right and left-leaning figures alike, from Bernie Sanders to Tucker Carlson, have begun debating diaspora-linked influence.

Dual Citizenship Debate and “Nationalist Hype”

  1. Legal context:
    • India does not allow dual citizenship, unlike the U.S.
    • However, the Citizenship (Amendment) Act, 2003 introduced Overseas Citizenship of India (OCI), a form of “dual citizenship in spirit, but not in law.”
  2. Rights and limitations:
    • OCI cardholders enjoy visa-free entry, property and education rights, but cannot vote or hold public office.
    • This arrangement symbolizes India’s partial accommodation of diaspora identity while maintaining constitutional sovereignty.
  3. Diplomatic sensitivity: The growing assertion of OCI holders in political protests abroad sometimes clashes with India’s principle of non-interference and host countries’ domestic politics.

Balancing Pride and Prudence: The Policy Challenge

  1. Tightrope diplomacy: India must encourage diaspora pride without allowing overzealous nationalism to harm bilateral ties.
  2. New geopolitical reality:
    • Rising global nationalism has made foreign societies less tolerant of visible ethnic politics.
    • India’s image as a pluralist democracy depends on diaspora restraint and inclusivity.
  3. Foreign policy implications: The diaspora’s actions now intersect with strategic diplomacy, compelling New Delhi to redefine its soft power outreach with greater nuance.

Conclusion

India’s diaspora diplomacy today walks a fine line between cultural pride and political overreach. While the diaspora remains a pillar of India’s global image, unchecked assertions of religious nationalism can blur boundaries between identity and interference. Sustaining goodwill requires promoting inclusive Indian values abroad, rather than exporting domestic ideological divisions. A balanced diaspora policy, grounded in soft power, pluralism, and mutual respect, will ensure that India’s global citizens remain its greatest strength, not a diplomatic liability.

Value Addition
Bhikhu Parekh on the Indian Diaspora and the Debate on Identity Politics

Bhikhu Parekh, a renowned political theorist and member of the British House of Lords, has been one of the most influential voices in the global debate on diaspora identity, multiculturalism, and nationalism abroad.

Parekh’s Core Ideas

  • Plural Identity: Parekh emphasized that members of the Indian diaspora hold multiple overlapping identities, as Indians, as citizens of their host countries, and as global citizens.
    • He argued that loyalty to India must not conflict with civic responsibility to the host nation.
    • True diaspora strength lies in cultural rootedness combined with civic integration.
  • Critique of Cultural Nationalism Abroad:
    • Parekh warned against transforming cultural pride into exclusive nationalism, stating that religious or ideological exportation risks alienating host societies and undermining India’s democratic image.
    • He urged India to promote a “cosmopolitan nationalism”, celebrating Indian values of pluralism and tolerance abroad rather than majoritarian politics.
  • Cultural Confidence, Not Cultural Aggression:
    • In his writings, particularly during debates on British multiculturalism, Parekh defended the right of immigrants to maintain traditions, but within a framework of mutual respect and civic harmony.
    • He believed that diaspora behaviour becomes diplomatic capital only when it fosters intercultural dialogue, not division.

Indian Diaspora Policy Evolution: From “Pravasi Bharatiya Divas” (2003) to Current Geopolitical Engagement

India’s diaspora policy has evolved from a symbolic celebration of overseas Indians to a strategic instrument of foreign policy.

  • Early 2000s: Institutional Recognition
    • Pravasi Bharatiya Divas (2003) was launched to commemorate Mahatma Gandhi’s return from South Africa, marking the first structured outreach to the diaspora.
    • The event institutionalised diaspora recognition and honoured contributions through the Pravasi Bharatiya Samman Awards.
  • Mid-2000s: Engagement and Identity Building
    • Establishment of the Ministry of Overseas Indian Affairs (MOIA) in 2004 signified a shift from symbolic to policy-based engagement.
    • Introduction of Overseas Citizenship of India (OCI) and Person of Indian Origin (PIO) cards facilitated cultural and economic linkages.
  • 2010s: Economic and Developmental Integration
    • The merger of MOIA with the Ministry of External Affairs (MEA) in 2016 streamlined diaspora diplomacy.
    • Focus shifted to remittances, investments, and knowledge exchange, positioning the diaspora as a development partner.
  • Post-2014 Era: Strategic and Ideological Turn
    • The diaspora became a pillar of India’s soft power and image-building strategy, particularly under Prime Minister Modi’s global outreach (e.g., massive diaspora events in the U.S., U.K., and Australia).
    • India’s foreign policy began viewing the diaspora as a geopolitical asset to influence public opinion and build partnerships in host countries.
  • Current Phase: Geopolitical and Security-Sensitive Diplomacy
    • Diaspora engagement now intersects with strategic diplomacy, requiring balancing national pride with respect for local sensitivities.
    • India emphasizes responsible diaspora conduct, ensuring cultural assertion aligns with mutual respect and diplomatic prudence.

PYQ Relevance

[UPSC 2023] Indian diaspora has scaled new heights in the West. Describe its economic and political benefits for India.

Linkage: The topic is important as it reflects India’s growing global influence through its diaspora-driven economic, cultural, and political networks. The question links to how diaspora activism enhances India’s soft power yet demands careful diplomacy to avoid friction with the host nations.

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Global Geological And Climatic Events

Cyclone Montha makes landfall in AP

Prelims Only | Geography | Mains Paper 1: Important Geophysical Phenomena

Why in the News?

Cyclone Montha, classified as a severe cyclonic storm, has made landfall near Kakinada (Andhra Pradesh) on October 28.

Back2Basics: Tropical Cyclones

  • What is it: Large low-pressure systems over warm oceans, marked by rotating winds, heavy rain, and storm surges.
  • Conditions: Form when ocean temps >27°C, with moist rising air releasing latent heat to fuel convection.
  • Rotation: Driven by the Coriolis force – anticlockwise in Northern Hemisphere, clockwise in Southern.
  • Structure: Eye (calm), Eyewall (violent winds/rains), Rainbands (widespread showers).
  • Regional Names: Typhoons (Pacific), Hurricanes (Atlantic/Caribbean), Cyclones (Indian Ocean).
  • Drivers & Frequency: Common in Southeast Asia due to warm Pacific waters, El Niño/La Niña cycles, and climate change.
  • Impacts: Loss of life, property damage, flooding, soil salinisation, displacement, and disease outbreaks.
  • Climate Change Link: Global warming is making tropical cyclones stronger, less predictable, and more frequent, raising risks for coastal populations.

What is the Landfall of a Cyclone?

  • Overview: A tropical cyclone is said to make landfall when its centre (eye) crosses the coastline from sea to land.
  • Not the Same as a Direct Hit:
    • Landfall = when the eye crosses the coast.
    • Direct hit = when the eyewall (zone of strongest winds) impacts the coast, even if the centre remains offshore.
  • Duration: Landfall usually lasts a few hours, depending on wind speed and storm size.
  • Post-Landfall Behaviour: Cyclones lose intensity rapidly after landfall due to loss of oceanic moisture and increased land friction.

Behind the Naming of Cyclones:

  • Overview: Cyclones in the North Indian Ocean are named under the World Meteorological Organization (WMO) / United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific (ESCAP) Panel on Tropical Cyclones (since 2004).
  • Naming Authority: Regional Specialized Meteorological Centre (RSMC), New Delhi, operated by IMD.
  • 13 Member Countries: Bangladesh, India, Maldives, Myanmar, Oman, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, Thailand, Yemen, Iran, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, and UAE.
  • Submission of names: Each country submits 13 culturally neutral, gender-neutral names, forming a 169-name rotating list.
  • Non-repetition: Names are used sequentially and not repeated after one use.
  • “Montha”: It was suggested by Thailand, meaning “beautiful” or “fragrant flower.”
  • Significance: Naming helps public communication, ensures clarity in warnings, and avoids confusion during multiple simultaneous storms.
  • Current sequence: Shakthi (Sri Lanka) → Montha (Thailand) → Senyar (UAE) → Ditwah (Yemen) → Arnab (Bangladesh) → Murasu (India).
[UPSC 2020] Consider the following statements:

1. Jet streams occur in the Northern Hemisphere only.

2. Only some cyclones develop an eye.

3. The temperature inside the eye of a cyclone is nearly 10°C lesser than that of the surroundings.

Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

(a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 2 only* (d) 1 and 3 only

 

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International Space Agencies – Missions and Discoveries

3I/ATLAS: A Possible 7-Billion-Year-Old Interstellar Comet Discovered

Prelims Only | Science Tech | Mains Paper 3: Awareness in various sc and tech fields

Why in the News?

Astronomers discovered 3I/ATLAS, a 7-billion-year-old interstellar comet, using the NASA-funded ATLAS telescope in Chile. It is now nearing its closest approach to the Sun.

About 3I/ATLAS:

  • Discovery: It was detected on July 1, 2025, by the ATLAS telescope in Río Hurtado, Chile; confirmed interstellar due to its hyperbolic orbit and high speed (57–68 km/s).
  • Significance: It is likely the oldest comet ever observed, possibly 7.6–14 billion years old, older than our 4.5-billion-year-old solar system.
  • Nature: It appeared like an interstellar comet, showing signs of activity, including a coma (cloud of dust/ice) and likely a tail as it nears the Sun.
  • Composition: Rich in water ice and complex organic compounds; has a reddish hue indicating ancient, primordial material.
  • Size: Estimated nucleus diameter is 10–30 km, larger than previous interstellar objects like 1I/ʻOumuamua and 2I/Borisov.
  • Trajectory:
    • Closest to Earth: ~270 million km (no threat).
    • Closest to Sun: ~210 million km (Oct 29–30, 2025).
    • Will exit the solar system permanently after perihelion.
  • Scientific Importance:
    • It offers rare opportunity to study materials from another star system.
    • It can reveal clues about the formation of the Milky Way, other solar systems, and early star formation processes.

Back2Basics: ATLAS Telescope

  • ATLAS (Asteroid Terrestrial-impact Last Alert System) is a NASA-funded early warning project for detecting small near-Earth objects (NEOs).
  • It is developed and operated by the University of Hawaii’s Institute for Astronomy.
  • As of 2025, ATLAS operates five telescopes in Hawaii, South Africa, Chile, and the Canary Islands.
  • Each telescope has a 0.5-meter Wright-Schmidt design, a 1-meter focal length, and a 110 MP CCD detector with a 7.4° field of view.
  • The system scans 20,000 square degrees of sky three times per night and provides 1–3 week warnings for asteroids 45–120 meters wide.
  • In addition to asteroids, ATLAS also discovers supernovae, comets, dwarf planets, and variable stars.

What are Interstellar Objects?

  • Overview: Celestial bodies that originate outside the solar system and travel through it on open-ended (hyperbolic) orbits.
  • Key Characteristics:
    • Not gravitationally bound to the Sun.
    • Travel at very high speeds, often unaffected by solar gravity.
    • Do not return once they pass through the inner solar system.
  • Known Interstellar Visitors:
    1. 1I/ʻOumuamua (2017) – Asteroid-like, no coma or tail.
    2. 2I/Borisov (2019) – Active comet with typical cometary features.
  • 3I/ATLAS (2025) – Discussed above.
  • How are they Identified:
    • Hyperbolic trajectory confirmed via orbital calculations.
    • Speed at great distances exceeds gravitational escape velocity.
  • Scientific Value:
    • Provide direct clues about planetary formation beyond our solar system.
    • Can reveal chemical signatures from other star systems.
    • Allow us to study primordial matter from distant parts of the galaxy.
    • Act as natural probes from unknown regions of the Milky Way.

How is 3I/ATLAS different from ordinary Comets?

3I/ATLAS

Ordinary Comets
Origin Formed outside the Solar System; interstellar in nature Formed within the Solar System — Kuiper Belt or Oort Cloud
Orbital Type Hyperbolic (eccentricity ≈ 6); unbound from the Sun Elliptical or parabolic; bound by the Sun’s gravity
Velocity Very high,~57 km/s (too fast to be captured by Sun) Moderate, typically 10–40 km/s within solar orbit
Trajectory Enters and exits Solar System once; non-repeating Periodic or long-period; returns after fixed intervals
Tail Direction Exhibited a rare sunward (anti-tail) due to CO₂-driven ice scattering Always points away from the Sun due to radiation pressure and solar wind
Composition High CO₂/H₂O ratio, nickel-rich, iron-poor, chemically distinct Dominated by H₂O, CO, CO₂, silicates, and dust in solar proportions
Activity Pattern Displays phase shift: anti-tail → normal tail as it nears the Sun Predictable increase in activity and sublimation near perihelion
Spectral Signature Strong CO₂ emission lines; unusual metallic features Typical cometary spectra, OH, CN, C₂, CO, NH₂ bands
Size of Nucleus Estimated 0.44–5.6 km in diameter Varies widely; many are a few kilometres across
Scientific Significance Provides insight into exoplanetary system composition and interstellar chemistry Preserves a record of early Solar System formation and evolution
Speculative Aspects Some hypotheses suggest a possible artificial or exotic origin (no evidence) Fully natural and well-understood in origin and dynamics
[UPSC 2011] What is the difference between asteroids and comets?

1. Asteroids are small rocky planetoids, while comets are formed of frozen gases held together by rocky and metallic material. 2. Asteroids are found mostly between the orbits of Jupiter and Mars, while comets are found mostly between Venus and mercury. 3. Comets show a perceptible glowing tail, while asteroids do not.

Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

Options: (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 1 and 3 only* (c) 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3

 

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Pay Commission Updates

Centre approves terms of 8th Central Pay Commission

Prelims Only | Economics | Mains Paper 3: Government Budgeting

Why in the News?

The Govt. of India has officially constituted the 8th Central Pay Commission (CPC) to review and recommend revisions in the salaries, pensions, and service conditions of Central Government employees and pensioners.

About the 8th Central Pay Commission (CPC):

  • Objective: To assess fiscal sustainability, pay parity with the private sector, cost of living, pension liabilities, and Centre–State financial impact.
  • Announcement: Its formation was first announced in January 2025, following Cabinet’s in-principle approval for the new pay revision cycle.
  • Composition:
    • Chairperson– Justice Ranjana Prakash Desai (Retd.)
    • Part-time Member– Prof. Pulak Ghosh (IIM Bangalore)
    • Member-Secretary– Pankaj Jain (Petroleum Secretary)
  • Mandate Duration: Expected to submit its report within 18 months of constitution, i.e., by mid-2026.
  • Scope: Covers over 50 lakh Central employees and 68 lakh pensioners, with consultations extending to State Governments and Public Sector Undertakings (PSUs).

​ About Pay Commissions:

  • Overview: They are temporary expert bodies established roughly every 10 years to revise salary structures, allowances, and pensions of Central Government employees and defence personnel.
  • First Commission: Constituted in 1946, marking the beginning of India’s formal public service wage policy.
  • Frequency: Eight Commissions (1946–2025), each responding to economic, social, and inflationary shifts.
  • Composition: Typically includes retired judges, economists, and senior bureaucrats, ensuring multi-disciplinary expertise.
  • Implementation Process: Recommendations will be reviewed by the Finance Ministry and approved by the Union Cabinet, followed by phased rollout across departments.
  • Impact: Shapes public expenditure patterns, influencing State pay revisions, PSU wages, and defence outlays for the next decade.
  • Notable Reforms by Past Commissions:
    • 2nd CPC (1957)– Adjusted post-Independence wage inflation.
    • 3rd CPC (1970)– Introduced the Dearness Allowance (DA) mechanism.
    • 4th CPC (1983)– Standardised pay bands across cadres.
    • 5th CPC (1994) – Enhanced pensions and streamlined hierarchies.
    • 6th CPC (2006)– Introduced Pay Band + Grade Pay and MACP system.
    • 7th CPC (2014–2016)– Implemented Matrix Pay Structure and Fitment Factor (2.57).
  • 8th CPC (2025): Continues this decadal reform tradition, aligning pay structure with digital governance, modern workforce management, and inflation-linked fiscal stability.
[UPSC 2014] Which of the following are the discretionary powers given to the Governor of a State?
1. Sending a report to the President of India for imposing the President’s rule
2. Appointing the Ministers
3. Reserving certain bills passed by the State Legislature for consideration of the President of India
4. Making the rules to conduct the business of the State Government
Select the correct answer using the code given below:
Options: (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 1 and 3 only* (c) 2, 3 and 4 only (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4

 

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Solar Energy – JNNSM, Solar Cities, Solar Pumps, etc.

Various Initiatives under International Solar Alliance (ISA)

Prelims Only | International Relations | Mains Paper 2: Bilateral, Regional and Global Groupings and agreements involving India

Why in the News?

At the 8th International Solar Alliance (ISA) Assembly, India has launched four global initiatives viz. Solar Upcycling Network for Recycling, Innovation and Stakeholder Engagement (SUNRISE), One Sun One World One Grid (OSOWOG), Global Capability Centre, and the Small Island Developing States (SIDS) Procurement Platform.

[1] SUNRISE:

  • Overview: Launched by the International Solar Alliance (ISA) to promote a circular economy in solar energy, focusing on recycling and sustainable resource use.
  • Objective: Aims to recover nickel, cobalt, and lithium from retired solar panels, batteries, and components, reducing e-waste and enhancing material efficiency.
  • Global Collaboration: Connects governments, industries, innovators, and recyclers to formulate international standards and best practices for solar waste management.
  • Sustainability Focus: Seeks to make solar power deployment resource-efficient, low-carbon, and environmentally responsible.
  • Economic Impact: Promotes green job creation, industrial diversification, and innovation in clean-energy recycling technologies.

[2] OSOWOG (One Sun One World One Grid):

  • Overview: A flagship ISA initiative for transnational solar power connectivity, enabling global energy interdependence through solar grid linkages.
  • Goal: Integrate regional grids across Asia, the Middle East, Africa, and Europe to ensure continuous, 24-hour renewable power supply.
  • Benefits: Promotes clean energy trade, enhances grid stability, and lowers renewable power costs through shared transmission infrastructure.
  • Implementation Strategy: Focuses on regulatory harmonisation, cross-border coordination, and interregional feasibility studies for integrated grid operations.
  • Strategic Role: Strengthens India’s leadership in global renewable energy diplomacy and sustainable development cooperation.

[3] Global Capability Centre (GCC) and ISA Academy:

  • Vision: Conceived as a “Silicon Valley for Solar”, integrating research, innovation, digital learning, and global capacity-building.
  • Operational Model: Functions through STAR-C centres (Solar Technology Application Resource Centres) established across ISA member countries.
  • Training and Learning: The ISA Academy delivers AI-enabled courses in solar finance, engineering, policy, and project management.
  • Capacity Building: Strengthens human capital, fosters technological excellence, and promotes industrial collaboration for scalable solar growth.

[4] SIDS Procurement Platform

  • Partnership: A joint mechanism between the ISA and World Bank designed for Small Island Developing States (SIDS).
  • Coverage: Involves 16 island nations across the Caribbean, Pacific, and Indian Ocean regions.
  • Mechanism: Facilitates bulk procurement, shared financing, and aggregated demand to lower solar technology deployment costs.
  • Resilience Building: Enhances technical and financial capacity, reducing dependency on imported fossil fuels.
  • Climate and Energy Impact: Supports climate adaptation, strengthens energy security, and promotes sustainable island economies through clean energy access.

Back2Basics: International Solar Alliance (ISA)

  • Objective: To facilitate affordable solar technology, finance mobilization, and policy support to achieve global energy access and climate goals.
  • Founded: 2015, jointly by India and France, headquartered in Gurugram (Haryana, India).
  • Membership (2025): 98 countries, focused on promoting solar energy deployment in developing and tropical nations.
  • Strategic Focus Areas (2025):
    • Catalytic Finance Hub: Mobilising global investments in solar infrastructure.
    • Global Capability Centre: Providing technical training, digital tools, and policy frameworks.
    • Technology Roadmap: Driving innovation in floating solar, AI-based grid management, green hydrogen, and One Sun, One World, One Grid (OSOWOG) connectivity.
    • Country Engagement: Strengthening regional partnerships for implementation and capacity-building.
[UPSC 2016] Consider the following statements:
1. The International Solar Alliance was launched at the United Nations Climate Change Conference in 2015.
2. The Alliance includes all the member countries of the United Nations.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct? Options:
(a) 1 only* (b) 2 only (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2

 

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Wetland Conservation

Water Pollution in Manipur’s Loktak Lake

Places in news | Enviro & Biodiversity | Mains Paper 3: Conservation, Environmental Pollution & Degradation, Eia

Why in the News?

A recent Nagaland University study has raised alarms over the deteriorating ecological health of Loktak Lake, India’s largest freshwater lake and a designated Ramsar Site (since 1990) in Manipur.

Key Findings of the Study:

  • Core Issue: Land-use changes such as agriculture expansion, human settlements, and shifting cultivation (jhum) are deteriorating the water quality of rivers feeding the lake.
  • Sampling and Rivers: Water quality analysis was done across nine major rivers draining into Loktak, linking land-use patterns with water quality indicators such as dissolved oxygen (DO), biological oxygen demand (BOD), and temperature.
  • Polluted Rivers:
    • Nambul River recorded the lowest oxygen levels and highest organic contamination, influenced by 47% agricultural land and 11% settlement areas in its sub-catchment.
    • Khuga River had the second poorest quality due to 42% shifting cultivation (jhum).
    • Iril and Thoubal Rivers, flowing through dense forested areas, showed better water quality, underscoring the protective role of forests.

About Loktak Lake:

  • Overview: Situated in Manipur, about 40 km from Imphal, it is the largest freshwater lake in Northeast India.
  • Unique Feature: Known for its floating biomass called phumdi (in the Meitei language), a mixture of soil, vegetation, and organic matter that supports unique aquatic life.
  • Ecological Significance: The Keibul Lamjao National Park, the world’s only floating national park and habitat of the endangered brow-antlered deer (Sangai), forms an integral part of the lake ecosystem.
  • Hydrology: Fed by nine major rivers, including Khuga, Western, Nambul, Imphal, Kongba, Iril, Thoubal, Heirok, and Sekmai and drained through the Ithai Barrage.
  • Global Recognition:
    • Declared a Ramsar Site in 1990, signifying its international ecological importance.
    • Listed under the Montreux Record in 1993 for undergoing ecological degradation.
  • Biodiversity: Hosts 132 plant species and 428 animal species, supporting fisheries, hydropower generation, transport, and tourism.
  • Socioeconomic Role: Provides livelihoods for local communities through fishing, agriculture, and tourism while regulating floods and water supply in the Imphal valley.
[UPSC 2015] Which of the following National Parks is unique in being a swamp with floating vegetation that supports a rich biodiversity?

Options:

(a) Bhitarkanika National Park

(b) Keibul Lamjao National Park*

(c) Keoladeo Ghana National Park

(d) Sultanpur National Park

 

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Fertilizer Sector reforms – NBS, bio-fertilizers, Neem coating, etc.

Cabinet approved the Nutrient Based Subsidy (NBS) Rates for Rabi 2025- 26

Schemes | Agriculture | Mains Paper 3: Agriculture and related issues

Why in the News?

The Union Cabinet has approved the Nutrient-Based Subsidy (NBS) rates for Rabi 2025–26 (October 1, 2025 – March 31, 2026) on Phosphatic and Potassic (P&K) fertilizers.

About the Nutrient-Based Subsidy (NBS) Scheme:

  • Overview: Introduced on April 1, 2010, by the Department of Fertilizers, Ministry of Chemicals and Fertilizers, Government of India.
  • Nature: A Central Sector Scheme providing fertilisers at subsidized rates based on nutrient content rather than product type.
  • Nutrients Covered: Subsidy is fixed per kilogram of Nitrogen (N), Phosphorus (P), Potash (K), and Sulphur (S).
  • Coverage: Applies to 28 grades of Phosphatic and Potassic (P&K) fertilizers, including Di-Ammonium Phosphate (DAP), NPKS grades, and fortified fertilizers containing micronutrients such as zinc and molybdenum.
  • Exclusion: Urea is not covered under NBS; it remains price-controlled and sold at a fixed MRP by the government.
  • Objective: Ensures balanced fertilizer use (optimal N: P: K ratio of 4:2:1) to maintain soil fertility, increase productivity, and promote sustainable agriculture.
  • Subsidy Mechanism: Subsidy is paid directly to fertilizer manufacturers/importers based on notified per-kg nutrient rates, enabling sale to farmers at affordable prices.
  • Rationale: Aims to insulate farmers from international price volatility of fertilizer inputs such as urea, DAP, MOP, and sulphur, while maintaining fiscal prudence.
  • Additional Support: Fertilizers fortified with secondary, and micronutrients are eligible for additional subsidy.
  • Institutional Role: Department of Fertilizers monitors implementation; state agriculture departments ensure field-level availability and prevent diversion.
  • Major Benefits:
    • Ensures timely and affordable access to fertilizers.
    • Promotes balanced nutrient application and soil health.
    • Supports food security and agricultural productivity.
    • Rationalizes government subsidy expenditure.
    • Encourages domestic fertilizer production and reduces import dependence.
  • Issues:
    • Exclusion of urea leads to its overuse and nutrient imbalance.
    • Rising fiscal burden; fertiliser subsidy is India’s second-largest after food subsidy.
    • Continued chemical fertiliser dependence affects long-term soil sustainability.
[UPSC 2020] With reference to chemical fertilizers in India, consider the following statements:
1. At present, the retail price of chemical fertilizers is market-driven and not administered by the Government.
2. Ammonia, which is an input of urea, is produced from natural gas.
3. Sulphur, which is a raw material for Phosphoric acid fertilizer, is a by-product of oil refineries.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
Options: (a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only* (c) 2 only (d) 1, 2 and 3

 

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Climate Change Impact on India and World – International Reports, Key Observations, etc.

[28th October 2025] The Hindu Op-ed: A start for North-South carbon market cooperation

op-ed snap | Enviro & Biodiversity | Mains Paper 3: Conservation, Environmental Pollution & Degradation, Eia

PYQ Relevance

[UPSC 2014] Should the pursuit of carbon credit and Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) set up under UNFCCC be maintained even though there has been a massive slide in the value of carbon credit? Discuss with respect to India’s energy needs for economic growth.

Linkage: The CBAM-ICM linkage revives the same carbon market logic envisioned under the UNFCCC’s CDM. It aligns India’s emission pricing with global trade, ensuring growth and decarbonisation move together.

Mentor’s Comment

The EU-India partnership is entering a decisive phase with the linking of the Indian Carbon Market (ICM) to the EU’s Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanism (CBAM), a move that could redefine global climate cooperation. For the first time, carbon prices in India will be recognized at the EU border, preventing Indian exporters from facing double penalties and paving the way for North-South market integration. However, operational hurdles, technical mismatches, and sovereignty concerns remain significant.

Why in the News

Recently, the European Union (EU) and India announced a new comprehensive strategic agenda that includes linking the Indian Carbon Market (ICM) with the EU’s Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanism (CBAM). This is the first ever initiative to integrate a developing country’s carbon pricing mechanism with a developed region’s border carbon tax system. It marks a potential breakthrough in addressing carbon leakage, ensuring fair trade, and advancing global decarbonisation. But the success of this partnership depends on overcoming institutional, technical, and political challenges.

Introduction

India’s carbon market is still evolving, while the EU’s Emissions Trading System (ETS) is among the most advanced in the world. The decision to explore a linkage between India’s system and the EU’s CBAM represents a strategic step toward equitable carbon trade. This enables exporters to receive recognition for domestic carbon prices. However, the process involves complex alignment in regulatory design, pricing structures, and compliance verification. This makes this both a historic opportunity and a significant challenge for India’s climate diplomacy.

What is the Current Status of India’s Carbon Market?

  1. Carbon Credit Trading Scheme (CCTS): India’s carbon market, under the CCTS, is still in its early stages of evolution.
  2. Institutional Framework: Built around robust auction structure, cap-setting processes, and independent verification, yet lacks full fledged coverage of sectors.
  3. Implementation Issues: Current credits often stem from project-based emissions reductions rather than comprehensive, economy wide mechanisms.
  4. Price Gap: The absence of a clear carbon price per tonne makes integration with CBAM technically difficult.
  5. Penalty Gaps: Without strong enforcement and penalties for non-compliance, credibility remains low.

Why is Linking CBAM with ICM a Big Deal?

  1. Breakthrough for Indian Exporters: Linking ensures Indian exporters are not penalised twice, once through domestic carbon pricing and again at EU borders.
  2. Incentive for Early Decarbonisation: It rewards early climate compliance, encouraging Indian industries to adopt clean technologies.
  3. Global Policy Recognition: The move signals India’s emergence as a serious carbon market player. This gives legitimacy to its domestic emissions trading framework.
  4. Bridge between North and South: The linkage promotes North–South cooperation on climate action, addressing long-standing inequities in global carbon governance.

What are the Major Challenges in Linking CBAM and ICM?

  1. Regulatory Equivalence: The EU will only deduct Indian carbon prices if market integrity and environmental standards match its ETS standards.
  2. Technical Alignment: Requires mirroring compliance-grade features of the EU ETS, a complex task for India’s bureaucratic and regulatory machinery.
  3. Carbon Price Disparity: The EU carbon price (currently €60-€80 per tonne) far exceeds India’s expected initial range (€5-€10 per tonne).
  4. Double Burden Risk: Exporters may face both EU CBAM costs and domestic compliance costs, raising fears of competitiveness loss.
  5. Political Sensitivity: Recognising EU’s CBAM could be seen as legitimising an external mechanism that India has formally resisted at WTO and COP negotiations.

What are the Broader Strategic and Economic Implications?

  1. Trade and Diplomacy: Successful integration could make India a model developing economy for carbon-trade compatibility.
  2. Industrial Decarbonisation: Linking CBAM with ICM will push industries toward clean technologies, supporting India’s Net Zero 2070 target.
  3. Geopolitical Leverage: Creates space for climate diplomacy and green technology investments from Europe.
  4. Risk of Trade Disruptions: Failure to align standards could result in EU refusing deductions, escalating trade disputes.
  5. WTO Dimension: Any misalignment could destabilise trade flows, creating tension between climate goals and trade rules.

What are the Possible Ways Forward?

  1. Institutional Strengthening: Develop a transparent, compliance-grade Indian carbon market mirroring the EU ETS structure.
  2. Pricing Reform: Establish comparable carbon price ranges and market stability mechanisms.
  3. Verification and Integrity: Set up independent verification systems recognized by EU regulators.
  4. Political Engagement: Maintain diplomatic negotiation channels to balance sovereignty with cooperation.
  5. Domestic Industry Support: Provide financial backing to exporters during transition to avoid competitiveness loss.

Conclusion

The EU-India carbon market linkage represents a defining experiment in global carbon governance. Its success will depend on institutional credibility, pricing comparability, and political balance. If executed effectively, it could become a template for future North–South cooperation, ensuring that climate responsibility is shared equitably and not imposed asymmetrically.

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Health Sector – UHC, National Health Policy, Family Planning, Health Insurance, etc.

Big Tech’s contempt for Indian Public Health

Explained | Social Justice | Mains Paper 2: Health & Education

Introduction

India’s Drugs and Magic Remedies (Objectionable Advertisements) Act, 1954 (DMRA) prohibits advertisements claiming to cure 54 specific medical conditions without proven efficacy. However, the advent of Big Tech advertising has bypassed this framework. Platforms such as Meta, Google, and others are now running sponsored ads for unapproved ayurvedic and homeopathic treatments, violating DMRA provisions. Despite clear illegality, these violations persist due to jurisdictional leniency, U.S.-based corporate protection, and absence of enforcement by Indian regulators.

Why in the News

Big Tech’s persistent advertising of unverified health products and ayurvedic “cures” on Indian social media platforms has triggered major concern. The issue marks a systemic regulatory failure, even after India’s decades-old legal framework (DMRA, PNDT Act) prohibits such practices, platforms continue to profit from misleading medical claims. The scale of harm, coupled with cross-border corporate impunity, has made this a critical governance challenge and a new frontier in public health ethics and digital accountability.

How Has Advertising in Public Health Evolved in the Digital Era?

  1. Shift from Traditional to Digital: Advertisement control has weakened as digital and social media replaced print and broadcast.
  2. Rise of Big Tech Platforms: Meta, Google, and others allow sponsored advertisements promoting “miracle cures,” violating the DMRA.
  3. Absence of Oversight: Digital platforms operate transnationally, making regulatory enforcement difficult.
  4. Public Health Implication: Continuous exposure to false medical claims undermines rational drug use and increases health risks.

Why Are Big Tech Platforms Violating Indian Law?

  1. Profit-Driven Algorithms: Platforms profit from “sponsored” or “boosted” posts, regardless of legality or health implications.
  2. Weak Accountability: Advertisers and intermediaries claim immunity as “third-party hosts,” avoiding liability under Indian law.
  3. Jurisdictional Escape: Since most Big Tech firms are headquartered in the U.S., Indian laws like DMRA lack cross-border enforcement power.
  4. Regulatory Vacuum: Absence of a unified digital advertising regulator allows platforms to function without deterrence.

What Legal Frameworks Are Being Ignored?

  1. Drugs and Magic. Remedies (Objectionable Advertisement) Act, 1954: Prohibits advertisements for 54 medical conditions; violation is a criminal offence.
  2. Pre-Conception and Pre-Natal Diagnostic Techniques (PNDT) (Prohibition of Sex Selection) Act, 1994: Bans sex-selection advertisements; Big Tech platforms earlier violated this as well.
  3. Drugs & Cosmetics Act, 1940: Requires all medicines to be clinically established before advertising.
  4. IT Act, 2000 (Section 79): Provides conditional immunity to intermediaries, which is being misused to escape responsibility.
  5. U.S. Corporate Protection: American law shields these corporations from Indian prosecution, leading to managerial impunity.

What Are the Broader Implications for Governance and Sovereignty?

  1. Erosion of Regulatory Authority: India’s ability to enforce its health and advertising laws is weakened.
  2. Public Interest vs. Corporate Freedom: Public health suffers as profit-driven digital advertising goes unchecked.
  3. Failure of Accountability Mechanisms: Courts and regulators have struggled to bring Big Tech executives under Indian jurisdiction.
  4. Threat to Rule of Law: Unequal treatment between Indian entities and global corporations undermines trust in domestic regulation.

What Policy Reforms Are Needed?

  1. Legal Recalibration: DMRA and PNDT Act need alignment with the Information Technology Act to hold intermediaries accountable.
  2. Managerial Responsibility: Indian courts should compel Big Tech executives to appear before regulators and face prosecution if violations persist.
  3. Strengthened Digital Health Advertising Rules: Mandate health ads to carry verification tags or disclaimers by government-authorized bodies.
  4. Bilateral Cooperation: India-U.S. digital diplomacy must address cross-border legal immunity for tech corporations.
  5. Institutional Oversight: Establish a Digital Health Advertising Authority (DHAA) under the Ministry of Health to oversee compliance.

Conclusion

Big Tech’s disregard for Indian health advertising laws symbolizes the intersection of technology, law, and public welfare. Without regulatory modernization and corporate accountability, digital platforms will continue to operate beyond the reach of Indian law. Ensuring managerial accountability, legal parity, and public health protection must now be central to India’s digital governance reform agenda.

PYQ Relevance

[UPSC 2023] Introduce the concept of Artificial Intelligence (AI). How does AI help clinical diagnosis? Do you perceive any threat to privacy of the individual in the use of AI in healthcare?”Introduce the concept of Artificial Intelligence (AI). How does AI help clinical diagnosis? Do you perceive any threat to privacy of the individual in the use of AI in healthcare?

Linkage: Health related topics are a recurring theme in both GS2 and GS3 papers. The growing use of AI by Big Tech in healthcare mirrors the same challenge of data misuse and weak accountability seen in misleading health advertisements. Both reflect how unchecked digital algorithms can exploit personal health data for profit, posing grave risks to privacy and public trust in India’s health governance system.

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Terrorism and Challenges Related To It

The complicated history of U.S-Pakistan relations

Explained | International Relations | Mains Paper 2: Effect Of Policies & Politics Of World On India'S Interests

Introduction

The U.S.-Pakistan relationship has oscillated between strategic intimacy and mutual distrust. Built on Cold War exigencies, it evolved through shared military interests, geopolitical bargains, and recurring disappointments. As new global alignments emerge, Pakistan’s dual engagement with China and the U.S. once again tests the durability and intent of its foreign policy choices.

Evolution of the U.S.-Pakistan Strategic Partnership

  1. Cold War Origins: Pakistan aligned with the U.S. through SEATO (1954) and CENTO (1955), positioning itself as a frontline ally against communism.
  2. Military and Economic Aid: U.S. assistance included arms, technology, and infrastructure funding, strengthening Pakistan’s military elite.
  3. Transactional Nature: The partnership thrived on mutual utility rather than shared values; Pakistan sought defense support; the U.S. sought regional leverage.

Impact of Shifting U.S. Priorities during and after the Cold War

  1. Soviet Invasion of Afghanistan (1979): The U.S. re-engaged Pakistan as a base for arming Mujahideen fighters. Aid and weapon transfers surged.
  2. Post-Withdrawal Abandonment: After Soviet withdrawal, Washington invoked sanctions under the Pressler Amendment (1990) over Pakistan’s nuclear program, halting delivery of F-16 aircraft.
  3. Cycle of Engagement and Sanctions: Every phase of cooperation was followed by punitive measures, reflecting deep distrust.

9/11 and the Recasting of the U.S.-Pakistan Ties

  1. Post-9/11 Alignment: Pakistan became a major non-NATO ally in the U.S.-led “War on Terror,” receiving over $30 billion in aid.
  2. Military Dependence: U.S. logistics for operations in Afghanistan relied heavily on Pakistani routes and intelligence.
  3. Strategic Mistrust: U.S. accused Pakistan of harboring militants while receiving counter-terrorism aid, the Osama bin Laden incident (2011) deepened suspicion.

Trump’s Policy Reversal and Conditional Engagement

  1. Harsh Rhetoric: In 2018, Donald Trump accused Pakistan of “lies and deceit”, suspending over $300 million in military aid.
  2. Focus on “Double Game”: The U.S. alleged Islamabad’s duplicity, fighting terrorism publicly while sheltering terror networks privately.
  3. China Factor: Trump’s tilt towards India and containment of China indirectly alienated Pakistan, pushing it further into Beijing’s orbit.

The China Variable and Strategic Realignment

  1. Deepening Sino-Pak Ties: The China-Pakistan Economic Corridor (CPEC) and defense collaboration highlight Pakistan’s strategic drift eastward.
  2. U.S. Withdrawal from Afghanistan (2021): Reignited Pakistan’s regional leverage but also increased scrutiny of its Taliban links.
  3. Balancing Act: Pakistan now seeks to balance its Chinese dependence with limited U.S. engagement to avoid isolation.

Sanctions, Contradictions and Mutual Suspicion

  1. Sanctions Regime: U.S. invoked multiple sanctions, Symington (1977), Pressler (1990), and Brown (1995) Amendments targeting nuclear proliferation.
  2. Contradictory Approach: Despite sanctions, Washington relied on Pakistan’s logistics during Afghan conflicts, exposing policy inconsistency.
  3. Enduring Distrust: Mutual dependence persisted but never matured into stable diplomacy, defined by suspicion rather than trust.

India’s Dimension in the Context of U.S.-Pakistan Relations

Positive Implications for India

  1. Strategic Leverage: Weakening U.S.-Pakistan ties strengthened India’s position as a reliable democratic partner in South Asia.
  2. Defence Cooperation: India gained access to advanced U.S. defence technology, joint exercises (like Malabar), and strategic dialogues (2+2 format).
  3. Global Standing: Partnership in QUAD and Indo-Pacific frameworks enhanced India’s geopolitical influence.
  4. Counterterrorism Support: U.S. alignment with India’s stance against cross-border terrorism increased diplomatic pressure on Pakistan.

Negative Implications for India

  1. Regional Instability: Strained U.S.-Pakistan ties can destabilize Afghanistan, indirectly impacting India’s security interests.
  2. China-Pakistan Nexus: The gap left by U.S. withdrawal pushed Pakistan deeper into China’s orbit via CPEC and military cooperation.
  3. U.S. Policy Unpredictability: Frequent shifts in U.S. South Asia policy raises doubts about long-term reliability.
  4. Reduced Mediation Influence: India faces difficulty in balancing ties with both U.S. and Russia amid sanctions and defence dependencies.

Way Forward

  1. Strategic Autonomy: Maintain balanced ties with all major powers while safeguarding national interests.
  2. Regional Dialogue: Promote multilateral frameworks including Afghanistan and Central Asia to counter instability.
  3. Deepened Indo-U.S. Cooperation: Expand collaboration in critical tech, energy, and intelligence without compromising sovereignty.
  4. Focus on Neighbourhood: Strengthen regional engagement to offset Pakistan’s external alignments and ensure South Asian stability.

Conclusion

The U.S.-Pakistan relationship remains an exemplar of “strategic utility without strategic trust.” Despite recurring phases of cooperation, both nations continue to perceive each other through transactional lenses. As Pakistan deepens ties with China and the U.S. recalibrates Indo-Pacific priorities, their future engagement will depend on how Islamabad reconciles its global ambitions with domestic constraints and regional realities.

PYQ Relevance

[UPSC 2019] What introduces friction into the ties between India and the United States is that Washington is still unable to find for India a position in its global strategy, which would satisfy India’s national self-esteem and ambitions’. Explain with suitable examples.

Linkage: U.S.-Pakistan ties were transactional and interest-driven, creating India’s distrust of U.S. intentions. This history causes friction in U.S.-India ties, as India seeks equality while the U.S. retains a hierarchical outlook.

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Judicial Appointments Conundrum Post-NJAC Verdict

CJI Gavai recommends J. Kant as the 53rd Chief Justice of India

Prelims Only | | Mains Paper 2: Executive & Judiciary

Why in the News?

Chief Justice of India (CJI) B.R. Gavai formally recommended Justice Surya Kant, the senior-most judge of the Supreme Court of India, as his successor and 53rd CJI.

About the Chief Justice of India (CJI):

  • Position and Authority: She/He is the head of the Supreme Court and the highest-ranking judicial officer in the Republic of India. Acts as the “Master of the Roster”, empowered to constitute benches, allocate cases, and schedule hearings.
  • Administrative and Judicial Role: Leads both judicial and administrative functions of the Supreme Court, as affirmed in State of Rajasthan v. Prakash Chand (1997). Embodies the idea of “first among equals”, where every Supreme Court judge is equal in judicial authority, though the CJI heads administration.
  • Judicial Powers (Constitutional Basis):
    • Article 145 – Constitutes Constitution Benches and interprets laws involving substantial constitutional questions.
    • Article 136 – Exercises special leave jurisdiction for appeals involving major legal principles.
    • Article 32 – Safeguards Fundamental Rights under the Court’s original jurisdiction.
  • Judicial Leadership: Shapes the jurisprudential direction of the Supreme Court through allocation of landmark constitutional cases and formation of larger benches.
  • Administrative Responsibilities:
    • Manages the Supreme Court’s roster system, case assignments, and judicial schedules.
    • Oversees registry operations, staff management, and disciplinary matters across subordinate courts.
    • Ensures judicial governance, transparency, and institutional coordination with the executive and legislature.
  • Advisory Jurisdiction (Article 143): The President of India may refer legal or constitutional questions for the Court’s advisory opinion; the CJI leads and represents the Court’s collective advisory view.
  • Appointment Process (Article 124):
    • The President appoints the CJI based on seniority convention — the senior-most Supreme Court judge is recommended by the outgoing CJI.
    • The Law Minister seeks the outgoing CJI’s recommendation, which is forwarded via the Prime Minister to the President for formal appointment.
  • Historical Exceptions:
    • Justice A.N. Ray (1973) – superseded three senior judges post-Kesavananda Bharati.
    • Justice M.H. Beg (1977) – superseded Justice H.R. Khanna after ADM Jabalpur.
  • Qualifications (Article 124(3)): Must be an Indian citizen with either:
    • 5 years as a High Court judge, or
    • 10 years as a High Court advocate, or
    • Recognition as a distinguished jurist by the President.
  • Tenure and Retirement: Holds office until age 65 under Article 124(2).
  • Removal (Article 124(4)): Possible only through impeachment by Parliament for proven misbehaviour or incapacity, requiring:
    • Majority of total membership in both Houses, and
    • Two-thirds majority of members present and voting.
[UPSC 2021] With reference to the Indian judiciary, consider the following statements:

1.  Any retired judge of the Supreme Court of India can be called back to sit and act as a Supreme Court judge by the Chief Justice of India with the prior permission of the President of India.

2. A High Court in India has the power to review its own judgment as the Supreme Court does

Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

Options:  (a) 1 only  (b) 2 only (c) Both 1 and 2 * (d) Neither I nor 2

 

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