| PYQ Relevance:
[UPSC 2023] Why did human development fail to keep pace with economic development in India?
Linkage: The report says that India’s low scores in areas like women’s jobs and health show a deep problem that is slowing down the country’s progress. Even though the economy is growing, women are still left behind in key areas. That’s why the report’s low ranking is a strong warning. |
Mentor’s Comment: The World Economic Forum’s Global Gender Gap Report 2025 has brought renewed attention to India’s poor performance in gender equality, ranking it 131 out of 148 countries. Despite being a global economic and digital power, the report highlights serious structural deficits in India, especially in women’s health, economic participation, and decision-making roles.
Today’s editorial analyses the World Economic Forum’s Global Gender Gap Report 2025 for India. This topic is important for GS Paper II (Social Justice) in the UPSC mains exam.
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Let’s learn!
Why in the News?
Recently, India was ranked very low in the World Economic Forum’s Global Gender Gap Report 2025, showing that there are serious and long-standing inequalities between men and women, especially in jobs and economic roles.
Why is India’s low gender gap ranking seen as a structural failure?
- Low Global Ranking in Gender Gap: According to the Global Gender Gap Report 2025, India ranks 131 out of 148 countries, reflecting persistent inequality in key areas such as economic participation and health. This ranking indicates a structural issue beyond isolated policy failures.
- Poor Female Labour Force Participation: India ranks 143rd in economic participation and opportunity, with women earning less than one-third of what men do. Female labour force participation remains below 25%, revealing systemic barriers to employment despite rising educational levels.
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What health barriers limit women’s economic participation in India?
- High Anaemia Prevalence: Nearly 57% of women aged 15–49 suffer from anaemia (NFHS-5), which weakens physical capacity, affects cognitive ability, and reduces safe maternal outcomes, ultimately restricting their ability to work or study.
- Gendered Gaps in Healthcare Access: Women, especially in rural and low-income groups, face inadequate access to reproductive health, preventive care, and nutrition, leading to poor health outcomes and lower life expectancy than men.
- Neglect of Women’s Health in Policy: Public health systems often fail to prioritise women’s specific needs, with underfunded primary care, weak maternal services, and poor sanitation, resulting in chronic health issues that hinder long-term workforce participation.
How does unpaid care work hinder gender equality and growth?
- Limits Women’s Workforce Participation: Indian women perform nearly seven times more unpaid domestic work than men (Time Use Survey), leaving little time for formal employment or skill development.
For instance, many women drop out of jobs after childbirth due to lack of childcare support.
- Undervalued in National Economy: Despite its economic value, unpaid care work is invisible in GDP calculations and often excluded from policy priorities. Countries like Uruguay have tried to measure and integrate care work into development plans to promote inclusive growth.
- Worsens Gender Inequality in Decision-Making: The burden of care responsibilities keeps women out of leadership roles and policy spaces, reinforcing their marginalisation in public and private institutions. Low representation of women in budget committees leads to underfunding of women-centric welfare schemes.
| Note: The Time Use Survey, conducted by the National Statistical Office (NSO) in India (latest available: 2019), provides valuable data on how individuals allocate time to various activities over a 24-hour period. |
Which global models can India adopt for care economy reforms?
- Uruguay’s Approach: The National Integrated Care System ensures universal access to services like childcare, eldercare, and disability assistance, aiming to reduce the unpaid care burden and promote professionalisation of care work.
- South Korea’s Model: Through expansive public investment in care services, including care vouchers and subsidised facilities, South Korea has enhanced female workforce participation and addressed the care gap in ageing and young populations.
- Nordic Countries’ Example: Nations like Sweden and Norway offer state-supported childcare, generous parental leave, and policies that promote shared caregiving roles, fostering strong welfare systems and improving gender equity.
What are the demographic risks of excluding women from the workforce?
- Rising Dependency Ratio: When women are excluded, fewer people contribute economically while more depend on them, especially as India’s population ages. Eg: By 2050, nearly 20% of Indians will be senior citizens, increasing the burden on a shrinking working population.
- Shrinking Labour Force: Low female participation limits the potential of India’s large youth base, reducing the nation’s demographic dividend. Eg: India’s female labour force participation was just 24% in 2023, compared to over 60% in many developing nations.
- Stagnant Economic Growth: Without women’s inclusion, GDP growth slows, and the country may miss massive income gains. Eg: McKinsey Global Institute estimated India could add $770 billion to its GDP by 2025 by closing gender gaps.
What are the demographic risks of excluding women from the workforce?
- Beti Bachao Beti Padhao (BBBP): Launched in 2015, this scheme aims to improve the child sex ratio, ensure education for girls, and raise awareness against gender discrimination.
- Pradhan Mantri Matru Vandana Yojana (PMMVY): This maternity benefit scheme provides financial support to pregnant and lactating women for their first childbirth, promoting nutrition and health.
- Mahila Shakti Kendra (MSK): MSKs offer support services at the grassroots level, including skill training, employment guidance, legal aid, and digital literacy to empower rural women.
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Way forward:
- Invest in Women-Centric Infrastructure: Enhance public spending on healthcare, childcare, and eldercare services, especially at the primary level, to support women’s well-being and free up time for economic participation.
- Institutionalize Gender-Responsive Policies: Implement gender budgeting, time-use surveys, and inclusive labour reforms to recognize unpaid care work and promote women’s entry into the formal workforce.
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Why in the News?
The ‘Maratha Military Landscapes’ of India have been inscribed on the UNESCO World Heritage List under the cultural category during the 47th session of the World Heritage Committee held in Paris.
About Maratha Military Landscapes:
- Overview: A network of 12 forts showcasing the Maratha Empire’s military architecture and strategic fortification from the 17th to 19th centuries.
- Time Period: Developed between 1670 CE (Shivaji’s era) and 1818 CE (end of Peshwa rule).
- Geographical Spread: 11 forts in Maharashtra and 1 in Tamil Nadu (Gingee Fort), covering hill, coastal, forest, plateau, and island terrains.
- Key Forts: Salher, Shivneri, Lohgad, Raigad, Rajgad, Pratapgad, Khanderi, Suvarnadurg, Panhala, Vijaydurg, Sindhudurg (Maharashtra); Gingee (Tamil Nadu).
- Types:
- Hill forts: Rajgad, Raigad
- Hill-forest: Shivneri
- Coastal: Suvarnadurg, Vijaydurg
- Island: Khanderi, Sindhudurg
- Protection:
- 8 forts by Archaeological Survey of India (ASI)
- 4 forts by Maharashtra’s Directorate of Archaeology & Museums
- Ideology: Reflects Shivaji’s military decentralization, terrain-based defense, and self-sustaining fort systems.
- Tagged under cultural criteria:
- (iii) Exceptional testimony to a cultural tradition
- (iv) Outstanding example of military architecture
- (vi) Association with historic events and traditions
What are UNESCO World Heritage Sites?
- A WHS is a landmark or area recognized for its cultural, historical, natural, or scientific value to humanity.
- It is governed by the UNESCO World Heritage Convention (1972).
- India formally signed the Convention on November 14, 1977.
- Sites are selected by the World Heritage Committee, comprising 21 elected state parties.
- Categories include:
- Cultural (e.g., forts, temples, cities)
- Natural (e.g., forests, parks, biodiversity sites)
- Mixed (having both cultural and natural value)
- Selection is based on 10 criteria (6 cultural + 4 natural); at least one must be met.
- Once inscribed, sites are eligible for global recognition, protection, and funding.
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| [UPSC 2024] Consider the following properties included in the World Heritage List released by UNESCO:
1. Shantiniketan 2. Rani-ki-Vav 3. Sacred Ensembles of the Hoysalas 4. Mahabodhi Temple Complex at Bodhgaya
How many of the above properties were included in 2023?
Options: (a) Only one (b) Only two* (c) Only three (d) All four |
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Why in the News?
The Department of Telecommunications (DoT) has launched an expanded Sanchar Mitra Scheme to engage engineering students as digital ambassadors for promoting telecom literacy, digital safety, and citizen engagement.
What is the Sanchar Mitra Scheme?
- Launching Body: An initiative by the Department of Telecommunications (DoT), Government of India.
- Primary Aim: To engage student volunteers as “Sanchar Mitras” or digital ambassadors to spread awareness about telecom-related issues.
- Purpose:
- Bridge the communication gap between citizens and the telecom ecosystem.
- Promote safe and informed use of telecom services.
- Encourage public participation in India’s digital transformation.
- Implementation Status:
- Piloted in select institutions.
- Now being scaled up for nationwide rollout.
Key Features and Highlights:
- Target Audience: It primarily targets students from engineering and technical backgrounds such as telecommunications, computer science, electronics, and cybersecurity.
- Selection of Volunteers: Students will be nominated as Sanchar Mitras in consultation with DoT field units and educational institutions.
- Training Modules: Volunteers will be trained to conduct grassroots campaigns on cyber fraud prevention, EMF radiation concerns, and responsible digital behavior.
- Training Institutions: Training will be delivered by the National Communications Academy–Technology (NCA-T) and the Media Wing of the DoT.
- Core Pillars: The scheme is structured around three key pillars: Connect, Educate, and Innovate.
- Tech Awareness Promotion: Sanchar Mitras will promote awareness on emerging telecom technologies like 5G, 6G, AI, and cybersecurity.
- Community Outreach: Students will engage with communities, NGOs, and schools to foster a culture of informed digital citizenship.
- Strategic Alignment: It aligns with India’s strength in the “Four Ds”: Democracy, Demography, Digitisation, and Delivery.
| [UPSC 2010] Which among the following do/does not belong/belongs to the GSM family of wireless technologies?
Options: (a) EDGE (b) LTE (c) DSL* (d) Both EDGE and LTE |
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Why in the News?
The Ministry of Heavy Industries (MHI) has launched E-Truck Incentive Scheme to provide financial incentives for electric trucks (e-trucks) under the PM E-DRIVE initiative.
What is E-Truck Incentive Scheme?
- Overview: It is a dedicated scheme to provide financial incentives for electric trucks under the broader PM E-DRIVE initiative.
- First-of-its-Kind Support: This is the first direct government support specifically for electric trucks to promote clean, efficient, and sustainable freight mobility.
- Target Vehicle Categories: It targets N2 and N3 category trucks, as per Central Motor Vehicle Rules (CMVR):
- N2: GVW above 3.5 tonnes up to 12 tonnes
- N3: GVW above 12 tonnes up to 55 tonnes
- Incentive for Articulated Vehicles: For articulated vehicles, the incentive applies only to the puller tractor of the N3 category, not the trailer.
- Warranty Requirements:
- Battery: 5 years or 5 lakh km, whichever comes first
- Motor & Vehicle: 5 years or 2.5 lakh km
- Incentive Details:
- Based on Gross Vehicle Weight (GVW)
- Maximum support capped at ₹9.6 lakh per e-truck
- Incentives are given as upfront discounts, reimbursed to Original Equipment Manufacturers (OEMs) through the PM E-DRIVE portal
- Deployment Goal: It aims to support the deployment of 5,600 electric trucks across India.
- 1,100 trucks reserved for Delhi, with ₹100 crore allocated due to high pollution levels
- Mandatory Scrappage Clause: To qualify, applicants must scrap an old diesel truck via scrappage centres approved by the Ministry of Road Transport and Highways (MoRTH).
- Sectoral Impact: It is expected to benefit sectors like steel, ports, cement, and logistics by reducing fuel costs and improving air quality.
About PM E-DRIVE Scheme:
- Overview: It stands for Prime Minister’s Electric Drive Revolution in Innovative Vehicle Enhancement, launched by the Ministry of Heavy Industries in September 2024.
- Long-Term Goal: To to foster an EV ecosystem, reduce carbon emissions, and help India achieve Net Zero emissions by 2070.
- Budget Allocation: It has a total outlay of ₹10,900 crore for two years, aimed at accelerating India’s electric mobility transition.
- Scope and Coverage: It supports multiple vehicle categories: Two-wheelers; Three-wheelers; Electric trucks; Electric buses and Electric ambulances.
- Demand Incentive: It provides direct demand incentives to buyers through OEMs, lowering the upfront cost of EVs.
- Category-wise Allocation:
- ₹3,679 crore: For two-wheelers, three-wheelers, ambulances, and trucks
- ₹500 crore: Specifically for electric ambulance procurement
- ₹4,391 crore: To procure 14,028 electric buses in 9 major cities (Delhi, Mumbai, Kolkata, Chennai, Ahmedabad, Surat, Bangalore, Pune, Hyderabad)
- Charging Infrastructure: ₹2,000 crore allocated to build 72,300 public charging stations nationwide, including:
- Fast chargers for four-wheelers, buses, two-wheelers, and three-wheelers
- Digital E-Voucher System:
- Incentives claimed through Aadhaar-authenticated e-vouchers
- Signed digitally by both buyer and dealer for transparency
- Vehicle Scrappage Mandate: Scrapping of old vehicles is mandatory to claim certain incentives, especially for electric trucks, promoting fleet modernization.
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| [UPSC 2025] Consider the following types of vehicles:
I. Full battery electric vehicles II. Hydrogen fuel cell vehicles III. Fuel cell electric hybrid vehicles
How many of the above are considered as alternative (powertrain) vehicles?
Options: (a) Only one (b) Only two (c) All the three* (d) None |
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Why in the News?
Mizoram Governor has imposed Governor’s Rule in the Chakma Autonomous District Council (CADC) due to prolonged political instability and repeated leadership changes.
About Autonomous District Councils (ADCs):
- Basis: They are local self-governing institutions established under the Sixth Schedule of the Indian Constitution.
- Coverage: ADCs are constituted in tribal areas of the northeastern states—Assam, Meghalaya, Tripura, and Mizoram (ATM2).
- Purpose: These councils aim to provide autonomy to tribal communities to preserve their culture, customs, and govern their local affairs.
- Notification: Each tribal area notified under the Sixth Schedule is declared an autonomous district, governed by its respective ADC.
- Objective: The primary objectives of ADCs are to promote tribal self-governance, ensure local development, and protect tribal identity and rights.
Key Features of ADCs
- Legal Status: ADCs are formed through constitutional provisions under the Sixth Schedule and are not governed by state laws.
- Council Composition: Each ADC comprises up to 30 members, of which 26 are elected by adult suffrage and 4 are nominated by the Governor.
- Tenure: The tenure of an ADC is 5 years from the date of its constitution.
- Scope of Authority: ADCs have legislative, executive, and limited judicial powers specific to the needs of tribal communities.
- Applicability of Laws: State and Central laws do not automatically apply in ADC areas unless explicitly extended by the Governor.
Powers and Functions of ADCs:
- Law-Making Powers: ADCs can enact laws on land management, agriculture, and forest use (excluding reserved forests).
- Customary Regulations: They can regulate inheritance, marriage, divorce, and social customs, and appoint traditional chiefs and headmen.
- Local Administration: It oversee services such as primary education, dispensaries, roads, markets, and fisheries.
- Judicial Functions: Councils can establish village courts to try civil and criminal cases involving tribal members, with sentencing powers up to five years.
- Regulation of Trade: They may regulate money lending and trade by non-tribals, subject to Governor’s approval.
- Revenue Sources: It can levy taxes on professions, trades, animals, vehicles, markets, ferries, and public infrastructure like roads and schools.
Autonomy and Limitations:
- Degree of Autonomy: ADCs enjoy substantial legislative and administrative autonomy within their territorial jurisdiction.
- Non-Applicability of General Laws: Parliamentary and State laws apply only when directed by the Governor, ensuring self-rule.
- Governor’s Oversight: Despite autonomy, the Governor retains discretionary powers and can approve, modify, or annul council decisions.
- Financial Constraints: ADCs often face limited revenue generation, which restricts their developmental effectiveness.
- Administrative Challenges: Operational issues include leadership instability, shortage of trained personnel, and state-level interference in council functions.
| [UPSC 2015] The provisions in Fifth Schedule and Sixth Schedule in the Constitution of India are made in order to:
Options: (a) protect the interests of Scheduled Tribes * (b) determine the boundaries between States (c) determine the powers, authority and responsibilities of Panchayats (d) protect the interests of all border States |
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Why in the News?
The International Criminal Court (ICC) has issued arrest warrants for senior Taliban leaders in Afghanistan over the persecution of women, a crime against humanity.
About the International Criminal Court (ICC):
- Established: 2002 under the Rome Statute (1998); headquartered at The Hague, Netherlands.
- Nature: First permanent international court to try individuals for grave crimes.
- Jurisdiction over 4 core crimes:
- Genocide
- Crimes against humanity
- War crimes
- Crime of aggression
- Members: 124 States Parties
- NON-members: India, China, USA, Russia, Israel, Ukraine
- Structure:
- Office of the Prosecutor – investigates and prosecutes cases.
- 18 Judges – elected for 9 years.
- Assembly of States Parties – governs ICC administration.
- Trust Fund for Victims, Detention Centre
- Languages: English, French, Arabic, Chinese, Russian, Spanish
- Funding: Annual budget (2025) ~ €195 million (mostly from member states)
Reach of an ICC Warrant:
- Applicability:
- Crimes by nationals of member states
- Crimes committed on member state territory
- UNSC referrals can extend jurisdiction to non-member states (e.g., Libya, Darfur)
- Obligations on States:
- Member states must execute arrest warrants and cooperate fully.
- Non-compliance can be reported to Assembly of States Parties or UN Security Council (for UNSC referrals)
- Challenges:
- ICC lacks an independent enforcement mechanism
- Non-members (e.g., US, Russia) are not bound to cooperate
- Political and diplomatic constraints hinder the execution of warrants
- Special Mechanisms: ICC established an Arrest Working Group (2016) to enhance warrant enforcement through better intelligence-sharing.
| [UPSC 2019] Consider the following statements:
1.The International Criminal Court (ICC) has jurisdiction to prosecute nationals of even those States that have not ratified the Rome Statute.
2. The International Criminal Court is a ‘court of last resort’ intended to complement national judicial systems.
3. The United Nations Security Council can refer a situation to the Prosecutor of the ICC even if the State concerned is not a party to the Statute.
Which of the statements given above are correct?
Options: (a) 1 and 3 only (b) 2, 3 and 4 only (c) 2 and 4 only (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4* |
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Why in the News?
Recent U.S. domestic policies on universities, companies, and immigration are causing short-term economic pain for India. However, they also offer long-term strategic opportunities. These changes may indicate the end of Pax Americana.
Why do U.S. policy shifts offer both risks and opportunities for India?
Opportunities for India:
- Manufacturing Opportunity: As U.S.–China tensions disrupt global supply chains, India can attract companies looking to diversify production. Eg: Apple shifting iPhone assembly to India reflects the country’s growing role as a China+1 manufacturing hub.
- Chance to Implement Bold Domestic Reforms: With reduced global dependence, India can focus on strengthening its internal systems through deregulation, decentralisation, and investment in human capital. Eg: A proposed 180-day plan calls for cutting compliance burdens, empowering state governments, and granting autonomy to top institutions like IITs and IIMs.
- Higher Education and Innovation Ecosystem: As American universities face political and financial pressure, India can position its institutions as global research and innovation leaders. Eg: Granting “poorna swaraj” (full autonomy) to institutions like IISc, Ashoka, and IITs can help them climb global university rankings and drive home-grown R&D.
Risks for India:
- Decline in Remittances and Student Enrolment: Stricter U.S. immigration and visa policies can reduce the flow of Indian students and workers, affecting remittances and global exposure. Eg: H-1B visa tightening under Trump led to fewer Indian tech workers entering the U.S., impacting remittancesand brain circulation.
- Disruption to Exports and Supply Chains: Protectionist trade measures and tariffs can disrupt India’s export-dependent sectors like software, pharmaceuticals, and electronics.
What impact has U.S. research and immigration had on India’s growth?
- Skilled Immigration: Indian immigrants in the U.S. contribute significantly to tech and scientific advancement, creating reverse knowledge flow to India. Over 70% of H-1B visas (2022) were granted to Indians, many of whom later founded companies or returned with expertise. Eg: Infosys, Wipro, and TCS have benefited from U.S.-trained professionals in leadership and innovation roles.
- High Remittances Fueling Economic Stability: Indian diaspora in the U.S. contributes a major share of remittance inflows, supporting India’s foreign exchange reservesand rural economy. According to the World Bank (2023), the U.S. contributed over $23 billion in remittances to India, nearly 25% of India’s total remittance receipts.
- Advancing Indian R&D and Education: U.S. federal funding has indirectly boosted India’s scientific growth through collaborations and return migration. The National Institutes of Health (NIH) funded research contributed to 99% of new drugs approved between 2010–2019. Eg: Indian researchers trained in U.S. labs or funded via U.S.-India Science and Technology Forum (USISTEF)have driven innovation in biotech, vaccines, and AI in India.
What does a weakening Pax Americana mean for India’s strategy?
Pax Americana refers to the period of relative global peace and stability under the dominance of the United States, particularly after World War II.
- Push for Strategic Autonomy and Multipolar Engagement: As U.S. dominance declines, India must strengthen ties with multiple global powers while maintaining independence in foreign policy. India’s active role in BRICS, QUAD, and IMEC reflects efforts to diversify strategic partnerships and avoid overdependence on any one nation.
- Accelerated Domestic Reforms for Economic Resilience: With global uncertainty, India needs internal strength through deregulation, decentralisation, and investment in infrastructure and skills. PLI schemes, Digital Public Infrastructure, Make in India, and self-reliance efforts show a move toward economic resilience.
- Enhanced Role in Global Governance and Norm Setting: A weakening U.S. opens space for India to shape the global agenda in climate change, digital governance, and international trade. India’s G20 presidency and promotion of Digital Public Infrastructure as a global good underline its leadership in global norm-setting.
What are the key reforms that can boost India’s global economic standing? (Way forward)
- Simplification: Simplifying regulations for employers by reducing compliance burdens, redundant filings, and removing criminal penalties in business laws can foster a more business-friendly environment. A focused 180-day plan to cut red tape would significantly improve ease of doing business and attract global investors.
- Decentralisation: Decentralising power to States and cities by transferring funds, functions, and personnel empowers local governments to drive regional economic development. This enhances capacity for targeted innovation and creates globally competitive manufacturing ecosystems.
- Autonomy: Empowering higher education and research institutions like IITs, IISc, and IIMs through full autonomy allows them to innovate, form global collaborations, and improve their position in international rankings.
Mains PYQ:
[UPSC 2018] How would the recent phenomena of protectionism and currency manipulations in world trade affect the macroeconomic stability of India?
Linkage: The rise of protectionism, which can be associated with policies like “Make America Great Again” mentioned in the article, signifies a shift in global trade dynamics. This question asks about the impact of such phenomena on India’s macroeconomic stability, underscoring the need for India to adapt and strengthen its economy in response to these global changes.
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Why in the News?
The Indian government recently claimed that India is among the world’s most equal societies, citing a Gini Index of 25.5 from the World Bank’s Poverty and Equity Brief, which would place India as the fourth most equal country globally. However, this claim has sparked debate and criticism from economists and inequality researchers.
What is the Gini Index?
The Gini Index (or Gini coefficient) is a statistical measure of inequality within a population. It is commonly used to measure income or wealth inequality, but can also be applied to consumption inequality. |
What are the flaws in using consumption-based Gini to measure inequality?
- Underestimates Real Inequality: Consumption is usually smoother than income because high earners tend to save more rather than spend proportionately. This leads to an underestimation of inequality. Eg: A billionaire may consume modestly while saving most income, appearing similar to a middle-class consumer in surveys, but with vastly different wealth.
- Poor Cross-Country Comparability: India uses consumption-based data while most other countries use income-based Gini, making international comparisons misleading. Eg: India’s Gini of 25.5 (consumption-based) appears more equal than OECD countries, but income-based Gini (62) shows much higher inequality.
- Low survey participation: Surveys often miss the richest due to non-response or sampling issues, failing to reflect the real inequality they contribute to. Eg: The richest 1% earn disproportionately more, but their low survey participation leads to underreported inequality.
Why is the World Inequality Database seen as more reliable?
- Uses Income and Wealth Tax Data: Unlike consumption surveys, WID incorporates income tax and wealth tax data, which captures the top 1% of earners often missed in surveys. Eg: WID shows India’s income Gini Index rose from 52 in 2004 to 62 in 2023, revealing growing inequality missed by consumption-based metrics.
- Captures Extreme Disparities: WID focuses on distributional national accounts, helping identify disparities between the top 10% and bottom 50%, which Gini often misses. Eg: In 2023-24, the top 10% in India earned 13 times more than the bottom 10%, a gap accurately captured by WID.
- Global Comparability and Peer Review: WID data is transparent, methodologically standardised, and peer-reviewed by global economists, making it a trusted source for cross-country comparison. Eg: Countries like France and the US use WID for policy framing on progressive taxation and redistribution.
What are the alternatives to the Gini Index that better reflect extreme disparities?
- Palma Ratio: The Palma Ratio compares the income share of the top 10% to that of the bottom 40%, focusing directly on income inequality between the rich and poor. Eg: In countries like South Africa, the Palma Ratio highlights stark disparities that are often missed by the Gini Index.
- Theil Index (Generalized Entropy Measures): The Theil Index allows for decomposition of inequality within and between population groups like rural vs urban. Eg: In Brazil, it has been used to analyze racial and regional disparities more precisely than the Gini Index.
What are the policy risks of underestimating inequality?
- Misguided Policy Design: When inequality is underestimated, governments may prioritize growth-focused policies without ensuring inclusive development. This can lead to insufficient investment in social protection, health, and education for marginalized groups.
- Widening Socioeconomic Gaps: Underestimating inequality allows elite capture of resources and opportunities, worsening wealth concentration. This can deepen inter-generational poverty, especially for rural, low-caste, and female-led households.
- Social and Political Instability: Failure to address real inequality can fuel public discontent, protests, and even extremism. It undermines trust in institutions and weakens democratic legitimacy over time.
What are the policy risks of underestimating inequality?
- Misguided Policy Priorities: Underestimating inequality leads to policies focused only on aggregate growth, neglecting equity. Eg: India’s high GDP growth often overshadowed poor social investment in rural health and education, worsening human development gaps.
- Weak Targeting of Welfare Schemes: If inequality is not accurately measured, social protection may miss the truly needy. Eg: Exclusion errors in schemes like PDS or PM-KISAN arise because top income groups are not properly excluded due to lack of granular data.
- Rising Social Unrest and Distrust: Ignoring inequality can result in resentment, protests, and political instability. Eg: Farmer protests in India reflected deeper rural-urban income divides and perceived neglect of smallholder concerns.
Way forward:
- Improve Data Collection Methods: Strengthen surveys by combining consumption data with income tax records, and ensure better representation of top income groups to capture true inequality.
- Adopt Comprehensive Inequality Metrics: Use alternative indicators like the Palma Ratio or income shares of top 10% vs bottom 50%, alongside the Gini Index, for a more accurate assessment.
- Design Inclusive Policy Frameworks: Align fiscal policies, welfare schemes, and tax reforms with accurate inequality data to target marginalized groups effectively and reduce social and regional disparities.
Mains PYQ:
[UPSC 2024] Despite comprehensive policies for equity and social justice, underprivileged sections are not yet getting the full benefits of affirmative action envisaged by the Constitution. Comment.
Linkage: This question critically examines the effectiveness of current policies intended to reduce inequality and promote social justice. It suggests that, despite official claims or stated objectives, the intended benefits are not effectively reaching the marginalised groups, thereby raising doubts about the actual progress in reducing inequality. It reflects the broader issue of implementation challenges in governance.
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PYQ Relevance:
[UPSC 2019] Empowering women is the key to control population growth”. Discuss
Linkage: The PYQ’s focus on “Empowering women” directly reflects this crucial aspect of granting individuals, particularly young women, the choice and control over their bodies and lives. The article further elaborates that true empowerment means equipping adolescents, especially girls, with the skills, education, and opportunities. |
Mentor’s Comment: The World Population Day 2025 has reignited global and national discussions on youth empowerment, reproductive rights, and falling fertility rates. With the theme “Empowering young people to create the families they want in a fair and hopeful world”, the UN highlights the need for informed reproductive choices and access to health, education, and economic opportunities, especially for India’s large youth population. The day also coincides with the release of the UNFPA’s State of World Population Report 2025, which warns that the real fertility crisis lies not in declining birth rates, but in the unmet reproductive goals due to financial, social, and infrastructural constraints.
Today’s editorial analyses the youth empowerment, reproductive rights, and falling fertility rates. This topic is important for GS Paper I (Indian Society) in the UPSC mains exam.
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Let’s learn!
Why in the News?
Recently, World Population Day 2025 has brought renewed attention to global and national debates on empowering youth, ensuring reproductive rights, and addressing the challenges of declining fertility rates.
Why is youth empowerment essential for harnessing India’s demographic dividend?
- India’s youth population is a major economic asset: With over 371 million people aged 15–29, India has the world’s largest youth population. If equipped with quality education, skills, health, and family planning services, this segment can become a powerful engine of economic growth and innovation.
- Youth empowerment boosts national productivity and employment: Empowered youth can significantly reduce unemployment and enhance social outcomes. According to the World Bank and NITI Aayog, unlocking youth potential could increase India’s GDP by up to $1 trillion by 2030.
- Empowerment ensures participation in nation-building: By promoting reproductive autonomy, gender equality, and economic independence, youth, especially young women, can participate in decision-making and shape their futures, contributing meaningfully to sustainable development.
What barriers hinder reproductive autonomy and fertility choices in India?
- Limited access to family planning services and information: A significant share of the population lacks access to modern contraceptives, comprehensive sexual and reproductive health education, and counselling. Eg: According to the UNFPA State of World Population Report 2025, 36% of Indian adults faced unintended pregnancies, while 30% had unmet reproductive goals, reflecting systemic gaps in reproductive healthcare access.
- Socio-cultural norms and gender inequality: Patriarchal attitudes, early marriages, and taboos around women’s reproductive rights often prevent young women from making independent fertility decisions. Eg: Though child marriage rates have declined, they remain high at 23.3% (NFHS-5, 2019–21), indicating how cultural practices continue to limit women’s reproductive autonomy.
- Economic insecurity and structural barriers: Financial constraints, lack of housing, quality childcare, and secure employment inhibit couples from achieving their desired family size. Eg: A UNFPA survey found that 38% of Indian respondents cited financial limitations and 22% housing constraintsas major reasons for not fulfilling fertility aspirations.
How have schemes tackled child marriage and women’s empowerment?
- Promoting girls’ education to delay early marriages: Schemes like Project Udaan in Rajasthan focused on keeping girls in secondary school using government scholarships, reducing the incidence of child marriage and teenage pregnancy.
- Enhancing reproductive health awareness and services: Programmes such as Udaan and Advika improved access to modern contraceptives and sexual and reproductive health education, thereby strengthening reproductive agency among young women.
- Empowering adolescents through life skills and leadership training: The Advika programme in Odisha helped prevent child marriage by providing life-skills training, leadership development, and child protection awareness across thousands of villages.
- Fostering economic independence and employment: Project Manzil, implemented in Rajasthan, aligned skill training with young women’s aspirations and connected them to gender-sensitive workplaces, empowering over 16,000 women with employment and negotiation power.
- Engaging communities to shift social norms: Behaviour change strategies under projects like Manzil worked to challenge harmful gender norms and involved families and communities, leading to reduced resistance against girls’ education and work.
Why should population discourse focus on rights and gender equity over fertility panic?
- Respecting reproductive autonomy prevents coercion: Framing falling fertility as a “crisis” can lead to target-driven pronatalist policies that pressure women to reproduce, threatening their right to bodily autonomy. Eg: In countries like Hungary and Iran, such policies have led to restrictions on abortion and contraception, undermining women’s freedom.
- Empowering women yields long-term social gains: Promoting gender equality, economic participation, and education for women improves both fertility decisions and broader development outcomes. Eg: Nordic countries like Sweden focus on workplace equality and parental leave, ensuring women can choose when and whether to have children.
- Inclusive policy design avoids harmful stereotyping: Fertility panic often ignores the needs of those who want children but face barriers, while blaming those who are voluntarily childfree. Eg: The UNFPA’s 2025 report shows that 40% of respondents globally had to forgo childbearing due to financial and structural obstacles, not personal choice.
What can India learn from global responses to fertility decline?
- Focus on enabling choices, not coercion: Countries like South Korea have spent billions on pronatalist incentives, but results remained limited until recent societal support systems (e.g., childcare, housing, and financial aid) improved. India must prioritize voluntary reproductive agency over target-driven incentives.
- Promote gender equity in workforce and caregiving: Fertility policies that reinforce traditional gender roles have backfired. Instead of pressuring women to bear more children, countries like Sweden have boosted fertility by promoting gender-equal parenting, paternal leave, and women’s employment, which India can emulate.
Way forward:
- Invest in rights-based reproductive health systems: Ensure universal access to quality contraceptives, safe abortion, maternal care, and infertility services, while safeguarding individuals’ reproductive autonomy through accurate health education and gender-sensitive policies.
- Shift from fertility targets to gender equity: Focus on empowering women through education, economic independence, and childcare support, instead of promoting pronatalist incentives that risk reinforcing patriarchal norms and limiting personal choices.
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Why in the News?
Recently, a span of a 40-year-old bridge collapsed in Vadodara, Gujarat, on July 9, sending multiple vehicles into the Mahisagar river and resulting in the death of 18 people.
What causes recurring public infrastructure failures in India?
- Ageing and outdated infrastructure: Many structures like the Morbi suspension bridge (2022) in Gujarat had exceeded their intended lifespan, yet continued to be in use without adequate upgrades.
- Overuse and overload beyond design capacity: Bridges and roads originally designed for lower traffic volumes now face high urban and industrial load, as seen in the Indrayani pedestrian bridge collapse in Pune (2024) due to overloading.
- Neglect and poor maintenance: Lack of routine inspections and maintenance led to incidents like the Vadodara bridge collapse (2024), where locals had raised concerns that were ignored by authorities.
- Institutional inefficiency and under-resourcing: Municipal and local bodies often remain understaffed and underfunded, unable to monitor and maintain growing infrastructure needs, especially in peri-urban areas.
- Lack of accountability and transparency: Even after fatal accidents like the Mizoram railway bridge girder collapse (2023), failure analysis reports are rarely made public, limiting systemic learning and corrective action.
What is Peri-urban infrastructure?
Peri-urban infrastructure refers to the basic facilities and services (like roads, bridges, water supply, drainage, electricity, etc.) found in the transitional zones between urban and rural areas. |
Why is peri-urban infrastructure more prone to collapse?
- Unregulated and informal urban expansion: Peri-urban areas often develop without proper zoning laws, building codes, or infrastructure planning. This results in substandard construction, making infrastructure vulnerable to collapse. In many Indian outskirts, flyovers and water systems are built around unplanned colonies, lacking load assessment.
- Jurisdictional ambiguity and poor coordination: Peri-urban regions often fall between urban and rural governance structures, leading to confusion in responsibility for maintenance and oversight. In Delhi NCR’s fringes, conflicts between municipal bodies and panchayats delay repair and auditing of key infrastructure.
- Low visibility and weak political prioritization: These areas lack media attention and political pressure seen in core urban centres, resulting in deferred maintenance. In Hyderabad’s outer zones, repeated complaints about weakening culverts were ignored until seasonal floodingcaused failure.
How can AMRUT and UIDF improve asset upkeep?
- Focused maintenance and retrofitting: AMRUT 2.0 prioritizes the retrofitting of old urban infrastructure such as pipelines, water supply, and sewerage systems. Eg: In cities like Agra and Pune, AMRUT funding has helped upgrade outdated drainage systems to prevent floodingand infrastructure degradation.
- Targeted financial support for smaller cities: UIDF provides low-cost loans to Tier-2 and Tier-3 cities that often lack budgetary resources for upkeep. Eg: In peri-urban areas of Madhya Pradesh, UIDF enabled the repair of worn-out roads and bridges strained by rapid population growth.
- Promotion of digital monitoring and audits: Both schemes encourage the use of geo-tagging and digital tracking tools to monitor asset health and schedule timely repairs. Eg: Cities like Bhubaneswar and Surat use AMRUT-linked dashboards to track infrastructure health and flag issues before failures occur.
What gaps delay audits and accountability post-collapse?
- Jurisdictional overlap between agencies: Multiple departments—urban development, public works, and local bodies—often share responsibility for infrastructure. This leads to confusion over which authority must initiate audits after a collapse. Eg: After a flyover collapse in Hyderabad, delays occurred as both the GHMC and state PWD passed the responsibility to each other.
- Political interference and blame-shifting: In high-profile accidents, inquiries are sometimes delayed or diluted due to political pressures or attempts to shield influential contractors. Eg: In the Kolkata Vivekananda flyover collapse (2016), early accusations were politicized, stalling a clear and prompt audit process.
Way forward:
- Establish a unified statutory audit authority: Create a dedicated, independent body responsible for conducting post-collapse audits across all public infrastructure, ensuring timely investigations, clear jurisdiction, and mandatory public disclosure of findings.
- Implement real-time digital monitoring systems: Use GIS mapping, IoT sensors, and AI-based predictive maintenance tools to track structural health and alert authorities proactively, minimizing risks and improving accountability.
Mains PYQ:
[UPSC 2014] Explain how Private Public Partnership arrangements, in long gestation infrastructure projects, can transfer unsustainable liabilities to the future. What arrangements need to be put in place to ensure that successive generations’capacities are not compromised?
Linkage: The article highlights several incidents of catastrophic public infrastructure failures in India, such as a 40-year-old bridge collapse in Vadodara, a pedestrian bridge collapse in Pune, and a metro pillar collapse in Bengaluru. This PYQ is highly relevant as it directly addresses the critical themes of long-term infrastructure management, potential liabilities, and ensuring future capacity.
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Why in the News?
Recently, the Supreme Court of India has intervened in the ongoing Special Intensive Revision (SIR) of electoral rolls in Bihar, urging the Election Commission (EC) to consider documents like Aadhaar, EPIC, and ration cards as valid identity proof.
Why did the SC question Aadhaar’s exclusion from voter ID documents?
- Widespread Use for Identity Verification: The Court noted that Aadhaar is one of the most widely used and accepted documents for establishing identity in India. It questioned why Aadhaar, considered essential for obtaining various official documents, was excluded while documents like caste certificates were included.
- Relevance to Identity, Not Citizenship: The Court emphasized that the Special Intensive Revision (SIR) process is about verifying identity, not citizenship. Since Aadhaar serves that purpose effectively, its exclusion lacked justification.
- Non-Exclusivity of Document List: The Court highlighted that the Election Commission’s list of 11 acceptable documents was not exhaustive, and in the interest of justice, Aadhaar, EPIC, and ration cards should also be considered valid for voter registration.
What issues surround the timing and conduct of the SIR in Bihar?
- Short and Rigid Timelines: The Supreme Court noted that the 30-day deadlines for citizens to verify and submit documents were too short, raising concerns about procedural fairness.
- Unclear Classification of SIR: The Court observed that the Bihar SIR was neither “summary” nor “special” as defined under Section 21 of the Representation of the People Act, 1950, making the exercise appear legally ambiguous.
Why is Aadhaar controversial in proving voter citizenship?
- Not a Proof of Citizenship: The Aadhaar Act clearly states that Aadhaar is meant for identity verification, not citizenship confirmation. It can be issued to non-citizens who are residents, which makes it unreliable as evidence for voting eligibility.
- Risk of Inclusion Errors: Using Aadhaar may result in non-citizens being wrongly enrolled as voters due to data inaccuracies or misuse, thereby compromising the integrity of the electoral rolls.
- High Dependence Among Marginalised Groups: In regions like Bihar, 87% of people have Aadhaar, but few possess documents like passports or matriculation certificates. If Aadhaar is excluded, vulnerable citizens risk disenfranchisement, raising concerns about equity and access.
What are the issues related to the Adhaar Card and NPR in India?
- Overlap of Purpose and Confusion on Citizenship: While Aadhaar is officially a tool for identity verification and welfare delivery, and NPR is for creating a register of residents, their perceived linkage with citizenship screening (especially post-CAA debate) has led to widespread fear and confusion. Eg: During the 2020 NPR update, several states (e.g., West Bengal, Kerala) halted implementation, citing concerns over its potential use for citizenship determination.
- Privacy and Data Security Concerns: Both Aadhaar and NPR involve massive collection of personal data, but the legal and technological safeguards for privacy and misuse remain inadequate. Aadhaar has faced leaks, while NPR has been criticised for seeking sensitive demographic data without clear purpose. Eg: In 2018, UIDAI acknowledged multiple cases where Aadhaar data was accessible through public domains or appswithout authorisation.
- Exclusion due to Documentation Gaps: Aadhaar and NPR can inadvertently exclude individuals lacking proper documentation—especially the poor, migrants, or marginalised groups—from public services or the voter list. Eg: Reports from Jharkhand revealed cases where lack of Aadhaar linkage led to denial of PDS rations, contributing to hunger-related deaths.
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Way forward:
- Strengthen Legal Safeguards and Clarity: Enact clear legislative guidelines to distinguish the roles of Aadhaar, NPR, and citizenship documentation, ensuring they are not misused for exclusionary practices. A robust data protection law must accompany these measures.
- Promote Inclusion and Transparency: Ensure all government identity and registration drives are conducted with public awareness, grievance redressal mechanisms, and opt-out provisions for vulnerable groups, to prevent exclusion and build trust in institutions.
Mains PYQ:
[UPSC 2014] Two parallel run schemes of the Government viz. the Adhaar Card and NPR, one as voluntary and the other as compulsory, have led to debates at national levels and also litigations. On merits, discuss whether or not both schemes need run concurrently. Analyse the potential of the schemes to achieve developmental benefits and equitable growth.
Linkage: This PYQ directly relates to the essence of the statement “Consider Aadhaar, EPIC, ration card as proof” by focusing on the Aadhaar Card and the debates and implications surrounding its use as a governmental tool.
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Why in the News?
The United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), in its latest Frontiers 2025 report titled The Weight of Time, has warned that increased river and coastal flooding caused by climate change could unearth dangerous legacy pollutants from water bodies.
About Legacy Pollutants:
- Definition: Legacy pollutants refer to toxic substances like heavy metals and persistent organic pollutants (POPs) that continue to remain in the environment even decades after their use has been banned or restricted.
- Examples:
- Heavy Metals: Lead, Cadmium, Mercury, Arsenic.
- Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs):
- Pesticides: DDT (Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane), Aldrin, Endrin, Chlordane.
- Industrial Chemicals: PCBs (Polychlorinated Biphenyls), Dioxins, Furans.
- By-products: Produced from incineration, metal smelting, and waste burning.
- Persistence: These substances are highly resistant to environmental degradation and accumulate in riverbeds, lakes, estuaries, and other sediment-rich ecosystems.
- Health Hazards: Even at low exposure levels, legacy pollutants can cause: Neurotoxicity (nervous system damage), Immunotoxicity (immune disruption), Hepatotoxicity (liver damage), Reproductive toxicity (infertility, birth defects), Carcinogenicity (various cancers), Endocrine disruption etc.
- Sources:
- Past industrial practices, use of banned agricultural chemicals, and obsolete pesticide stockpiles.
- Improperly managed chemical landfills, which still hold an estimated 4.8–7 million tonnes of POP waste globally.
Key Highlights of Frontiers 2025: The Weight of Time (UNEP):
- Retreat of Toxins: Climate change-induced flooding can unearth and redistribute toxic legacy pollutants from contaminated sediments into the environment and food chain.
- How? Floodwaters re-suspend heavy metals and POPs trapped in sediment.
- Case Studies Cited:
- Hurricane Harvey (Texas, 2017): Released mercury and carcinogenic chemicals from flood-induced sediment dispersal into Galveston Bay.
- Niger Delta Floods (Nigeria, 2012): Mobilised Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs) from oil-contaminated sediments.
- Pakistan Floods (2010 & 2022): Washed away obsolete pesticide stockpiles, spreading DDT and other POPs into floodwaters and soils.
- India-Specific Findings:
- Sediments of Ganga, Hindon, and Vaigai Rivers show dangerously high levels of Cadmium.
- Cadmium is a known carcinogen and endocrine disruptor, with potential to cause kidney, bone, and reproductive harm.
- Ayad and Vaigai Rivers also showed up deadly levels of Lead concentration.
| [UPSC 2016] Which of the following can be found as pollutants in the drinking water in some parts of India?
1. Arsenic 2. Sorbitol 3. Fluoride 4. Formaldehyde 5. Uranium
Options: (a) 1 and 3 only (b) 2, 4 and 5 only (c) 1, 3 and 5 only* (d) 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 |
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Why in the News?
The National Education Society for Tribal Students (NESTS) and UNICEF India launched TALASH (Tribal Aptitude, Life Skills and Self-Esteem Hub), a first-of-its-kind national initiative for holistic development of tribal students in Eklavya Model Residential Schools (EMRSs).
About the TALASH Initiative:
- Overview: TALASH (Tribal Aptitude, Life Skills and Self-Esteem Hub) is a national programme launched by the National Education Society for Tribal Students (NESTS) in partnership with UNICEF India.
- Target Group: It is aimed at the holistic development of tribal students studying in Eklavya Model Residential Schools (EMRSs) across the country.
- Objectives: The initiative fosters self-awareness, emotional resilience, life skills, and career clarity among tribal youth.
- Focus: It is the first national initiative in India designed specifically for tribal students.
- Broader Policy: TALASH aligns with the National Education Policy 2020, promoting inclusive, equitable, and competency-based education.
- Coverage Goal: Over 1,38,336 students across 28 States and 8 Union Territories are expected to benefit.
- Implementation: By the end of 2025, TALASH aims to be implemented in all EMRSs nationwide.
Key Features of TALASH:
- Psychometric Assessments:
- Inspired by NCERT’s ‘Tamanna’, TALASH offers aptitude tests to help students discover their interests, abilities, and potential.
- Based on the results, students receive Career Cards suggesting suitable career options.
- Career Counselling: The platform offers structured career guidance to help students make informed decisions aligned with their strengths and aspirations.
- Life Skills & Self-Esteem Modules: TALASH teaches communication, problem-solving, emotional regulation, and self-confidence through interactive modules.
- E-Learning for Teachers:
- A dedicated online portal provides training and resources to teachers to help them mentor students effectively.
- So far, 189 teachers from 75 EMRSs have been trained to lead school-level sessions.
| [UPSC 2017] With reference to ‘National Skills Qualification Framework (NSQF)’, which of the statements given below is/are correct?
1. Under NSQF, a learner can acquire the certification for competency only through formal learning.
2. An outcome expected from the implementation of NSQF is the mobility between vocational and general education.
Select the correct answer using the code given below:
Options: (a) 1 only (b) 2 only* (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2 |
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Why in the News?
Researchers from Birbal Sahni Institute of Palaeosciences (BSIP), Lucknow, have found strong evidence that the Kashmir Valley, now cool and temperate, was once a warm, humid subtropical region.
About the Study on Fossils:
- Site of Fossil Discovery: The fossils were recovered from the Karewa sediments of the Kashmir Valley, known for preserving ancient plant remains.
- Analysis: Researchers used CLAMP (Climate Leaf Analysis Multivariate Program) to analyze fossil leaf shape, size, and margins to estimate past temperature and rainfall patterns.
- Coexistence Approach: It was also used, comparing fossil plants with their modern relatives to reconstruct the region’s ancient climate.
Key Findings:
- Past Climate Type: The Kashmir Valley once had a warm, humid subtropical climate, very different from the cool, Mediterranean-type climate it experiences today.
- Vegetation Evidence: Fossilized leaves showed diverse subtropical plant types no longer found in the region’s current vegetation.
- Role of Tectonic Uplift: The tectonic uplift of the Pir Panjal Range was identified as a key factor that blocked the Indian summer monsoon from entering the valley.
- Climatic Transition: This led to gradual drying of the region and a shift from subtropical forests to temperate ecosystems.
- Impact of Mountain-Building: The study shows that mountain-building (tectonic uplift) can directly affect climate patterns by altering monsoon routes.
- Relevance to Climate Change: The findings provide insight into natural climate shifts over millions of years, helping contextualize modern climate change.
- Ecological Vulnerability: It also highlights the fragility of mountain ecosystems like the Himalayas, which are vulnerable to both natural and human-induced environmental changes.
Back2Basics:
- Karewa Sediments: They are plateau-like terraces in the Kashmir Valley, made up of lacustrine (lake) and fluvio-glacial deposits; They are known to preserve ancient fossils, especially of plants.
- Subtropical Climate: A warm and humid climate with moderate to high rainfall, supporting dense vegetation. Ex: Climate of northeastern India.
- Mediterranean-Type Climate: Characterized by mild, wet winters and hot, dry summers; Ex: Current climate of parts of the Kashmir Valley.
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| [UPSC 2025] Which of the following are the evidence of the phenomenon of continental drift?
I. The belt of ancient rocks from Brazil coast matches with those from Western Africa. II. The gold deposits of Ghana are derived from the Brazil plateau when the two continents lay side by side. III. The Gondwana system of sediments from India is known to have its counterparts in six different landmasses of the Southern Hemisphere.
Options: (a) I and III only (b) I and II only (c) I, II and III * (d) II and III only |
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Why in the News?
Union Home Minister recently highlighted that 83% of issues discussed in Zonal Council meetings have been resolved, reaffirming their role as effective platforms for intergovernmental cooperation.
What are Zonal Councils?
- Establishment: They are statutory bodies established under the States Reorganisation Act, 1956; they are not constitutional bodies.
- Purpose: Their main goal is to promote cooperation and coordination among states, union territories, and the central government.
- Basis for Zoning: Zones were drawn based on natural divisions, cultural and linguistic affinity, river systems, and security needs.
- Zonal Division: India is divided into five zones—Northern, Central, Eastern, Western, and Southern—with a separate Zonal Council for each:
-
- Northern Zonal Council: Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Jammu & Kashmir, Punjab, Rajasthan, Delhi, Chandigarh
- Central Zonal Council: Chhattisgarh, Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh
- Eastern Zonal Council: Bihar, Jharkhand, Odisha, West Bengal
- Western Zonal Council: Goa, Gujarat, Maharashtra, Dadra & Nagar Haveli, Daman & Diu
- Southern Zonal Council: Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Puducherry
Note:
- North-Eastern Council (NEC) (separate body): Assam, Arunachal Pradesh, Manipur, Tripura, Mizoram, Meghalaya, Nagaland, Sikkim (added in 2002)
- The union territories of Andaman and Nicobar Islands and Lakshadweep are NOT members of any of the Zonal Councils. However, they are presently special invitees to the Southern Zonal Council.
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Composition and Structure of Zonal Councils:
- Chairperson: Each Zonal Council is chaired by the Union Home Minister.
- State Representation: The Chief Ministers of all states in the respective zone are members of the Council.
- Additional Members: Each state nominates two additional ministers; administrators of union territories also participate.
- Vice-Chairperson Role: The role of Vice-Chairperson rotates annually among the Chief Ministers.
- Standing Committees: These are formed with Chief Secretaries of states and meet ahead of full sessions to finalize the agenda.
Functions and Responsibilities:
- Cooperation & Consensus: Promote interstate and Centre-state cooperation through dialogue and consensus-building.
- Key Issues Addressed: Economic and social planning, Border disputes, Inter-state transport, Linguistic minority concerns etc.
- Advisory Role: While the councils’ recommendations are advisory, they play a vital role in dispute resolution and coordinated policy formulation.
Recent Developments and Significance:
- Leadership in NEC: In 2018, the Union Home Minister became the Chairperson of the North Eastern Council, signaling a push for broader integration.
- Revitalization under Modi Government: Zonal Councils have evolved into dynamic, action-oriented platforms rather than passive advisory bodies.
- Strengthening Federalism: These councils now actively contribute to cooperative federalism, resolve disputes, and accelerate regional development.
- Efficacy in Implementation: With 83% of agenda issues resolved, Zonal Councils demonstrate increasing political will and effectiveness in addressing regional challenges.
| [UPSC 2013] Which of the following bodies is/are not mentioned in the Indian Constitution?
1. National Development Council 2. Planning Commission 3. Zonal Councils
Select the correct answer using the codes given below.
Options: (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2 only (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3 |
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Why in the News?
The International Buddhist Confederation (IBC) recently celebrated Ashadha Purnima, also known as Dhammachakra Pravartana Divas at Mulagandha Kuti Vihara, Sarnath.
About Dhammachakra Pravartana Divas:
- First Sermon: It marks the day when Gautama Buddha delivered his first sermon after attaining enlightenment.
- Date of Observance: The day is observed annually on the full moon of Ashadha (Ashadha Purnima), usually in July.
- Name and Location: The sermon, called Dhammacakkappavattana Sutta, was delivered at Deer Park (Isipatana), Sarnath, near Varanasi.
- Core Teachings Introduced: It laid the foundational teachings of Buddhism by introducing the Four Noble Truths and the Noble Eightfold Path.
- Formation of Sangha: His five former ascetic companions—Kaundinya, Bhaddiya, Vappa, Mahanama, and Assaji—became the first monks of the Buddhist Sangha.
- Symbolic Representation: The Dharma Chakra (Wheel of Dharma) symbolizes this “turning of the wheel of law” and spread of the Buddha’s teachings.
- Significance:
- Monastic Practice: It marks the beginning of the Varsha Vassa, a three-month monastic retreat during the rainy season.
- Religious Importance: It is the second most important Buddhist festival after Buddha Purnima.
Modern Day Significance:
- Ambedkarite Movement: In India, it is also significant for commemorating Dr. B.R. Ambedkar’s conversion to Buddhism with his followers at Deekshabhoomi, Nagpur (14 October 1956).
- Social Commitment: On this day, millions reaffirm their commitment to Buddhist values and the 22 vows taken to renounce caste-based discrimination.
- Global Observance: The day is celebrated internationally under various names—Esala Poya (Sri Lanka), Asanha Bucha (Thailand), and Asadha Purnima (India).
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Tap to read more about philosophical tenets of Buddhism.
Back2Basics: Buddhist Councils
| Council |
Date & Venue |
Patron & President |
Objective |
Key Outcomes |
| 1st Buddhist Council |
483 BCE, Rajagriha (Bihar) |
Ajatashatru (Haryanka dynasty), Presided by Mahakasyapa |
To preserve the Buddha’s teachings after his Mahaparinirvana |
– Vinaya Pitaka compiled by Upali (rules for monks)
– Sutta Pitaka compiled by Ananda (discourses of Buddha) |
| 2nd Buddhist Council |
383 BCE, Vaishali (Bihar) |
Kalasoka (Shishunaga dynasty), Presided by Sabakami |
To resolve disputes over lax discipline and the ‘Ten Points’ followed by Vaishali monks |
– Split into Sthaviravadins (orthodox) and Mahasamghikas (liberal)
– Reaffirmation of stricter Vinaya rules |
| 3rd Buddhist Council |
247 BCE, Pataliputra (Patna) |
Ashoka (Maurya dynasty), Presided by Moggaliputta Tissa |
To eliminate heretical monks and consolidate Buddhist doctrine |
– Compilation of Abhidhamma Pitaka
– Composition of Kathavattu (philosophical debates)
– Launch of Buddhist missions to 9 countries |
| 4th Buddhist Council |
72 CE, Kashmir |
Kanishka (Kushan dynasty), Presided by Vasumitra (with Asvaghosha) |
To formalize doctrines and address doctrinal splits |
– Formal split into Hinayana and Mahayana schools
– Compilation of Vibhasha Sastras (commentaries) |
| 5th Buddhist Council |
1871 CE, Mandalay (Burma) |
Burmese Monarchy |
To preserve Buddhist texts |
– 729 stone slabs inscribed with the Pali Canon
– Considered a Burmese affair; not internationally recognized |
| 6th Buddhist Council |
1954 CE, Yangon (Burma) |
Burmese Govt & International Sangha |
To commemorate 2500 years of Buddhism and preserve Theravada canon |
– Global recitation and review of entire Pali Canon
– Participation from monks across Buddhist countries |
| [UPSC 2008] The concept of Eight-fold path forms the theme of-
Options: (a) Dipavamsa (b) Divyavadana (c) Mahaparinibban Sutta (d) Dharma Chakara Pravartana Sutta* |
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PYQ Relevance:
[UPSC 2024] What is disaster resilience? How is it determined? Describe various elements of a resilience framework. Also mention the global targets of the Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction (2015-2030).
Linkage: This PYQ, focusing on “disaster resilience” and “Disaster Risk Reduction (DRR),” provides an excellent framework to discuss how catastrophe bonds (cat bonds) function as a financial planning tool for natural disasters. The article “Catastrophe Bonds: Insuring India’s Future Against Disasters” directly addresses the need for such instruments in India’s disaster management strategy. |
Mentor’s Comment: Catastrophe bonds (cat bonds) are in the spotlight as India explores innovative disaster risk financing amid rising climate-related calamities. With low disaster insurance penetration, India is considering cat bonds to strengthen post-disaster response, reduce fiscal shocks, and lead a regional South Asian initiative. Global success stories and India’s proactive mitigation funding have revived interest in adopting this financial tool.
Today’s editorial analyses the Catastrophe bonds (cat bonds). This topic is important for GS Paper III (Disaster Management) in the UPSC mains exam.
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Let’s learn!
Why in the News?
As climate change causes more frequent disasters, countries and insurers are using cat bonds to manage risk. These bonds help raise funds from markets for recovery and rebuilding after disasters.
What are catastrophe bonds?
- Catastrophe bonds are risk-linked securities that transfer disaster risk from issuers (usually governments or insurers) to investors. They are triggered when a predefined catastrophic event (like an earthquake, cyclone, or flood) occurs.
- Eg: The World Bank issued cat bonds for Mexico and Pacific Island countries to cover tropical cyclone and earthquake risks.
How do they function as instruments for disaster risk financing?
- Governments (sponsors) pay premiums, and the principal becomes the insured sum; if a disaster hits, investors lose their principal, which goes to recovery. Intermediaries like the World Bank issue the bond, ensuring reliability and reduced counter-party risk.
- They ensure quicker payouts, reduce dependency on budget allocations, and transfer risk away from insurers to global markets.
Why is disaster risk insurance penetration low in India?
- Lack of Awareness and Financial Literacy: Many individuals, especially in rural and hazard-prone areas, are unaware of the importance or availability of disaster insurance. Eg: Farmers vulnerable to floods or droughts often rely on government relief instead of purchasing crop insurance.
- High Premium Costs and Perceived Low Returns: Insurance premiums are often considered unaffordable or unnecessary, especially when disasters seem unlikely in the short term. Eg: Urban households in seismic zones like Delhi-NCR rarely insure homes against earthquakes.
- Limited Private Sector Participation and Poor Outreach: The insurance market remains underdeveloped, with few disaster-specific products and limited last-mile delivery mechanisms. Eg: MSMEs in coastal Odisha remain uninsured despite repeated cyclone exposure due to poor insurer penetration.
How can cat bonds address this gap?
- Access to Global Capital Markets: Cat bonds transfer disaster risk from governments to global investors, increasing the funding pool for post-disaster recovery. Eg: After Hurricane Maria (2017), Mexico accessed $150 million via a World Bank-backed cat bond, enabling rapid relief.
- Ensure Quick Payouts for Emergencies: Cat bonds use trigger-based mechanisms (e.g. earthquake magnitude, wind speed) to enable fast disbursement of funds. Eg: In 2021, the Philippines received $52.5 million within weeks after Typhoon Rai, due to pre-agreed cat bond triggers.
- Reduce Fiscal Pressure on Governments: Pre-disaster financing through cat bonds helps avoid budget shocks and reduce dependency on ad-hoc aid or borrowing. Eg: A cyclone-risk cat bond for Bay of Bengal can pre-finance relief for Odisha and Andhra Pradesh.
How can India benefit from a regional South Asian cat bond?
- Shared Risk Pooling for Cost Efficiency: By joining a regional cat bond with countries like Nepal, Bangladesh, and Sri Lanka, India can pool disaster risks, reducing the premium burden and increasing affordability. Eg: The Pacific Catastrophe Risk Insurance Company (PCRIC) pools risk for Pacific island nations, lowering overall costs.
- Boosts Regional Cooperation and Preparedness: A shared bond encourages joint early warning systems, emergency planning, and data sharing, improving collective disaster readiness. Eg: SAARC Disaster Management Centre can coordinate common triggers and payout parameters across South Asia.
- Access to Larger and Diverse Capital Markets: A regional bond can attract more global investors by offering diversified risk, improving fund availability post-disaster for quick response and recovery. Eg: The World Bank’s Southeast Asia Disaster Risk Insurance Facility (SEADRIF) supports countries like Laos and Myanmar through pooled financing.
What are the key risks in designing and implementing cat bonds?
- Basis Risk (Mismatch Between Trigger and Actual Loss): There’s a risk that the bond may not pay out even when severe losses occur, if the predefined trigger (e.g., earthquake magnitude or rainfall level) is not met, undermining trust and utility.
- High Setup and Transaction Costs: Cat bonds require specialized modeling, legal structuring, and investor engagement, which may be too complex or expensive for lower-income or disaster-prone regions without external support.
Why should India diversify its disaster financing amid climate risks?
- Rising Frequency and Intensity of Disasters: Climate change is increasing the number of extreme weather events like floods, cyclones, and droughts. Sole reliance on budgetary support and relief funds is unsustainable, making diversified financing (like cat bonds, parametric insurance) essential.
- Reducing Fiscal Burden and Ensuring Faster Relief: A diversified disaster financing system helps minimize delays in post-disaster response and lessens pressure on state and central budgets, allowing for quick payouts and resilient recovery.
Way forward:
- Promote Risk-Based Financing Instruments: Encourage the use of catastrophe bonds, parametric insurance, and public-private partnerships to diversify disaster risk funding and ensure timely payouts.
- Strengthen Institutional Capacity and Data Systems: Develop robust disaster risk assessment tools, improve climate modelling, and integrate early warning systems to design effective and credible financial instruments.
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Why in the News?
Recently, three schoolchildren lost their lives on Tuesday (July 8, 2025) when a fast-moving passenger train hit their school van at a manned railway crossing in Semmankuppam, Cuddalore district, Tamil Nadu, and dragged it for about 50 metres. The Railways should make sure that all manned level crossings have interlocked gates for better safety.
What makes non-interlocked crossings more dangerous than interlocked ones?
- Non-interlocked crossings rely solely on the gatekeeper’s alertness and manual judgment.
- Interlocked gates are linked to train signals, which only turn green if the gate is securely closed, ensuring safety.
- Human error is more likely at non-interlocked gates, leading to higher risk of accidents.
Why are non-interlocked gates still in use despite safety concerns?
- Delayed Infrastructure Projects: Projects to replace non-interlocked gates with overbridges or interlocked systems often face delays due to land acquisition and administrative hurdles. Eg: In Cuddalore, an underpass project funded by Indian Railways remained pending for over a year due to lack of clearance by local authorities.
- Resource and Budget Constraints: The cost of upgrading thousands of level crossings requires significant investment, which may be postponed due to competing budgetary priorities.
- Dependence on Manual Operation: Gatekeepers often face pressure from impatient motorists to open gates quickly, leading to protocol violations. Without automation, safety depends solely on their discretion and alertness.
How do delays in land acquisition hinder safety infrastructure projects?
- Stalls Construction of Critical Structures: Projects like railway overbridges (ROBs) and underpasses cannot begin without legal possession of land, leading to prolonged delays. Eg: In Bihar, the construction of a railway overbridge in Araria district was delayed by over 3 years due to disputes over land ownership and compensation, leaving an accident-prone level crossing operational.
- Escalates Project Costs Over Time: Delays increase material and labour costs, making projects financially unviable or deprioritised later. ROBs planned years earlier often need revised budgets due to inflation and changing land prices.
- Keeps High-Risk Crossings Operational: Until new infrastructure is built, dangerous level crossings remain in use, putting lives at risk. Eg: Many non-interlocked gates in Southern Railway zone remain active due to delayed land acquisition for safer alternatives.
What are the steps taken by the Indian Government to improve railway crossing safety?
- Phasing Out Unmanned Level Crossings (UMLCs): The Indian Railways eliminated all UMLCs on broad gauge lines by January 2020 to reduce accidents. Eg: Over 5,900 UMLCs were removed between 2014 and 2020 across Indian Railways.
- Construction of Road Overbridges (ROBs) and Underpasses: Railway and State Governments jointly fund ROBs and underpasses to eliminate level crossings altogether. Eg: The Setu Bharatam Project aims to build 208 ROBs across India to improve safety.
- Awareness and Training Programmes: Regular safety awareness drives and training for gatekeepers and the public are being undertaken. Eg: Campaigns like “Mission Zero Accident” educate local communities and railway staff about level crossing safety protocols.
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Why must Indian Railways urgently upgrade level crossings?
- Prevent Fatal Accidents Due to Human Error: Non-interlocked crossings rely on manual judgment, making them prone to errors and tragic mishaps.
- Enhance Operational Efficiency and Safety: Interlocked and automated systems ensure smoother train operations and reduce delays caused by manual gate coordination. Eg: Northern Railway’s use of interlocked gates near busy junctions like Ghaziabad has improved train punctuality and road traffic flow.
- Reduce Pressure and Risk on Gatekeepers: Manual crossings burden gatekeepers with high responsibility and risk of protocol violations under pressure from motorists.
Way forward:
- Accelerate Conversion to Interlocked Crossings: Prioritise high-risk and high-traffic areas for upgrading non-interlocked gates to fully interlocked systems with automated signalling to eliminate human error.
- Fast-Track Land Acquisition for Infrastructure Projects: Implement time-bound clearances and simplified procedures for land acquisition to ensure timely construction of overbridges and underpasses, replacing hazardous level crossings.
Mains PYQ:
[UPSC 2024] What is the technology being employed for electronic toll collection on highways? What are its advantages and limitations? What are the proposed changes that will make this process seamless? Would this transition carry any potential hazards?
Linkage: The PYQ asks about technology making a process “seamless”. The article explicitly states that interlocked gates, unlike non-interlocked systems, ensure that “train signals turn green only when gates are securely locked”. This technology-driven interlocking mechanism is presented as a “foolproof solution to prevent such fatal incidents”, as it removes the sole reliance on a gatekeeper’s alertness.
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Why in the News?
Recently the Prime Minister highlighted that India supported Namibia’s freedom not just through words, but by taking real action.
How has India’s support for Namibia’s independence shaped their present bilateral relationship?
- Early International Advocacy (1946): India was one of the first countries to raise the issue of Namibia’s independence at the United Nations in 1946. This early support positioned India as a committed ally in Namibia’s anti-colonial struggle.
- Support to SWAPO Liberation Movement: India supported the South West Africa People’s Organisation (SWAPO) by providing material and diplomatic backing. Eg: India hosted SWAPO’s first diplomatic mission, helping it gain global recognition and legitimacy.
- Solidarity through Non-Aligned Movement (NAM): India used platforms like the Non-Aligned Movement to advocate for Namibia’s decolonisation and anti-apartheid goals.
- Diplomatic Engagement Post-Independence (1986 onwards): India established formal diplomatic ties with Namibia soon after its independence. Eg: Recently PM of India recalled Dr. Sam Nujoma (Namibia’s founding father) as a “great friend of India”, indicating deep post-independence relations.
- Contemporary Strategic and Development Partnership: The historical goodwill has translated into strong current ties, such as MoUs on health, entrepreneurship, and digital payments (UPI). Eg: In 2024, Namibia signed agreements to adopt India’s UPI system and joined India-led initiatives like the Global Biofuel Alliance and CDRI.
Why is India promoting UPI and digital infrastructure in Africa?
- Strengthening Digital Public Goods Diplomacy: India aims to share its low-cost, inclusive digital platforms like UPI to empower developing nations. Eg: A technology licensing agreement was signed to enable the launch of UPI in an African country later this year.
- Enhancing South-South Cooperation and Soft Power: Promoting digital tools fosters mutual growth, strengthens India-Africa ties, and showcases India’s leadership in the Global South. Eg: India emphasized the approach to “build together, not compete” with African nations through technology collaboration.
- Creating New Economic and Strategic Opportunities: Digital infrastructure export opens markets for Indian fintech companies and strengthens strategic presence in Africa. Eg: Collaboration with a central bank in Africa boosts financial inclusion and deepens bilateral economic ties.
How is India’s Africa policy distinct from that of other global powers?
| Dimension |
India’s Africa Policy |
Other Global Powers |
Eg |
| Focus on Partnership, Not Extraction |
Emphasises co-development and local capacity building |
Often focus on resource extractionor project-linked conditionalities |
India–Ethiopia: Helped set up sugar factories and agricultural training centers. China–DR Congo: Heavy investment in mining (cobalt and copper) with limited local value addition. |
| Non-interference and Historic Ties |
Respects sovereignty; supported liberation movements historically |
Some powers have intervened for strategic interests |
India–Namibia: Supported SWAPO during its liberation struggle.
France–Mali: Military interventions in Sahel region. |
| Technology and Human Development |
Exports digital tools, education, and healthcare tech to promote self-reliance |
Focus often on physical infrastructure with tied loans or conditions |
India–Namibia: UPI digital payment rollout and MoUs in health. China–Kenya: Built railways under debt-based model. |
What is the importance of Namibia joining India-led global initiatives?
- Strengthening South-South Cooperation: Namibia’s participation enhances solidarity among developing nations and reflects mutual trust in India’s leadership on global platforms. Eg: By joining the Global Biofuel Alliance, Namibia aligns with India’s push for sustainable and clean energy transitions in the Global South.
- Boosting Regional Resilience and Climate Preparedness: Joining initiatives like the Coalition for Disaster Resilient Infrastructure (CDRI) helps Namibia build climate-resilient infrastructure and better manage disaster risks.
Why does India emphasise cooperation over competition in the Global South?
- Fostering Equal Partnerships for Sustainable Development: India builds development-focused partnerships without imposing conditions, supporting capacity building in fellow Global South nations. Eg: In 2024, India partnered with Tanzania to set up an IT Centre of Excellence and offer scholarships under the Indian Technical and Economic Cooperation (ITEC) programme, focusing on local skill development.
- Promoting Inclusive Digital Public Infrastructure: India shares its digital platforms to empower nations with affordable, scalable technology solutions. Eg: India signed an MoU with Mauritius to extend Unified Payment Interface (UPI) services, enabling secure and inclusive digital transactions to support financial inclusion.
Mains PYQ:
[UPSC 2015] Increasing interest of India in Africa has its pros and cons. Critically examine.
Linkage: This question provides a broad framework to discuss India’s engagement with Africa, allowing for an analysis of both the benefits of cooperation (as highlighted in the Namibia article) and any potential challenges or implications of India’s growing interest in the continent.
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Why in the News?
Researchers conducted the most precise global comparison of 10 Optical Atomic Clocks to pave the way for redefining the second by 2030, replacing Caesium Clocks with more accurate Optical ones.
Definition of a Second:
- The current SI unit of time is based on caesium-133 (Cs) atomic clocks.
- In 1967, one second was defined as the duration of 9,192,631,770 cycles of radiation corresponding to the transition between two hyperfine levels of the ground state of a Cs-133 atom.
- In these clocks, a microwave signal is tuned until Cs atoms react maximally, ensuring the frequency is precisely 9,192,631,770 Hz.
- Frequency dividers count this microwave frequency, providing one tick per second, thus realizing the SI second.
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About Caesium Atomic Clocks:
- Overview: Caesium atomic clocks are devices that define the current SI unit of time (second) using the oscillation frequency of caesium-133 atoms.
- SI Second Standard: One second is defined as the duration of 9,192,631,770 cycles of microwave radiation corresponding to the transition between two energy levels of the caesium-133 atom.
- Working Principle: These clocks work by tuning microwave signals to resonate with caesium atoms and then counting the resulting waves to measure time precisely.
- Stability and Usage: They are highly stable and have been used since 1967 to set international time standards.
- Applications: They are used in GPS systems, telecommunications, scientific research, and by national metrology institutions like India’s National Physical Laboratory (NPL).
- Accuracy: A typical caesium atomic clock loses about one second every 300 million years.
What are Optical Atomic Clocks?
- Overview: They are advanced timekeeping devices that use optical (visible light) frequency transitions in atoms like Strontium (Sr) or Ytterbium (Yb).
- Measurement Basis: These clocks measure time based on the oscillation of light emitted when atoms transition between energy levels at hundreds of trillions of Hz.
- Example Frequencies:
- Strontium: ~429 trillion Hz
- Ytterbium ions: over 642 trillion Hz
- Precision Tools: They require lasers and optical frequency combs to count these rapid oscillations accurately.
- Future Standard: They are being tested worldwide and are expected to replace caesium clocks by 2030 for redefining the SI second.
How Optical Atomic Clocks are Better than Caesium ones?
- Higher Frequency Operation: Optical clocks operate at much higher frequencies, allowing division of time into finer intervals.
- Improved Precision: By counting 10,000 times more oscillations per second, optical clocks achieve significantly higher precision and stability.
- Unmatched Accuracy: An optical atomic clock using strontium reportedly drifts by less than one second in 15 billion years, compared to 300 million years for caesium clocks.
- Advanced Applications: Their precision is critical for: Next-gen GPS systems, Gravitational wave detection, Climate monitoring and research etc.
- Ultra-High Synchronization: Optical clocks enable cross-continental synchronization at 18 decimal place accuracy, essential for global time coordination.
- Noise Resilience: They offer greater resistance to environmental noise and external disturbances, improving long-term reliability.
| [UPSC 2023] Which one of the following countries has its own Satellite Navigation System?
Options: (a) Australia (b) Canada (c) Israel (d) Japan* |
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