Why in the News?
Researchers at the Indian Institute of Science (IISc) have created an artificial metal-based nanozyme that can help prevent dangerous blood clotting, especially in conditions like pulmonary thromboembolism (PTE) and COVID-19.
What is Blood Clotting?
- About: When we get a cut or injury, our body quickly stops the bleeding by forming a blood clot. This is done by special blood cells called platelets that stick together and seal the wound.
- Control mechanism: This natural process is called blood clotting or haemostasis and is controlled by certain chemicals in our body like collagen and thrombin.
- Post covid issues: But in some illnesses like pulmonary thromboembolism (PTE) or COVID-19, the body sends too many signals to make clots, even when there is no injury.
- Oxidative Stress: This creates a problem called oxidative stress, where harmful molecules called Reactive Oxygen Species (ROS) build up in the blood. These ROS molecules over-activate the platelets, causing them to make too many clots inside blood vessels.
- Hazards: This can block blood flow, leading to serious health issues like heart attacks, strokes, or lung problems. This condition is called thrombosis, and it can be life-threatening.
Vanadium-Based Nanozyme and Its Features:
- Purpose and Design: Scientists at IISc developed vanadium-based nanozymes to mimic natural antioxidant enzymes that reduce ROS levels.
- How they work: The nanozymes control oxidative stress by copying glutathione peroxidase, an enzyme that removes ROS and protects platelets.
- Optimal Structure: Spherical-shaped vanadium pentoxide (V₂O₅) nanozymes were found to be the most effective.
- Test Results in Mice: These nanozymes reduced blood clots and improved survival in PTE-affected mice with no toxicity signs over five days.
- Next Steps: Scientists plan to test the nanozyme in ischemic stroke and are optimistic about human clinical trials after promising lab results with human platelets.
| [UPSC 2015] With reference to the use of nano-technology in health sector, consider the following statements:
1. Targeted drug delivery is made possible by nanotechnology.
2. Nanotechnology can largely contribute to gene therapy.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
Options: (a) 1 only (b) 2 only (c) Both 1 and 2* (d) Neither 1 nor 2 |
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Why in the News?
The Centre will bring a motion of removal against a Judge of the Allahabad High Court and has initiated the process of building an all-party consensus for this action.
Qualifications of Judges of High Court:
- Article 217(2) of the Constitution states that a person is qualified if:
- They have held judicial office in India for at least 10 years, or
- Have been an advocate in a High Court (or more than one in succession) for at least 10 years.
- Tenure: As per Article 217(1), a High Court judge holds office till the age of 62 years.
- Disputes over Age: Under Article 217(3), if a question arises regarding a judge’s age, the President, in consultation with the CJI, makes the final decision.
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Appointment Process of High Court Judges:
- Constitutional Basis: The Article 217 of the Constitution provides that High Court judges are appointed by the President of India after consultation with the Chief Justice of India (CJI), the Governor of the state, and, in the case of judges (not Chief Justices), the Chief Justice of the High Court concerned.
- Role of the Collegium System: The Collegium, comprising the CJI and 2 senior-most judges of the Supreme Court, plays a key role in recommending names for appointments. It ensures collaborative decision-making and maintains the independence of the judiciary.
- Procedure:
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- The Chief Justice of the High Court initiates the recommendation.
- The proposal is forwarded to the Chief Minister, who advises the Governor.
- The Governor sends it to the Union Law Minister, who places it before the Prime Minister, and then the President for final approval.
- Policy for Chief Justices: To prevent local bias, Chief Justices of High Courts are generally appointed from outside the state.
- Appointments and Transfers: The CJI and senior judges of the Supreme Court also decide on transfers of High Court judges, ensuring judicial autonomy and minimizing executive influence.
Removal:
- Process: Judges of the High Court (and Supreme Court) can only be removed through removal, not by executive action.
- Requires a motion signed by at least 100 Lok Sabha MPs or 50 Rajya Sabha MPs.
- The motion is examined by a three-member committee.
- If the committee finds grounds, the motion is debated and must be passed by a two-thirds majority in both Houses of Parliament.
- Legal Framework: The Judges (Inquiry) Act, 1968 outlines the detailed procedure for investigating and acting upon misconduct by judges.
- In-House Inquiry Mechanism: For internal disciplinary matters:
- The CJI may order a preliminary inquiry based on credible complaints.
- A three-judge panel is constituted if allegations are serious.
- If the committee confirms misconduct, the CJI may ask the judge to resign.
- If the judge refuses, the judicial work is withdrawn, and removal may be considered.
Historical Removal Efforts:
- No judge has been impeached in India, though attempts have been made, including the failed motions against Justice V Ramaswami (1993) and Justice Soumitra Sen (2011).
- Justice V Ramaswami (1993): Faced removal for financial misconduct, but the motion failed in the Lok Sabha.
- Justice Soumitra Sen (2011): Resigned after removal proceedings for misappropriating funds.
- Justice K Veeraswamy: Chief Justice of Madras HC, investigated for corruption but challenged the investigation. The case remained unresolved until his death in 2010.
- Justice Shamit Mukherjee (2003), Justice Nirmal Yadav (2008), and Justice SN Shukla (2017): Faced criminal charges for corruption after in-house inquiries found substantial evidence against them.
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| [UPSC 2007] Consider the following statements:
1. The mode of removal of a Judge of a High Court in India is the same as that of the removal of a Judge of the Supreme Court. 2. After retirement from office, a permanent Judge of a High Court cannot plead or act in any court or before any authority in India.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
Options: (a) 1 only* (b) 2 only (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2 |
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Why in the News?
The Hon’ble Supreme Court has ruled that any law passed by Parliament or a State Legislature cannot be considered an act of contempt of court.
Supreme Court’s Verdict on the Issue:
- Context: The Court heard a 2012 contempt plea, alleging that the Chhattisgarh government violated its 2011 ruling against supporting Salwa Judum and arming tribals as SPOs.
- Disputed Law: Petitioners argued the Chhattisgarh Auxiliary Armed Police Force Act, 2011 violated the earlier ruling.
- Court’s Clarification: Passing a new law is within the plenary powers of legislatures and cannot be treated as contempt unless declared unconstitutional.
- Proper Remedy: The correct approach is to challenge the law’s validity, not to file for contempt.
- Separation of Powers: The Court upheld that legislature can modify or override judgments through new laws, if they respect constitutional boundaries.
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About Contempt of Court:
- Purpose: Contempt of court refers to actions or behaviors that are disrespectful to, or that obstruct or interfere with, the administration of justice by a court. It protects the authority and dignity of the judiciary from acts that obstruct or interfere with justice.
- Constitutional Basis:
- Article 129 allows the Supreme Court to punish for its own contempt.
- Article 215 grants the same power to High Courts.
- Article 19(2) permits reasonable speech restrictions for contempt cases.
- Legal Definition: The Contempt of Courts Act, 1971 defines contempt; the 2006 amendment allows truth and good faith as defences.
- Types:
- Civil Contempt is the wilful disobedience of court orders.
- Criminal Contempt involves actions that scandalise the court, interfere with proceedings, or obstruct justice.
- Punishment: Offenders may face up to 6 months imprisonment, or a ₹2,000 fine, or both.
- What Is Not Contempt: Fair reporting and genuine criticism of judgments after disposal are not considered contempt.
| [UPSC 2022] Consider the following statements:
1. Pursuant to the report of H.N. Sanyal Committee, the Contempt of Courts Act, 1971 was passed.
2. The Constitution of India empowers the Supreme Court and the High Courts to punish for contempt of themselves.
3. The Constitution of India defines Civil Contempt and Criminal Contempt.
4. In India, the Parliament is vested with the powers to make laws on Contempt of Court.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
Options: (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 1, 2 and 4* (c) 3 and 4 only (d) 3 only |
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Why in the News?
The Indian government has proposed a phased winding down of the National Polio Surveillance Network (NPSN), a WHO-established network critical to tracking and eliminating polio in India.
About National Polio Surveillance Network (NPSN):
- Launch : The NPSN was established in 1997 as a collaboration between the World Health Organization (WHO) and the Ministry of Health and Family Welfare (MoHFW), Government of India.
- Objective: Its main goal is to detect and monitor the poliovirus in India to enable quick response and containment.
- Operational Structure: The network functions under the National Polio Surveillance Project (NPSP) and includes over 200 field surveillance units across the country.
- Methodology: The core method is Acute Flaccid Paralysis (AFP) surveillance, which tracks sudden paralysis in children under 15 — a key indicator of polio.
- Environmental Surveillance: The NPSN also tests sewage and water samples to detect silent circulation of the virus.
- Laboratory Support: A network of WHO-accredited laboratories confirms virus presence through testing of stool and water samples.
- Rapid Response: Every suspected case is quickly investigated, and public health teams are deployed for control and containment.
- Expanded Role: Over time, NPSN has also supported surveillance for measles, rubella, DPT, and helped train health workers on new vaccines.
Polio and Its Eradication in India:
- About: Polio is a highly infectious viral disease primarily affecting children under 5, potentially causing paralysis or death.
- Transmission: The disease spreads via the faecal-oral route, mostly through contaminated water or food.
- Types of Polioviruses:
- WPV1 still exists in Pakistan and Afghanistan.
- WPV2 and WPV3 have been eradicated globally.
- Infection Mechanism: Once inside the body, the virus multiplies in the intestines and may attack the nervous system, causing permanent paralysis.
- Prevention through Vaccination:
- Oral Polio Vaccine (OPV) is given at birth, 6, 10, and 14 weeks, with a booster at 16–24 months.
- Injectable Polio Vaccine (IPV) is administered with the third DPT dose under the Universal Immunization Programme (UIP).
- Pulse Polio Campaign (1995): India launched the Pulse Polio Immunization Campaign, providing oral polio drops to all children under 5.
- Eradication Milestones: The last wild polio case in India was reported in 2011, and in 2014, WHO officially declared India polio-free.
- Role of NPSN: The success was enabled by strong surveillance, mass immunization, and dedicated work by NPSN and its partners.
| [UPSC 2016] ‘Mission Indradhanush’ launched by the Government of India pertains to:
(a) Immunization of children and pregnant women*
(b) Construction of smart cities across the country
(c) India’s own search for the Earth-like planets in outer space
(d) New Educational Policy |
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Why in the News?
Researchers from the Vellore Institute of Technology (VIT) have discovered antibiotic-producing bacteria in the Rajgir hot spring in Nalanda, Bihar.
What are Thermophilic Bacteria?
- About: Thermophilic bacteria, or thermophiles (meaning “heat lovers”), are microorganisms that thrive in high-temperature environments ranging from 45°C to 70°C.
- Adaptation: These temperatures can cause third-degree burns in humans, but thermophiles are biologically adapted to survive and grow in such conditions.
- Habitats: They are commonly found in hot springs, deep-sea hydrothermal vents, and compost piles, which are mineral-rich and have low microbial competition.
- Advantages: Some thermophiles produce potent antibiotics to outcompete other microbes and dominate their niche.
- Global Example: Thermophiles from hot springs in Saudi Arabia have shown antibacterial activity against gram-positive pathogens.
Key Findings from India:
- Sampling Challenge: Samples were collected from water and soil at 43°C–45°C, making fieldwork difficult.
- Microbial Analysis: In the sample, Actinobacteria made up 40–43% of the microbial population, double the typical amount in hot springs.
- Significance: Actinobacteria are well known for producing key antibiotics like streptomycin and tetracycline.
- AMR Context: The findings are crucial in the fight against antimicrobial resistance (AMR), which could cost $1 trillion globally by 2050, according to the WHO.
- Antibiotic Potential:
- Lab Testing: Seven Actinobacteria strains were found to inhibit pathogens such as E. coli, Salmonella, Klebsiella, Pseudomonas, and Staphylococcus aureus.
- Compound Discovery: Scientists identified diethyl phthalate using GC-MS, which showed effectiveness against Listeria monocytogenes, a deadly foodborne pathogen.
- Future Scope: The compound has potential for antibiotic development, but not all thermophiles produce antibiotics, so screening is essential.
- Uses:
- Industrial Use: The enzyme Taq polymerase, used in PCR tests (including during COVID-19), is derived from a thermophile called Thermus aquaticus.
- Agricultural Use: A 2018 BHU study showed thermophiles from Chumathang hot springs (Leh) promote plant growth, revealing wider industrial and ecological value.
| [UPSC 2023] Consider the following statements:
1. Some microorganisms can grow in environments with temperature above the boiling point of water.
2. Some microorganisms can grow in environments with temperature below the freezing point of water.
3. Some microorganisms can grow in highly acidic environment with a pH below 3. How many of the above statements are correct?
Options: (a) Only one (b) Only two (c) Only three* (d) All four |
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Why in the News?
A high-powered committee chaired by Principal Scientific Advisor (PSA) Ajay Sood has proposed that India should discontinue the mandatory use of Flue Gas Desulphurisation (FGD) units in most coal-fired Thermal Power Plants (TPPs).
Why mandatory FGDs are opposed?
- Low SO₂ Levels: India’s SO₂ levels (10–20 µg/m³) are already below the permissible limit of 80 µg/m³.
- Low Sulphur Coal: Indian coal naturally has low sulphur content.
- Minimal Impact: Studies show no major air quality difference between plants with and without FGDs.
- Limited PM Reduction: FGDs have minimal effect on particulate matter levels.
- Environmental Trade-Offs:
- CO₂ Increase: Installing FGDs would add 69 million tonnes of CO₂ emissions (2025–2030).
- SO₂ Reduction: Emissions would fall by 17 million tonnes, but the climate cost outweighs the benefit.
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About Flue Gas Desulphurisation (FGD):
- Purpose: FGD is a technology used to remove sulphur dioxide (SO₂) from flue gases produced by burning coal and oil, especially in thermal power plants.
- Environmental Benefit: It helps prevent acid rain, which harms crops, buildings, soils, and aquatic ecosystems.
- Chemicals Used: Common absorbents include limestone (CaCO₃), lime (CaO), and ammonia (NH₃).
- Types of Systems:
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- Dry Sorbent Injection: Cost-effective, but less efficient.
- Wet Limestone-Based: Effective and used in large plants, produces gypsum.
- Seawater-Based: Uses alkaline seawater, ideal for coastal areas.
FGD Mandate in India:
- Current Status: FGD units are being installed in 537 coal-based thermal power units, but 92% of India’s 600 plants still lack them.
- Committee Recommendation: An expert panel advised exempting 80% of plants from FGD requirements due to feasibility issues.
- Implementation Barriers: Limited vendors available; High costs and risk of increased electricity tariffs.
| [UPSC 2023] Consider the following:
1. Carbon monoxide 2. Nitrogen oxide 3. Ozone 4. Sulphur dioxide Excess of which of the above in the environment is/are cause(s) of acid rain?
Options: (a) 1, 2 and 3 (b) 2 and 4 only* (c) 4 only (d) 1, 3 and 4 |
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Why in the News?
On June 5, World Environment Day, Prime Minister Narendra Modi is expected to launch the Aravalli Green Wall Project.
About the Aravallis:
- Geology: The Aravalli Range is one of the oldest fold mountain ranges in the world, formed during the Proterozoic era.
- Spread: It stretches for about 692 km, from Gujarat to Delhi, passing through Rajasthan and Haryana.
- State-Wise Coverage: Around 80% of the range lies in Rajasthan, with the rest spread across Haryana, Delhi, and Gujarat.
- Highest Peak: The tallest point is Guru Shikhar in Mount Abu, Rajasthan, with an elevation of 1,722 meters.
- Natural Barrier Function: Acts as a green wall, preventing the spread of the Thar Desert into eastern Rajasthan and the Gangetic plains.
- River Origins: Important rivers such as the Banas, Sahibi and Luni originate from the Aravallis.
- Minerals: Rich in minerals like copper, zinc, lead, and marble.
- Biodiversity: Home to 300+ bird species and key wildlife such as leopards, hyenas, jackals, wolves, civets, and Nilgai.
- Prehistoric Significance: Contains cave art and tools from the Lower Palaeolithic period.
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What is the Aravalli Green Wall Project?
- Project Goal: To build a green corridor from Delhi to Gujarat combating desertification and ecological degradation.
- States Involved: Includes Delhi, Rajasthan, Haryana, and Gujarat, focusing on restoring degraded landscapes.
- Vegetation Strategy: Focus on removing Prosopis juliflora (invasive species) and planting native trees like:
- Khair (Indian Gum Arabic)
- Ronjh (White-barked Acacia)
- Dhau (Axlewood)
- Salai (Indian Frankincense)
- Pilkhan, Neem, Amaltas, Goolar, Peepal
- Buffer Zone Creation: A 6.45 million hectare buffer zone will be established around the Aravallis.
- Phase 1 Focus:
- Delhi: 3,010 ha in South Delhi
- Haryana: 25,000 ha in Gurugram, Faridabad, Mahendragarh
- Global Commitments supported:
- Paris Agreement: Target to create 2.5–3 billion tonnes CO₂ sink
- Bonn Challenge: Restore 26 million hectares of land by 2030
| [UPSC 2001] The approximate age of the Aravallis range is.
Options: (a) 370 million years (b) 470 million years (c) 570 million years* (d) 670 million years |
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PYQ Relevance:
[UPSC 2024] The West is fostering India as an alternative to reduce dependence on China’s supply chain and as a strategic ally to counter China’s political and economic dominance.’ Explain this statement with examples.
Linkage: The strategic imperative of countering China’s influence and building alternative supply chains and alliances, which is a primary reason why strengthening the U.S.-India subsea cable agenda is crucial. |
Mentor’s Comment: The strategic and commercial engagement between India and the United States is being deepened, with subsea cables emerging as a frontline asset in this collaboration. Subsea cables, which carry over 95% of international data and form the backbone of global internet infrastructure, are being recognized for their critical geostrategic value. Efforts are being made by India to diversify its digital infrastructure under the proposed TRUST framework (Technology for Resilient, Open and Unified Security and Trust).
Today’s editorial will discuss the problems related to subsea cable systems and the actions taken by the Indian Government. This information will be useful for GS Paper II (International Relations) and GS Paper III (Science & Technology).
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Let’s learn!
Why in the News?
The urgency to secure and expand subsea cable systems is rising, particularly in light of disruptions like the Red Sea cable sabotage by Houthi rebels in 2024.
Why are Subsea Cables crucial in India-U.S. strategic cooperation?
- Foundation of Global Digital Connectivity: Subsea cables carry over 95% of international data traffic, forming the physical backbone of the internet and digital economy. Securing these is vital for protecting critical infrastructure and ensuring uninterrupted communication between nations. Eg: The U.S. and India are focusing on trusted subsea cable systems under the TRUST framework to reduce reliance on Chinese-controlled infrastructure.
- Strategic Response to China’s Digital Expansion: China’s Digital Silk Road is rapidly laying subsea cables across the Indo-Pacific, posing geopolitical and cybersecurity concerns. India-U.S. cooperation on secure cable networks counters this influence and promotes trusted alternatives. Eg: The upcoming India-U.S. trade agreement includes provisions for enhancing digital infrastructure as a counter to China’s presence in the Indo-Pacific.
- Enabling Regional Digital Resilience and Trade: Joint efforts in building resilient cable systems support broader technology cooperation and secure trade flows, particularly as India emerges as a digital hub in Asia. Eg: Meta’s investment in a 50,000-km undersea cable project connecting five continents is backed by U.S.-India cooperation, reinforcing digital ties and strategic alignment.
What is the role of the TRUST framework in securing digital supply chains?
- Promotes Resilient and Secure Digital Infrastructure: The TRUST (Technology for Resilient, Open and Unified Security and Trust) framework aims to build trusted digital ecosystems by reducing dependence on untrusted vendors and creating secure, interoperable technology supply chains. Eg: TRUST supports investments in secure subsea cables that avoid reliance on Chinese-controlled infrastructure.
- Strengthens India’s Role as a Regional Security Provider: The framework acknowledges India’s potential as a net security provider in the Indo-Pacific, aligning with U.S. efforts to de-risk strategic technologies and build redundancy in digital connectivity. Eg: TRUST initiatives encourage India to lead regional subsea cable projects using trusted suppliers.
- Facilitates U.S. Investment and Technical Cooperation: TRUST enables concessional finance, cybersecurity assistance, and encourages American companies to anchor digital infrastructure projects in India and the region. Eg: Under TRUST, Meta’s multi-year undersea cable investment project aligns with U.S.-India strategic digital cooperation.
How can India become a regional hub for subsea connectivity?
- Leverage Strategic Geographic Location: India is centrally positioned between Europe, Africa, and Southeast Asia, near key maritime choke points like the Strait of Hormuz, Strait of Malacca, and Bab-el-Mandeb, making it ideal for global cable routes. Eg: India can serve as a transit junction for Africa-Asia and Europe-Asia subsea cables.
- Expand and Diversify Cable Landing Infrastructure: India must increase the number of landing stations beyond existing clusters to reduce regional risk and build redundancy in the network. Eg: Most of India’s 17 cables land in Mumbai; expanding to ports along the east and west coasts can distribute traffic load.
- Streamline Regulatory and Clearance Processes: Simplifying India’s licensing regime and enabling faster cable repair operations will attract more international projects and reduce downtime risks. Eg: Reducing the current requirement of over 50 clearances can boost investor confidence and facilitate timely repairs.
What challenges hinder India’s subsea cable infrastructure?
- Complex and Burdensome Licensing Regime: Deploying subsea cables in India requires navigating a maze of over 50 clearances across multiple ministries, discouraging investment and delaying projects.
Eg: Lengthy approvals from customs, naval authorities, and telecom departments hinder timely cable deployments.
- Overconcentration of Landing Stations: Most cables land in a narrow stretch in Mumbai, making the network vulnerable to disruption from natural disasters or sabotage. Eg: 15 of 17 subsea cables land in Mumbai, despite India’s 11,098 km coastline, limiting redundancy and resilience.
- Lack of Domestic Repair Capabilities: India depends on foreign-flagged ships for cable repairs, which take 3–5 months to respond due to long travel times and clearance delays. Eg: Repair vessels from Singapore or Dubai face delays due to India’s slow customs and naval permissions process.
What are the steps taken by the Indian Government?
- Policy push for TRUST framework: India is partnering with the U.S. to implement the Technology for Resilient, Open and Unified Security and Trust (TRUST) framework, focusing on trusted digital infrastructure and secure supply chains. Eg: TRUST includes collaboration on regional subsea cable investments and cybersecurity standards.
- Expansion of Subsea Cable Projects: The government has supported large-scale undersea cable initiatives to expand India’s role in global connectivity. Eg: The India-U.S. backed Meta project, spanning 50,000 km, aims to connect five continents, enhancing India’s digital footprint.
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Way forward:
- Accelerate Regulatory Reforms: Simplify and streamline the complex licensing and clearance processes to attract greater investments and enable faster deployment and repair of subsea cables.
- Build Domestic Repair and Infrastructure Ecosystem: Develop Indian-flagged cable repair vessels and expand cable landing stations along the coast to enhance network resilience, reduce downtime, and establish India as a reliable regional connectivity hub.
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Why in the News?
In 2025, the Southwest Monsoon, which plays a vital role in India’s farming economy, brought heavy and destructive rains. Instead of simply starting the farming season, it has caused widespread damage across the northeastern states.
Why is the northeastern region particularly vulnerable to monsoon-related disasters?
- Geographical Terrain and River Systems: The Northeast has a complex topography of steep hills and fast-flowing rivers like the Brahmaputra and Barak. These rivers often overflow during monsoon, causing floods and erosion. Eg: In Assam, over 10 major rivers flowed above danger level in June 2025, affecting over 3 lakh people across 19 districts.
- High and Prolonged Rainfall: The region receives one of the highest average monsoon rainfalls in India, making even a “below normal” monsoondestructive. Eg: Despite IMD predicting lower-than-normal rainfall, Assam, Tripura, and Sikkim faced flash floods and landslidesin May–June 2025.
- Dual Monsoon Exposure and Fragile Ecology: The region experiences both the southwest monsoon (June–September) and a retreating monsoon (October–December), increasing disaster exposure. The fragile ecology, including deforestation and slope instability, worsens risks. Eg: In North Sikkim, landslides in early June 2025 marooned 1,500 tourists and blocked arterial roads due to incessant rain.
What is the Dual Monsoon Pattern?
Dual Monsoon Pattern refers to the occurrence of two distinct monsoon phases in a year that affect a region, particularly the Northeastern States of India. These are:
- Southwest Monsoon (June to September):
This is the primary monsoon season for most of India. The Bay of Bengal branch of the southwest monsoon brings heavy rainfall to the Northeastern States like Assam, Meghalaya, and Arunachal Pradesh.
- Retreating/Post-Monsoon (October to December):
This secondary phase brings additional rainfall, especially to Nagaland, Manipur, Mizoram, and Tripura (NMMT region). This is often accompanied by cyclonic storms originating from the Bay of Bengal.
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How does the dual monsoon pattern affect the disaster preparedness of northeastern States?
- Extended Vulnerability Period: The presence of both the southwest monsoon (June–September) and the retreating/post-monsoon (October–December) leads to a prolonged rainy season, increasing the duration for which states must stay alert and prepared. Eg: In 2023, flash floods affected parts of Meghalaya in both July and November, stretching disaster response capacities.
- Recurring Strain on Resources: The back-to-back monsoon cycles put continuous pressure on relief infrastructure, emergency services, and budgetary resources, often without adequate recovery time between events. Eg: In Assam, flood shelters and boats used during June floods had to be reactivated again during October rains, delaying repairs and replenishment.
- Challenges in Long-term Planning: The dual monsoon system makes it harder to plan and execute infrastructure repair, agricultural recovery, and resettlement efforts, as damage may recur within months. Eg: In Arunachal Pradesh, roads repaired after July landslides were again washed away during October rains in 2022, disrupting connectivity repeatedly.
Why has infrastructure development lagged in the northeastern States compared to the rest of India?
- Challenging Geographical Terrain: The region is dominated by mountainous landscapes, dense forests, and seismic zones, which make construction of roads, bridges, and railways technically difficult and cost-intensive. Eg: In Sikkim, frequent landslides and narrow mountain roads delay road-widening and highway projects.
- Security and Strategic Concerns: The presence of international borders with countries like China, Myanmar, and Bangladesh and historical instances of insurgency have led to delays in project execution due to security concerns and administrative restrictions. Eg: The construction of the India-Myanmar-Thailand Trilateral Highway through Manipur has faced repeated delays due to local unrest and law-and-order issues.
- Low Political and Economic Prioritisation: Compared to other regions, the Northeast has received less investment in infrastructure due to lower population density, limited industrial base, and less political influence at the national level. Eg: States like Nagaland and Mizoram have limited railway connectivity even today, unlike the rapid expansion seen in western and southern India.
What are the steps taken by the Indian government?
- Strengthened Disaster Response and Early Warnings: The government has deployed NDRF units across the Northeast and enhanced IMD’s region-specific alerts for floods and landslides in states like Assam, Sikkim, and Arunachal Pradesh.
- Infrastructure Development in Vulnerable Areas: Schemes like NESIDS support critical infrastructure such as flood protection embankments and all-weather roads in remote regions of Manipur and Mizoram.
- Integration into National Disaster Management Frameworks: NDMA conducts capacity building, mock drills, and implements region-specific guidelines for urban flooding and landslide risk in cities like Gangtok and Guwahati.
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What long-term measures are needed to ensure sustainable disaster management in the Northeast? (Way forward)
- Region-Specific Infrastructure Planning and Investment: Develop climate-resilient infrastructure suited to the region’s fragile ecology, such as landslide-resistant roads, flood-resistant housing, and robust early warning systems. Eg: The installation of a real-time flood monitoring system in the Brahmaputra basin has improved early evacuation in parts of Assam.
- Integrated Inter-State and Central Coordination Mechanism: Establish a permanent regional disaster coordination body with participation from all Northeast states and the Centre to plan, share resources, and respond collectively to disasters. Eg: A joint task force involving Assam, Arunachal Pradesh, and Meghalaya could improve flood response across shared river systems like the Barak and Brahmaputra.
Mains PYQ:
[UPSC 2024] Flooding in urban areas is an emerging climate-induced disaster. Discuss the causes of this disaster. Mention the features of two such major floods in the last two decades in India. Describe the policies and frameworks in India that aim at tackling such floods.
Linkage: The Bay of Bengal branch of the monsoon reaches the northeastern States first. These areas usually get a lot of rain during the monsoon, even in years when rainfall is lower than normal. Because of this, the region is naturally more prone to problems like flooding, which often comes with such heavy rain.
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Why in the News?
The RBI Bulletin (May 2025) reports that India received a record-breaking $81 billion in gross FDI inflows in FY 2024-25, but retained only $353 million in net FDI, revealing a dramatic divergence in the investment narrative.
What do gross and net FDI trends indicate about India’s investment climate?
- Gross FDI inflows are high: India received a record $81 billion in gross FDI in 2024-25, indicating strong headline interest from foreign investors. Eg: Media and government reported this as a sign of a robust investment climate.
- Net FDI is drastically low: Net FDI dropped to only $353 million, showing that much of the incoming investment is offset by capital outflows, weakening the real impact on the economy. Eg: Rising outward FDI and disinvestment reduced net foreign capital retained in India.
- Declining FDI-to-GDP ratio: The gross inflow-to-GDP ratio fell from 3.1% (2020-21) to 2.1% (2024-25), and net FDI-to-GDP fell from 1.6% to near zero, reflecting a slowing domestic investment environment despite high gross inflows. Eg: This signals tepid corporate investment and cautious investor sentiment in India.
What is Private Equity (PE) and Venture Capital (VC)?
- Private Equity (PE) refers to investment funds that buy existing companies or large stakes in businesses, often to improve their performance and later sell them for profit. PE typically invests in more mature companies.
- Venture Capital (VC) is a type of financing that supports early-stage startups and small businesses with high growth potential. VC investors take higher risks in exchange for potentially high returns.
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Why is the rise in Private Equity (PE)/Venture Capital (VC) driven FDI a concern for long-term investment?
- PE/VC-driven FDI focuses on brownfield investments: These funds mainly acquire existing firms rather than creating new production capacity, limiting contributions to capital formation and technology acquisition. Eg: Investments by Blackstone in Care Hospitals and ChrysCapital in Lenskart.
- Short investment horizon: PE/VC funds typically have a 3-5 year exit strategy, often selling holdings during stock market booms, which leads to disinvestment rather than sustained growth. Eg: The spike in disinvestment in FY25 was partly due to PE/VC funds liquidating their positions.
- Limited impact on long-term industrial growth: Since these funds focus on services like fintech and retail rather than manufacturing or infrastructure, they contribute less to enhancing India’s productive capacity. Eg: The declining share of FDI in greenfield projects shows limited greenfield capital formation.
How does outward FDI suggest India is used for tax arbitrage?
- High correlation between inward and outward FDI: India shows a strong link between the money flowing in and out, suggesting that funds often enter and exit quickly rather than being invested long-term. Eg: Similar volumes of FDI both coming into and going out of India.
- Use of tax havens as intermediaries: A significant portion of both inward and outward FDI involves countries like Singapore and Mauritius, known for tax concessions and treaty benefits. Eg: Many Indian companies route investments through these jurisdictions to reduce tax liabilities.
- ‘Treaty shopping’ for tax benefits: Global investors move capital through India to exploit variations in tax laws, a practice called tax arbitrage, which may not contribute to domestic economic growth. Eg: Research shows India ranked 6th among emerging markets for such correlated FDI flows, indicating use as a conduit for tax optimization.
What are the effects of declining FDI-to-GDP and GFCF ratios?
- Reduced contribution to economic growth: Declining FDI-to-GDP and FDI-to-GFCF (Gross Fixed Capital Formation) ratios indicate that foreign investments are becoming a smaller part of India’s overall economy and capital investment, potentially slowing down industrial expansion and technology adoption. Eg: Gross FDI inflows peaked at 7.5% of GFCF in FY21 but have declined sharply since then.
- Weakening investor confidence: The downward trend signals tepid domestic corporate investment and reduced foreign investor interest, which can affect job creation and long-term economic stability. Eg: Net FDI relative to GDP has declined from 1.6% in 2020-21 to nearly zero in 2024-25, showing declining investor enthusiasm.
Why should India reform its foreign capital regulations?
- To curb tax arbitrage and ‘hot money’ flows: Current regulations allow large volumes of inward and outward FDIthrough tax havens, enabling tax optimization rather than genuine investment, which undermines domestic economic goals. Eg: High FDI flows involving Singapore and Mauritius reflect such practices.
- To promote long-term, productive investments: Reform is needed to encourage FDI that contributes to capital formation, technology acquisition, and industrial growth rather than short-term PE/VC-driven disinvestment. Eg: The rising share of alternative investment funds in FDI has led to increased disinvestment, affecting sustainable growth.
Way forward:
- Strengthen Regulatory Frameworks: Implement stricter rules to curb tax arbitrage and limit quick inflows and outflows via tax havens, ensuring FDI supports genuine, long-term economic growth.
- Promote Greenfield and Productive Investments: Encourage FDI in new capacity building, manufacturing, and technology sectors over short-term PE/VC deals to boost capital formation, industrial growth, and sustainable development.
Mains PYQ:
[UPSC 2013] Though India allowed Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) in what is called multi-brand retail through the joint venture route in September 2012, the FDI, even after a year, has not picked up. Discuss the reasons.
Linkage: The net FDI-to-GDP ratio has steadily fallen from 1.6% in 2020-21 to zero in 2024-25. This ongoing decline is worrying, even though policymakers continue to make optimistic claims.
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Why in the News?
Union Minister of State for Science & Technology has launched ‘Bharat Gen’, India’s first indigenously developed AI-based Large Language Model (LLM) tailored for Indian languages.
About Bharat Gen:
- What is it: Bharat Gen is India’s first homegrown AI-based multimodal large language model (LLM) supporting 22 Indian languages.
- Developed By: Created under the National Mission on Interdisciplinary Cyber-Physical Systems (NM-ICPS) and implemented by the TIH Foundation for IoT and IoE at IIT Bombay.
- Key Features:
- Understands text, speech, and image inputs.
- Works across India’s diverse languages and cultures.
- Designed to be ethical, inclusive, and culturally rooted.
- Support and Collaboration: Backed by the Department of Science and Technology (DST) and developed in collaboration with top academic and AI institutions.
- Bharat Data Sagar: A national effort to collect language data for lesser-known Indian languages to train future AI tools.
- Real-World Use: In places like Udhampur, an AI doctor powered by Bharat Gen is helping patients in their native language.
What are Large Language Models (LLMs)?
- LLMs are computer programs that can read, understand, and write language like humans. They can answer questions, explain topics, write stories, translate languages, and more.
- Why are they called “large”?
- They are trained using a huge amount of text from books, websites, newspapers, etc.
- They also have billions of settings (called parameters) that help them understand words and sentences better.
- How do they work?
- LLMs break your sentence into small parts (called tokens).
- They guess the next word in the sentence, one by one, using what they’ve learned.
- This is how they create full and meaningful answers.
- How are they trained?
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- Step 1 – Pre-training: The LLM reads lots of text and learns how language works.
- Step 2 – Fine-tuning: It is then taught how to do specific tasks like summarising or translating.
- Step 3 – Human Help: People check the answers and give feedback, so the LLM learns to give better responses.
- How do LLMs understand language so well? They use a special model called a transformer, which has tools to:
- Focus on important words in a sentence (self-attention).
- Understand the order of words (positional encoding).
- Learn patterns and meaning using neural networks (like a brain made of computer code).
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| [UPSC 2020] With the present state of development, Artificial Intelligence can effectively do which of the following?
(1) Bring down electricity consumption in industrial units (2) Create meaningful short stories and songs (3) Disease diagnosis (4) Text-to-Speech Conversion (5) Wireless transmission of electrical energy Select the correct answer using the code given below:
Options: (a) 1, 2, 3 and 5 only (b) 1, 3 and 4 only* (c) 2, 4 and 5 only (d) 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 |
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Why in the News?
The recent terror attack in Pahalgam has led to lower turnout at the annual Jyestha Ashtami festival at the Kheer Bhawani temple in Kashmir.
About the Kheer Bhawani Festival:
- What is it: The Kheer Bhawani Festival, also called Mela Kheer Bhawani, is celebrated every year on Jyestha Ashtami by the Kashmiri Pandit community.
- Location of Celebration: It takes place at the Kheer Bhawani Temple in Tulmulla village, Ganderbal district, Jammu and Kashmir.
- Deity Worshipped: The temple is dedicated to Goddess Ragnya Devi, an important deity in the Kashmiri Hindu tradition.
- Sacred Spring and Ritual: The temple sits over a natural spring. Devotees offer kheer (rice and milk pudding) as a sacred offering.
- Largest Kashmiri Hindu Gathering: It is the biggest Hindu religious gathering in the Kashmir Valley after the Amarnath Yatra.
- Beliefs about Water Color: Devotees believe that the spring’s color changes based on the region’s condition:
- Light colors mean good times.
- Black water is a warning sign (reportedly turned black in 1990, just before the Kashmiri Pandit Massacre).
- Historical Legacy: The temple structure was built by Maharaja Pratap Singh and later renovated by Maharaja Hari Singh in the early 1900s.
- Ancient Mentions: References to the site are found in Kalhana’s Rajtarangini, Bhrigu Samhita, and Abu’l-Fazl’s Ain-i-Akbari, which also mentions flooding in Tula Mula.
Significance of the Festival and Temple:
- Cultural Importance: The temple serves as a symbol of faith and identity for Kashmiri Pandits, especially those displaced.
- Communal Harmony: Local Muslim communities assist in festival arrangements, showcasing communal unity and harmony.
- Spiritual Symbolism: The temple spring, called Syandh, holds spiritual meaning and is not connected to the Sindhu (Indus) River.
| [UPSC 2018] Consider the following pairs:
Tradition – State
1. Chapchar Kut festival — Mizoram
2. Khongjom Parba ballad — Manipur
3. Thong-To dance — Sikkim
Which of the pairs given above is/are correct?
Options: (a) 1 only (b) 1 and 2* (c) 3 only (d) 2 and 3 |
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Why in the News?
Flowering plants appeared around 130 million years ago and rapidly diversified, puzzling scientists including Charles Darwin, who called it an “abominable mystery”.
A new study by CSIR-CCMB, Hyderabad, has identified the SHUKR gene, which controls pollen development in flowering plants.
About the SHUKR Gene in Flowering Plants
- What is SHUKR? It is a newly discovered gene found in flowering plants like Arabidopsis thaliana. It plays a key role in forming pollen, which plants need to reproduce.
- Function in the Plant Life Cycle: SHUKR is active during the sporophyte phase (the main plant body stage) and helps in producing healthy, viable pollen.
- Effect of Gene Loss: If SHUKR is missing or not working, the plant fails to make good pollen, leading to poor or no reproduction.
- How SHUKR Works: It controls F-box genes, which remove old proteins and replace them with new ones to help pollen grow well.
- Adaptive Advantage: SHUKR and F-box genes evolve quickly, allowing plants to adjust to harsh conditions like heat, cold, or drought.
- Evolutionary Origin: This gene first appeared 125 million years ago in eudicots, a plant group that now includes three-fourths of all flowering plants.
- Why it matters: SHUKR shows that pollen-making is closely linked with the rest of the plant, challenging the earlier belief that these processes were separate.
- Significance: Climate change causes heat-induced pollen damage in flowering plants, but genes like SHUKR could help develop climate-resilient crops.
Back2Basics: Darwin’s “Abominable Mystery”
- Darwin’s Confusion: Charles Darwin was puzzled by the sudden appearance and rapid spread of flowering plants about 130 million years ago — calling it an “abominable mystery”.
- Mismatch with Evolutionary Pace: According to standard evolution theory, species change slowly over time, but flowering plants diversified very quickly, showing great variety.
- Genetic Explanation: The SHUKR gene may solve this mystery by showing how flowering plants gained molecular tools to adapt and reproduce faster.
- New Insight: This discovery offers a genetic explanation for the rapid rise of flowering plants and helps clarify Darwin’s long-standing puzzle.
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| [UPSC 2017] Consider the following statements:
1. Genome sequencing can be used to identify genetic markers for disease resistance and drought tolerance in various crop plants.
2. This technique helps in reducing the time required to develop new varieties of crop plants.
3. It can be used to decipher the host-pathogen relationships in crops.
Select the correct- answer using the code given below:
Options: (a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 1 and 3 only* (d) 1, 2 and 3 |
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Why in the News?
Assam CM Himanta Biswa Sarma dismissed Pakistan’s claim about China blocking the Brahmaputra’s water as a baseless panic tactic with no scientific substance.
Sarma’s Clarification on the Brahmaputra Issue:
- Brahmaputra is an Indian river and not fully controlled by China.
- Only about 30–35% of the river’s flow comes from China, mainly through glacial melt and rainfall on the Tibetan Plateau.
- A major 65–70% of the river’s volume is generated within India, especially from monsoon rains and Indian tributaries.
- He explained that the river’s flow increases from 2,000–3,000 cubic metres/second at the Indo-China border to 15,000–20,000 m³/s in Assam during the monsoon.
- This proves that India plays a dominant role in sustaining the river, not China.
- Even if China tried to restrict the river’s flow, it could help reduce annual floods in Assam that displace thousands of people.
- He confirmed that China has never threatened to weaponize the Brahmaputra.
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About Brahmaputra River System:
- The Brahmaputra River System is one of the major Himalayan drainage systems, along with the Ganga and Indus.
- Stretch: It stretches over 2,900 kilometres, making it one of the longest rivers in Asia.
- Origin: It originates in the Chemayungdung glacier in southwestern Tibet, where it is known as the Tsangpo River.
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- The river flows through Tibet, India (Arunachal Pradesh and Assam), and Bangladesh.
- In Tibet, the river flows slowly with a wide, navigable channel for about 640 km.
- Upon entering India through Arunachal Pradesh, it becomes the Dihang, and later merges with Lohit and Dibang rivers to be called the Brahmaputra.
- In Bangladesh, it is called the Jamuna, which merges with the Ganga (Padma) and Meghna before flowing into the Bay of Bengal.
- The world’s largest and smallest river islands, Majuli and Umananda, are located on the Brahmaputra in Assam.
- Important Tributaries:
- Left-bank tributaries: Lhasa, Nyang, Parlung Zangbo, Lohit, Dhanashri, Kolong
- Right-bank tributaries: Kameng, Manas, Beki, Raidak, Jaldhaka, Teesta, Subansiri
- States the River Flows Through in India: Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Meghalaya, Nagaland, West Bengal, and Sikkim.
- Major Cities on the River: Dibrugarh, Pasighat, Neamati, Tezpur, and Guwahati.
- Major Hydel Projects:
- Arunachal Pradesh: Subansiri, Kameng, Ranganadi, etc.
- Assam: Kopili
- Sikkim: Teesta, Rangit
- Meghalaya, Nagaland, Manipur, Mizoram: Multiple local hydropower stations
| [UPSC 2016] With reference to the Brahmaputra River, which of the following is/are tributary/ tributaries of Brahmaputra?
1. Dibang
2. Kameng
3. Lohit
Select the correct answer using the code given below.
Options: (a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 1 and 3 only (d)1, 2 and 3* |
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Why in the News?
D Gukesh, the reigning World Chess Champion, achieved a milestone by defeating world No. 1 Magnus Carlsen for the first time in a classical game during Round 6 of Norway Chess.
Who is D. Gukesh?
- About: D Gukesh is an Indian chess grandmaster (born on May 29, 2006) and the current World Chess Champion.
- Early Start: He started playing chess at the age of seven and quickly rose to fame due to his extraordinary skill.
- Topmost Indian Player: In September 2023, he became India’s highest-rated chess player, ending Viswanathan Anand’s 37-year reign.
- Global Recognition: He is considered one of the most talented chess prodigies in the world today.
His Accomplishments:
- FIDE Master Title: In 2015, he became a FIDE Master after winning the Under-9 Asian School Chess Championship.
- International Master: In March 2018, he became an International Master at the age of 11.
- Grandmaster Milestone: At 12 years and 7 months, he became the second-youngest Grandmaster in history.
- World Youth Champion: He won the Under-12 World Youth Chess Championship in 2018.
- Asian Youth Success: He won five gold medals at the 2018 Asian Youth Championships in classical, rapid, blitz, and team events.
- Chess Olympiad 2022: In the 44th Chess Olympiad, he won individual gold on board one and helped India win team bronze.
- Victory Over Carlsen: In 2022, he defeated Magnus Carlsen in rapid chess at the Aimchess Rapid tournament.
- Crossed 2700 Elo: He crossed the 2700 Elo rating in 2022, becoming the third-youngest to achieve it.
- Broke Carlsen’s Record: In August 2023, he crossed 2750 Elo, becoming the youngest ever to do so.
- Candidates Tournament: He won the 2024 Candidates Tournament, becoming the youngest player to ever win it.
- World Champion Title: On December 12, 2024, at 18 years and 195 days, he defeated Ding Liren to become the youngest undisputed World Chess Champion.
- Indian Chess Legacy: He became only the second Indian after Viswanathan Anand to win the world title.
- Chess Olympiad 2024: At the 45th Chess Olympiad, he helped India win team gold and secured individual gold.
- National Honour: In January 2025, he received the Major Dhyan Chand Khel Ratna Award, India’s highest sporting honour.
| [UPSC 2025] Consider the following statements:
I. In the finals of the 45th Chess Olympiad held in 2024, Gukesh Dommaraju became the world’s youngest winner after defeating the Russian player Ian Nepomniachtchi.
II. Abhimanyu Mishra, an American chess player, holds the record of becoming world’s youngest ever Grandmaster.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
Options: a) I only b) II only* c) Both I and II d) Neither I nor II |
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PYQ Relevance:
[UPSC 2021] What is Cryptocurrency? How does it affect global society? Has it been affecting Indian society also?
Linkage: India’s leadership in grassroots crypto adoption and the significant investment by retail investors, indicating its presence and potential impact on Indian society. Understanding this impact is a foundational aspect of the broader discussion on regulating VDAs. |
Mentor’s Comment: The Supreme Court’s recent observation questioning the absence of comprehensive crypto regulation highlights the urgent need for India to replace punitive taxation with structured oversight. Between December 2023 and October 2024, Indian investors traded over ₹2.63 trillion worth of crypto on offshore platforms, causing the country to miss out on substantial tax revenues and governance control. The article emphasizes this contradiction—a rapidly growing industry at the grassroots level and a fragmented, reactionary policy at the top.
Today’s editorial will talk about the comprehensive crypto regulation. This content would help in GS Paper II ( Governance) and GS Paper III (Science & Technology).
_
Let’s learn!
Why in the News?
India has kept its top position in grassroots crypto adoption for the second year in a row, according to the 2024 Chainalysis Geography of Crypto report. But this achievement comes at a time when clear regulations are missingand government policies on crypto remain confusing and inconsistent.
What drives India’s lead in grassroots crypto adoption?
- High Retail Investor Participation: Indian retail investors have shown strong enthusiasm, investing $6.6 billion into crypto assets (NASSCOM report). Eg: A large number of small-ticket retail trades contribute to India topping Chainalysis’ 2024 grassroots crypto adoption index.
- Growing Web3 Developer Ecosystem: India hosts one of the fastest-growing Web3 developer communities, driving innovation and ecosystem engagement. Eg: Startups and developers building decentralized apps (dApps) and blockchain solutions across Tier-2 and Tier-3 cities.
- Youthful Demographic and Digital Penetration: A young, tech-savvy population, high smartphone usage, and digital literacy foster wide crypto experimentation. Eg: College students and freelancers using stablecoins and crypto wallets for micro-transactions and cross-border payments.
- Lack of Traditional Investment Access and Inflation Hedge: Limited access to formal investment channels and search for inflation-resistant assets prompt people to explore crypto. Eg: Young earners in semi-urban areas using crypto as an alternative to gold or fixed deposits for wealth storage.
Why did the Supreme Court flag regulatory gaps in 2025?
- Absence of a Comprehensive Legal Framework: The Court noted the lack of clear and cohesive legislation for Virtual Digital Assets (VDAs), which hampers effective regulation and enforcement. Eg: In May 2025, the Supreme Court remarked, “Banning may be shutting your eyes to ground reality,” highlighting the disconnect between policy and practice.
- Overreliance on Prohibitive Taxation Instead of Regulation: India imposed heavy taxes (30% capital gains, 1% TDS) as a stop-gap, without establishing regulatory clarity or investor safeguards. Eg: Despite taxation, crypto users shifted to offshore platforms, leading to over ₹60 billion in uncollected TDSand loss of oversight.
- Risk of Pushing Activity Underground: The absence of regulation combined with enforcement gaps drove users towards non-compliant and unregulated exchanges, increasing systemic risk. Eg: The Court observed that without enabling regulation, users bypassed restrictions via VPNs and mirror sites, undermining regulatory intent.
Who ensures compliance in India’s crypto ecosystem?
- Reserve Bank of India (RBI): As the monetary authority, RBI oversees the impact of crypto on financial stability, capital controls, and payment systems. Eg: RBI issued circulars in 2013 and 2018 warning financial institutions against dealing with crypto-related entities.
- Financial Intelligence Unit-India (FIU-IND): FIU-IND monitors suspicious transactions, enforces anti-money laundering (AML) and counter-terror financing (CFT) norms. Eg: Indian Virtual Asset Service Providers (VASPs) collaborated with FIU-IND to strengthen AML/CFT compliance, gaining positive feedback from FATF.
- Virtual Asset Service Providers (VASPs): VASPs act as domestic intermediaries ensuring KYC norms, reporting standards, and overall ecosystem transparency. Eg: After the 2024 crypto hack ($230 million loss), Indian VASPs enhanced cybersecurity, created insurance funds, and implemented industry-wide security guidelines.
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Where are most Indian crypto assets traded?
- Offshore, Non-Compliant Platforms: A significant portion of Indian crypto trading happens on offshore exchanges that do not comply with Indian regulations. Eg: Between July 2022 and December 2023, Indians traded over ₹1.03 trillion worth of VDAs on such platforms.
- Limited Domestic Exchange Usage: Only about 9% of India’s estimated ₹1.12 trillion worth of crypto assets are held or traded on domestic exchanges. Eg: This limited use reflects investor preference for platforms with broader asset choices or less stringent controls.
How have Indian Virtual Asset Service Providers (VASPs) improved security and compliance?
- Strengthened Anti-Money Laundering (AML): Indian VASPs have collaborated closely with the Financial Intelligence Unit-India (FIU-IND) to enhance monitoring and reporting standards. Eg: This cooperation earned positive feedback from the Financial Action Task Force (FATF) for improved compliance.
- Enhanced Cybersecurity Measures: After the 2024 crypto hack that resulted in a $230 million loss, many Indian exchanges implemented stronger security protocols and real-time risk monitoring. Eg: Exchanges set up dedicated insurance funds to protect users against future thefts.
- Industry-Wide Standardization and Collaboration: Indian VASPs united to create and enforce common cybersecurity guidelines and best practices across the ecosystem. Eg: This collective effort has improved overall trust and resilience of India’s crypto platforms.
Way forward:
- Formulate a Comprehensive, Risk-Based Regulatory Framework: India must develop clear, future-ready legislation that classifies, governs, and monitors Virtual Digital Assets (VDAs) in alignment with global standards (like FATF, IMF). Eg: A dedicated VDA Regulatory Authority or inclusion under SEBI/RBI oversight can ensure investor protection, AML enforcement, and innovation support.
- Strengthen Domestic VASP Ecosystem Through Incentives and Integration: Encourage onshore compliance by lowering tax burdens, supporting innovation sandboxes, and integrating VASPs into India’s formal financial ecosystem. Eg: Offering tax rebates or compliance credits to VASPs adopting stringent KYC/CFT and cybersecurity norms can enhance trust and reduce offshore migration.
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Why in the News?
India’s economic data for 2024–25 shows a mixed picture: the economy grew strongly by 7.4% in the last quarter, which was better than expected, but the overall yearly growth dropped to 6.5% — the lowest in four years since the pandemic.
What led to the higher-than-expected GDP growth in Q4 2024-25?
- Robust Growth in Construction and Agriculture Sectors: The construction sector returned to double-digit growth, and agriculture performed strongly, both of which are key employment generators. Eg: Infrastructure expansion and favourable harvests boosted rural incomes and demand.
- Strong Performance of Services Sector: The services sector maintained steady and strong growth, contributing significantly to the GDP rise. Eg: IT, finance, and hospitality services saw sustained recovery post-pandemic.
- Statistical Boost from Higher Net Taxes: A 12.7% increase in net tax collections inflated the GDP figure, even though underlying economic activity was slower. Eg: Higher indirect tax revenues during the quarter pushed headline growth from ~6.8% to 7.4%.
Why is 6.5% annual GDP growth seen as inadequate despite being the highest globally?
- Below the Required Rate for ‘Viksit Bharat 2047’ Vision: To achieve the developed nation goal by 2047, India needs sustained annual growth of around 8% or more. Eg: The Economic Survey states that consistent 8% growth is essential to meet infrastructure, employment, and welfare needs by 2047.
- Mismatch with India’s Domestic Demands and Aspirations: India’s population growth and development needs demand faster economic expansion, regardless of how the rest of the world is performing. Eg: Even though India outpaces global peers, a 6.5% rate may not create enough jobs or uplift per capita incomes sufficiently.
- Limited Acceleration Potential Under Stable Growth Phase: While 6.5% reflects stability, it also signals a plateau, with low inflation but no signs of rapid acceleration in the near future. Eg: Chief Economic Adviser V. Anantha Nageswaran indicated India may not see major growth spurts soon, making it harder to catch up with long-term development targets.
How do net taxes affect the true picture of GDP growth?
- Artificial Boost to Headline GDP: A significant rise in net taxes (taxes minus subsidies) can inflate GDP figures without a corresponding increase in real economic activity. Eg: In Q4 2024–25, GDP growth was 7.4%, but without the 12.7% surge in net taxes, real growth would have been around 6.8%.
- Distorts Sector-Wise Contribution Assessment: High net tax contributions may overshadow sluggish performance in core sectors like manufacturing or consumption, giving a misleading impression of overall health. Eg: Despite weak private consumption, GDP looked robust due to the statistical impact of increased tax revenue.
Is stable growth enough for India’s transition?
- Stability Reduces Risk but Limits Acceleration: While stable growth ensures low inflation and reduced economic volatility, it may not generate the momentum needed to transform India into a developed economy. Eg: As per the Chief Economic Adviser, India has entered a phase of low inflation and stable growth, but such stability might cap faster economic acceleration.
- Inadequate for Meeting Rising Aspirations: India’s growing population and developmental needs require higher employment, infrastructure, and productivity, which stable but slow growth may not adequately support. Eg: A 6.5% GDP growth may not create enough jobs or income levels to match the goals of schemes like ‘Viksit Bharat 2047’.
- Missed Opportunity in a Global Slowdown: In a “growth-scarce” global environment, India has the chance to become a key economic engine. Relying on stable growth without pushing for higher gains may lead to missed strategic opportunities. Eg: Despite outperforming other major economies, India’s slow capital investment pace until late FY25 indicates underutilization of its potential.
Way forward:
- Accelerate Structural Reforms and Investments: India must boost productivity by investing in infrastructure, manufacturing, skilling, and digitalisation, while simplifying regulations to attract both domestic and foreign investment. Eg: Fast-tracking initiatives like Gati Shakti and PLI schemes can unlock higher economic momentum.
- Enhance Domestic Demand and Job Creation: Policies should focus on reviving rural consumption, supporting MSMEs, and expanding labour-intensive sectors to ensure inclusive growth. Eg: Increasing public expenditure on health, education, and affordable housing can stimulate demand and generate employment.
Mains PYQ:
[UPSC 2024] Examine the pattern and trend of public expenditure on social services in the post-reforms period in India. To what extent this has been in consonance with achieving the objective of inclusive growth?
Linkage: Inclusive growth is a core objective for a “transitioning economy” like India aiming for goals such as ‘Viksit Bharat’, and challenges in achieving it represent “growing pains”.
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Why in the News?
A groundbreaking study by Microsoft and WSP Global, published in Nature, shows major progress in making data centres more environmentally friendly.
What are Data centres?
Data centres are specialized facilities used to store, process, and manage data for organizations. They house large numbers of computer servers, network equipment, storage systems, and cooling systems, and form the backbone of the digital infrastructure that powers the internet, cloud computing, and various IT services. |
What are the environmental benefits of using cold plates and immersion cooling in data centres?
- Lower Greenhouse Gas Emissions: These methods reduce emissions by 15–21% compared to traditional air cooling. Eg: Microsoft’s study showed that using immersion cooling in their data centres significantly reduced carbon emissions during peak operations.
- Reduced Energy Consumption: They use 15–20% less energy, as liquid coolants transfer heat more efficiently than air. Eg: Alibaba’s deployment of cold plate cooling led to lower power usage effectiveness (PUE), cutting energy bills and environmental impact.
- Significant Water Conservation: Water usage drops by 31–52%, helping conserve freshwater resources Eg: In water-stressed regions like Arizona, using cold plate cooling helps tech firms operate data centres without heavy reliance on water-based air conditioning systems.
How does life cycle assessment aid in evaluating cooling technologies?
- Measures Full Environmental Impact (Cradle to Grave): LCA evaluates emissions, energy use, and water consumption across a product’s entire lifecycle — from manufacturing to disposal. Eg: The Microsoft-WSP study assessed cold plates and immersion cooling from production to end-of-life, revealing their overall environmental benefits.
- Identifies Trade-offs Between Technologies: LCA highlights sustainability trade-offs, helping compare the true impact of different cooling methods. Eg: It showed that while immersion cooling reduces emissions, the type of coolant used may raise separate ecological concerns.
- Supports Informed Decision-Making for Climate Goals: LCA provides data-driven insights for industry and policymakers to adopt greener technologies that align with emissions targets. Eg: The ICT sector can use LCA results to choose cooling systems that help cut emissions by 42% by 2030, as per global climate goals.
Why is renewable energy essential for sustainable data centre cooling?
- Drastically Reduces Carbon Emissions: Using renewable energy like solar or wind can cut emissions by 85–90%, regardless of the cooling technology used. Eg: A data centre powered by wind energy in Sweden showed near-zero emissions even with traditional air cooling.
- Enhances the Impact of Green Cooling Technologies: When combined with cold plates or immersion cooling, renewables amplify environmental benefits by further lowering energy and water use. Eg: The Microsoft-WSP study found that with 100% renewables, water savings could increase up to 50%.
- Ensures True Sustainability Across the System: Cooling innovations alone aren’t enough if the electricity source is polluting; renewables make the entire system eco-friendly. Eg: A server cooled efficiently but powered by coal-based electricity still carries a high carbon footprint.
In what ways are liquid-cooling methods superior to air cooling?
- Higher Cooling Efficiency and Performance: Liquid-cooling systems like cold plates and immersion cooling transfer heat more efficiently than air, reducing the risk of overheating and improving hardware performance. Eg: In Microsoft’s data centres, cold plate cooling reduced component temperatures significantly compared to air-cooled setups, boosting system reliability.
- Lower Energy and Water Consumption: Liquid methods use 15–20% less energy and up to 52% less water, making them more sustainable and cost-effective in the long run. Eg: Alibaba’s immersion-cooled servers showed reduced electricity bills and water usage in high-demand operations.
To what extent can cooling innovations help meet ICT emission targets by 2030?
- Significant Reduction in Greenhouse Gas Emissions: Advanced cooling technologies like cold plates and immersion cooling can reduce ICT data centre emissions by 15–21%, directly contributing to the 42% emission cut target set for 2030 (from 2015 levels). Eg: Microsoft’s deployment of cold plate systems showed measurable emissions drops in large-scale data operations.
- Supports Scalable, Energy-Efficient Data Centre Growth: As demand for cloud services increases, liquid cooling enables high-performance computing without a corresponding rise in energy and carbon footprint, helping the sector scale sustainably. Eg: Alibaba’s use of immersion cooling enabled expansion of AI and cloud infrastructure while keeping energy use in check.
Way forward:
- Promote Policy Incentives for Green Cooling Technologies: Governments should provide tax breaks, capital subsidies, and faster approvals for data centres that adopt liquid-cooling systems and renewable energy integration. Eg: Extending schemes like India’s PLI (Production-Linked Incentive) to green tech in data centres can fast-track low-emission infrastructure adoption.
- Mandate Life Cycle Assessments and Emission Reporting: Introduce mandatory Life Cycle Assessments (LCA) and carbon disclosure norms for large-scale data centres to encourage transparent, science-based decisions. Eg: Requiring firms to report environmental impact from cooling systems can guide smarter industry shifts aligned with ICT sector’s 2030 emission targets.
Mains PYQ:
[UPSC 2022] How will India achieve the target of 50% of its installed capacity from renewable energy by 2030? Justify your answer. How will the shift of subsidies from fossil fuels to renewables help achieve the above objective? Explain.
Linkage: Switching to renewable energy is a more effective way for the tech industry to run energy-hungry data centers in a cleaner, more sustainable way. This helps them meet climate goals and support national environmental targets.
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Why in the News?
The aftermath of Operation Sindoor highlights India’s strategic concerns over the proposed Zangezur Corridor in Armenia backed by Azerbaijan and Turkiye.
About the Zangezur Corridor:
- What it is: The Zangezur Corridor is a proposed land route through Armenia’s Syunik Province that would connect Azerbaijan to its Nakhchivan region, cutting across Armenian land.
- Who supports it: Azerbaijan and Turkiye back the project. They want a direct link without Armenian border checks or customs interference.
- Route Details: The corridor would be about 43–44 km long and pass near the Iran-Armenia border, giving it high geopolitical value.
- Why it’s controversial:
- Azerbaijan sees it as a post-war right after its win in the 2020 Nagorno-Karabakh conflict.
- Armenia insists it must have full control and sovereignty over any transport through its territory.
- Turkiye’s Interest: It wants to use this corridor as part of its Middle Corridor project to connect with Central Asia and Europe via land routes.
- Opposition: Iran and Armenia oppose the corridor, fearing it could:
- Isolate Armenia,
- Weaken Iranian access, and
- Threaten Armenia’s territorial integrity.
How it concerns India?
- Strategic Ties: India is a key defence partner for Armenia and supports regional stability in the South Caucasus.
- Trade Ambitions: India is:
- Developing Chabahar Port in Iran,
- Working on a transport route via Iran–Armenia–Georgia to Europe, bypassing Pakistan and the Suez Canal.
- Concerns: If the Zangezur Corridor bypasses Armenian control, it could:
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- Disrupt India’s land trade route to Europe,
- Reduce Iran’s regional access,
- Weaken India’s strategic reach.
- Larger Geo-Politics: Turkiye and Azerbaijan’s growing influence in the region is worrying for India, especially since Turkiye opposes India’s IMEC (India-Middle East-Europe Corridor).
- India’s Stand: India supports Armenia’s sovereignty and opposes unilateral moves, aiming to:
- Protect its trade routes,
- Preserve strategic balance, and
- Counter regional encirclement.
| [UPSC 2023] Consider the following pairs:
Regions often mentioned in news : Reason for being in news
1. North Kivu and Ituri : War between Armenia an Azerbaijan
2. Nagorno-Karabakh : Insurgency in Mozambique
3. Kherson and Zaporizhzhia : Dispute between Israel and Lebanon How many of the above pairs are correctly matched?
Options: (a) Only one (b) Only two (c) All three (d) None * |
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Why in the news?
As of May 17, Iran holds 408.6 kg of enriched uranium (near to the weapons-grade level) up to 60%, up sharply from 274.8 kg in February 2024, according to the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA).
About the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA):
- What it is: The IAEA is an international organization that promotes the peaceful use of nuclear energy and ensures it is not used for making nuclear weapons.
- Establishment: It was created in 1957 following U.S. President Dwight Eisenhower’s “Atoms for Peace” speech. It is autonomous but reports to the UN General Assembly and Security Council.
- Where it is based: Its headquarters is in Vienna, Austria, at the UN Office.
- Members: The IAEA has 178 member countries, including India, which was a founding member.
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- Promote peaceful nuclear technology use.
- Prevent nuclear weapon development through safeguards.
- Set safety and security standards for nuclear plants and materials.
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- It monitors the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT) to make sure countries don’t misuse nuclear materials.
- It performs inspections, gives training, and supports countries in nuclear emergencies.
- Recognition: In 2005, the IAEA won the Nobel Peace Prize for stopping the spread of nuclear weapons.
IAEA and India:
- India is a founding member: It supports the IAEA’s mission for peaceful nuclear development.
- Nuclear Reactors Monitoring: Out of 22 nuclear reactors, 14 are monitored by the IAEA. These reactors use imported uranium from Russia, Kazakhstan, and Canada.
- Obligations imposed: In 2014, under the Indo-U.S. Civil Nuclear Agreement, India accepted IAEA safeguards to show transparency.
| [UPSC 2020] In India, why are some nuclear reactors kept “IAEA Safeguards” while others are not?
Options: (a) Some use uranium and others use thorium (b) Some use imported uranium, and others use domestic supplies* (c) Some are operated by foreign enterprises and others are operated by domestic (d) Some are State-owned and others are privately-owned |
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