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Artificial Intelligence (AI) Breakthrough

[29th September 2025] The Hindu Op-ed: An Engel’s pause in an AI-shaped world

op-ed snap | Science Tech | Mains Paper 3: Awareness in various sc and tech fields

PYQ Relevance

[UPSC 2023] Introduce the concept of Artificial Intelligence (AI). How does AI help clinical diagnosis? Do you perceive any threat to privacy of the individual in the use of AI in the healthcare?

Linkage: This question reflects the exact dilemma discussed in the Engels’ pause analogy—AI promises higher productivity (e.g., clinical diagnosis, efficiency) but without governance, the welfare gains (privacy, equitable access, trust) may lag, creating social costs.

Mentor’s Comment

The rise of Artificial Intelligence (AI) is hailed as the new Industrial Revolution, but as Geoffrey Hinton warns, it could also deepen inequality by making a few rich while leaving the majority poorer. This paradox, reminiscent of Friedrich Engels’ 19th-century observation, raises a pressing question for policymakers: Are we entering a modern “Engels’ pause” where productivity soars but living standards stagnate? For UPSC aspirants, this debate is central to GS 1 (industrial revolution parallels), GS 2 (governance), GS 3 (technology, economy), and GS 4 (ethics of equity in innovation).

Introduction

The concept of an Engels’ pause, coined by economist Robert Allen, describes a historical paradox in 19th-century Britain: industrial output grew rapidly, yet wages stagnated, food prices soared, and inequality widened. The benefits of industrialization reached the majority only after decades, with reforms and institutional adjustments.

Today, AI as a general-purpose technology (GPT)—akin to steam power, electricity, or the internet—brings unprecedented productivity potential but also risks replicating this paradox. With Nobel Laureate Geoffrey Hinton warning of AI enriching a few at the expense of many, and evidence of uneven benefits emerging globally, the Engels’ pause metaphor becomes a crucial analytical lens.

Why in the News?

Artificial Intelligence is reshaping global economies, but early signs suggest a disconnect between productivity gains and broad-based prosperity. A recent Stanford study showed younger workers are more vulnerable to AI displacement, while an Indian IT giant laid off 12,000 employees in its AI pivot. Meanwhile, a MIT study revealed that 95% of AI pilots are failing to deliver visible gains due to weak complementary capabilities. In the Philippines, call centres recorded 30–50% productivity jumps with AI copilots, yet wages stagnated and workloads intensified. PwC forecasts AI could add $15.7 trillion to global GDP by 2030, but gains are concentrated in a few countries and firms. These developments highlight the possibility of an AI-induced Engels’ pause, making it a critical debate for global governance.

Are We Facing a Modern Engels’ Pause?

  1. Historical Parallels: Like 19th-century Britain, current AI-driven growth risks benefiting capital over labour, delaying welfare gains for the majority.
  2. Vulnerable Workers: Stanford research shows younger workers are most exposed to AI disruptions.
  3. Sectoral Displacement: IT, healthcare, education, and even government (e.g., Albania’s AI Minister) are witnessing job/task reconfigurations.

What Are the Markers of an AI Engels’ Pause?

  1. Stagnant Wages despite Productivity Gains: Philippines call centres show higher efficiency but little improvement in wages.
  2. Rising Costs of Complements: Cloud computing, retraining, coding bootcamps, and cybersecurity raise the “price of staying relevant”.
  3. Unequal Distribution of Gains: PwC’s $15.7 trillion AI GDP addition is concentrated in the U.S., China, and a few tech firms. IMF (2024) warns 40% of global jobs are AI-exposed, with advanced economies at greater risk of skilled substitution.
  4. Intensified Inequality: Research on India shows stronger IPR regimes widened wage inequality during tech races.

How Can Governance Break the Pause?

  1. Skilling and Transition Models: Singapore’s SkillsFuture programme and MBZUAI (world’s first AI university) highlight proactive reskilling.
  2. Redistribution Tools: Robot taxes and Universal Basic Income (UBI) pilots in the UK and EU aim to channel AI rents toward social welfare.
  3. AI Infrastructure as Public Good: Compute and data should be democratized; initiatives like K2Think.ai (UAE) and Apertus (Switzerland) are steps in building open, public AI models.

Why This Time Might Be Different

  1. Stronger Welfare Systems: Unlike 19th-century Britain, today’s democracies have safety nets and global institutions.
  2. Rapid Diffusion of Technology: Smartphones reached billions within a decade; AI could follow a similar trajectory.
  3. Potential Social Benefits: AI could lower costs in healthcare, education, and energy if deployed equitably.

Conclusion

The Engels’ pause analogy underscores a profound warning: productivity gains do not automatically translate into welfare improvements. AI governance, skilling programmes, redistribution mechanisms, and public-good infrastructure will determine whether AI becomes a human welfare revolution rather than just a productivity revolution. Political will, not just technological breakthroughs, will decide if this pause is short-lived or prolonged.

Value Addition

Scholarly References and Thinkers

  1. Robert C. Allen (2009): Coined Engels’ Pause in economic history; wages stagnated despite industrial productivity growth in 19th-century Britain.
  2. Nicholas Crafts (2021): Noted that GPTs like AI need institutional reforms and complementary innovations before welfare spreads.
  3. Bojan Jovanovic & Rousseau (2005): Documented “technology shocks” in U.S. economy → initial dislocation before long-term growth.
  4. Geoffrey Hinton (2024, FT Interview): Warned AI may “make a few rich and the rest poorer.”
  5. Agrawal, Gans & Goldfarb (2018): Defined AI as lowering the cost of prediction.

Key Reports and Data Points

  1. PwC Report (2018): AI could add $15.7 trillion to global GDP by 2030; 70% of gains concentrated in U.S. and China.
  2. IMF Report (2024): 40% of global jobs are AI-exposed; higher risk of high-skilled substitution in advanced economies.
  3. MIT Study (2023): Found that 95% of AI pilot projects failed to show visible gains due to lack of complementary capabilities.
  4. Stanford Study (2023): “Canaries in the Coal Mine” → younger workers are most vulnerable to AI disruption.
  5. OECD AI Principles (2019): Global governance framework emphasising fairness, transparency, accountability.

International Best Practices / Programs

  1. Singapore – SkillsFuture (2015): Provides continuous education credits for workers to reskill; considered a global model.
  2. UAE – Mohamed bin Zayed University of AI (MBZUAI, 2019): World’s first dedicated AI university.
  3. European Union – AI Act (2021 Draft): Risk-based framework regulating AI applications.
  4. United Kingdom – UBI Experiments: Pilots to test redistribution of tech-driven wealth.
  5. Albania – First AI Minister (2024): Institutional adoption of AI governance in public administration.

Indian Context and Initiatives

  1. NITI Aayog’s National Strategy on AI (2018): “AI for All” approach—priority areas: healthcare, education, agriculture, mobility.
  2. Digital India Programme: Expanding digital infrastructure to enable AI adoption.
  3. National Programme on AI (2019): Envisioned as a Center of Excellence ecosystem for skilling, research, and governance.
  4. NASSCOM FutureSkills Prime: Public–private initiative to reskill 2 million professionals in emerging tech, including AI.
  5. IndiaAI Portal (2023): Central knowledge hub for AI use cases and policy discussions.

Key Concepts for Thematic Depth

  1. General-Purpose Technology (GPT): Technologies with cross-sectoral transformative impact (steam, electricity, internet, AI).
  2. Complementary Innovations: Need for institutional reforms, new tasks, and human capital for GPT diffusion.
  3. Job Polarisation: Middle-skill jobs displaced → low-skill and high-skill jobs expand; seen in OECD labour markets.
  4. Robot Tax (Bill Gates’ Proposal): Idea of taxing automation to fund welfare.
  5. Universal Basic Income (UBI): Redistribution mechanism to tackle inequality in tech-driven economies.

Comparative Historical Perspective

  1. Industrial Revolution (19th c. Britain): Productivity rose but welfare stagnated → Engels’ Pause.
  2. Gilded Age (U.S.): Huge inequality, labour unrest; later corrected via welfare state reforms.
  3. Digital Revolution (1990s): Internet adoption uneven; productivity surge lagged behind wages initially.

Ethical and Governance Dimensions

  1. Equity and Justice (GS4): AI could worsen inequality unless governed inclusively.
  2. Privacy: Particularly sensitive in healthcare (HIPAA in U.S.; India’s Digital Personal Data Protection Act, 2023).
  3. Transparency: AI “black box” models challenge accountability.
  4. Democratic Deficit: AI development is corporate-heavy; needs citizen-centric governance.

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Food Processing Industry: Issues and Developments

What an empty plate of food should symbolise

Explained | Economics | Mains Paper 3: Food Processing & Related Industries In India

Introduction

Globally, nearly one-third of all food produced is lost or wasted, undermining both food security and climate action. For India, the cost of post-harvest losses is about â‚ą1.5 trillion every year, almost 3.7% of its agricultural GDP. Beyond economics, this wastage squanders nutrition, water, energy, and labour, aggravating the climate crisis. The problem is not consumer-driven, as in developed nations, but arises early in the value chain, in handling, processing, and distribution. International Day of Awareness of Food Loss and Waste (IDAFLW) highlights this as both a challenge and an opportunity: to build resilient, efficient, and climate-smart food systems.

Why is Food Loss in the News?

The recent FAO–NIFTEM–GCF study has provided the first sector-, state– and operation-wise estimates of greenhouse gas emissions from post-harvest losses and retail waste in India, covering 30 crops and livestock products. The findings are striking: even modest losses in cereals like paddy account for over 10 million tonnes of COâ‚‚-equivalent emissions annually due to rice’s methane intensity. Overall, food loss generates more than 33 million tonnes of emissions every year. For a country aiming to balance food security with climate commitments, this is both alarming and unprecedented in scale.

The Economic Burden of Food Loss

  1. â‚ą1.5 trillion annual cost: Post-harvest losses in India amount to nearly 3.7% of agricultural GDP.
  2. Sectoral vulnerability: Fruits and vegetables suffer 10–15% losses; even staples such as paddy (4.8%) and wheat (4.2%) are significantly affected.
  3. Farmer incomes at risk: Such losses reduce food availability and directly affect the livelihood security of millions of farmers.

The Climate Connection

  1. Greenhouse gas emissions: Food loss from 30 key commodities produces 33 million tonnes of COâ‚‚-equivalent emissions annually.
  2. Cereal losses critical: Paddy alone contributes over 10 million tonnes of emissions due to methane intensity.
  3. Livestock products’ footprint: Wastage in dairy and meat is equally damaging, given their heavy resource requirements.
  4. Link with SDGs: India has integrated SDG 12.3.1 (Global Food Loss and Waste) into its National Indicator Framework for systematic monitoring.

Where Do the Losses Occur?

  1. Early supply chain stages: Losses in India occur during handling, processing, and distribution, unlike high-income countries where waste is consumer-driven.
  2. Infrastructure gaps: Lack of modern cold chains, refrigerated transport, and efficient storage are major bottlenecks.
  3. Fragmented supply chains: Weak value-chain integration adds to inefficiency and wastage.

Practical Solutions in Sight

  1. Cold chain modernisation: Programmes like PM Kisan SAMPADA Yojana (PMKSY) focus on modernising storage, processing, and logistics.
  2. Affordable technologies: Solar cold storage, low-cost cooling chambers, and moisture-proof silos can reduce spoilage for smallholders.
  3. Digital interventions: IoT sensors, AI-driven forecasting, and tracking tools like the FAO Food Loss App (FLAPP) (launched in 2023, used in 30+ countries) improve efficiency.
  4. Circular economy practices: Redirecting surplus to food banks/community kitchens and converting unavoidable waste into compost, feed, or bioenergy.
  5. Policy support: Subsidies, credit guarantees, and low-interest loans are needed to scale up solutions.

Shared Responsibility Across Stakeholders

  1. Government: Integrate food loss reduction in climate strategies and invest in infrastructure.
  2. Private sector: Adopt circular business models and scalable innovations.
  3. Civil society & academia: Drive awareness and research.
  4. Consumers: Practice mindful consumption and support redistribution mechanisms.

Conclusion

An empty plate should symbolise nourishment received, not the silent wastage of resources and opportunities. Reducing food loss in India is not just about saving food — it is about strengthening farmer incomes, ensuring food security, cutting emissions, and meeting global sustainability goals.

PYQ Relevance

[UPSC 2019] Examine the scope of the food processing industries in India. Elaborate the measures taken by the government in the food processing industries for generating employment opportunities.

Linkage: Food loss and waste directly highlight the gaps in India’s food processing sector, where inadequate cold chains, fragmented supply chains, and weak storage infrastructure undermine both farmer incomes and climate goals, making this question highly relevant.

Value Addition

International Day of Awareness of Food Loss and Waste (IDAFLW): Observed on September 29; raises global attention to the issue of food loss and waste undermining food and climate security.

Value Chain and Food Processing Sector in India

Economic Significance

  1. Contribution to GDP : Food processing sector contributes about 10% of manufacturing GDP and nearly 13% of India’s exports.
  2. Employment Potential : Provides large-scale rural and semi-urban employment, with strong potential for women and smallholder farmers.

Infrastructure and Policy Interventions

  1. Pradhan Mantri Kisan SAMPADA Yojana (PMKSY) : Umbrella scheme for cold chains, mega food parks, and agro-processing clusters.
  2. Mega Food Parks : Around 42 Mega Food Parks sanctioned across the country to integrate farm-to-market supply chains.
  3. Operation Greens (TOP to TOTAL) : Price stabilisation and value chain strengthening for perishable crops like tomato, onion, potato.
  4. PLI Scheme for Food Processing (2021) : â‚ą10,900 crore outlay to boost exports, ready-to-eat, organic, and marine food products.

Post-Harvest Losses and Value Chain Gaps

  1. High Economic Losses : NABCONS (2022) estimated â‚ą1.5 trillion annual post-harvest losses, equivalent to 3.7% of agricultural GDP.
  2. Crop-wise Losses : Fruits and vegetables face 10–15% losses; paddy 4.8%; wheat 4.2%.
  3. Comparative Gap : Only 10% of India’s produce is processed, compared to 65–70% in developed nations.

Technology and Innovation in Value Chains

  1. IoT and AI : Used for forecasting, tracking, and real-time storage monitoring.
  2. Affordable Storage Solutions : Solar cold storage, low-cost cooling chambers, and moisture-proof silos reduce wastage.
  3. Digital Platforms : FAO’s Food Loss App (FLAPP) (2023) monitors value-chain losses; adopted in 30+ countries.

Sustainability and Circular Economy

  1. Resource Efficiency : Cutting losses conserves embedded water, energy, and labour.
  2. Surplus Redistribution : Food banks and community kitchens absorb edible surplus.
  3. Waste Conversion : Composting, animal feed, and bioenergy generation from unavoidable waste.
  4. Global Commitments : Strengthens India’s alignment with SDG 2 (Zero Hunger), SDG 12 (Responsible Consumption and Production), and SDG 13 (Climate Action).

Case Study Box: Food Processing and Value Chain in India

Case Study 1: Tumkur Mega Food Park, Karnataka

  • Launched : Under PMKSY.
  • Facilities : Cold storage, warehousing, quality control labs, logistics hubs
  • Impact :
    • Reduced post-harvest losses of perishable crops.
    • Generated ~5,000 direct and indirect jobs.
    • Enhanced farmer linkages with retail chains and exporters.

Case Study 2: Operation Greens – Onion Price Stabilisation (Maharashtra, 2018–19)

  • Problem : Frequent onion price crashes and volatility in Maharashtra.
  • Intervention : Subsidised transport and storage under Operation Greens (TOP to TOTAL).
  • Impact :
    • Prevented distress sales by farmers.
    • Stabilised retail onion prices for consumers.
    • Demonstrated the role of value chain management in food security.

Case Study 3: Amul Dairy Cooperative (Gujarat)

  • Model : Farmer-owned cooperative integrating production, processing, and distribution.
  • Impact :
    • Dairy farmers receive better price realisation.
    • Efficient cold chain logistics reduce milk spoilage.
    • Became a global model of agri-value chain success.

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Economic Indicators and Various Reports On It- GDP, FD, EODB, WIR etc

Analysing Indian State’s macro-fiscal health

Explained | Economics | Mains Paper 3: Indian Economy

Introduction

India’s federal system depends heavily on States for delivering core welfare, infrastructure, and development. For much of the 2000s, reforms and tax buoyancy allowed States to report surpluses, better spending, and healthier balance sheets. However, the COVID-19 pandemic marked a turning point: revenues plummeted while emergency spending skyrocketed, forcing States into unprecedented borrowing. The Comptroller and Auditor General (CAG)’s decade-long analysis highlights this transition, exposing systemic stress points in India’s fiscal federalism.

Why is this issue in the news?

India’s States, once showing signs of fiscal prudence with even surpluses, now find themselves trapped in a debt spiral. The pandemic alone pushed almost every State into record borrowing, reversing earlier trends. For example, Uttar Pradesh, once lauded for surplus budgets, reported a revenue surplus of only ₹2,000 crore, down sharply from ₹37,000 crore in FY20. Kerala, which borrowed ₹80,575 crore in 2020-22, saw its debt mount to unsustainable levels. The contrast is stark: States that earlier prospered through buoyancy and reforms are today weighed down by heavy fiscal deficits and repayment burdens.

How has the States’ borrowing changed over time?

  1. Sharp rise post-pandemic: Borrowings spiked everywhere during the pandemic, with Kerala, Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, and Tamil Nadu reporting unprecedented debt levels.
  2. Uttar Pradesh’s decline: From a revenue surplus of ₹37,000 crore in 2019-20, UP fell to only ₹2,000 crore.
  3. Kerala’s crisis: Borrowed ₹80,575 crore between 2020-22 and exceeded ₹1.04 lakh crore later, making it one of the most indebted States.
  4. National trends: From 2017 to 2022-23, States’ gross borrowings rose from ₹5.6 lakh crore to ₹8.2 lakh crore, reflecting widespread fiscal strain.

Why are States borrowing so heavily?

  1. Emergency spending: The pandemic forced huge expenditures on health, welfare, and relief, while revenues collapsed.
  2. Welfare paradox: Despite borrowing, States continue with high welfare commitments such as free electricity, pensions, and subsidies.
  3. GST regime pressures: Dependence on GST compensation and delayed transfers added strain to State finances.
  4. Capital expenditure trade-offs: More money went into welfare subsidies than infrastructure, raising concerns of long-term growth stagnation.

What are the fiscal risks emerging?

  1. Debt sustainability: States like Punjab, Kerala, and Rajasthan carry some of the heaviest debt burdens relative to GSDP.
  2. Revenue shortfall: Weak own-tax revenues coupled with GST dependency reduce fiscal space.
  3. Deficit pressures: Gross fiscal deficit (GFD) levels remain elevated, restricting maneuverability.
  4. Crowding out growth: Excessive borrowing for subsidies diverts funds from capital creation, weakening long-term competitiveness.

How are States coping with fiscal pressures?

  1. Raising borrowings: Kerala, Maharashtra, and Tamil Nadu remain among the largest borrowers.
  2. Cutting investments: Many States reduced capital expenditure to fund populist schemes.
  3. Seeking Centre’s support: GST compensation and Union transfers remain critical lifelines.
  4. Relying on lotteries and land: Kerala and other States turn to non-tax sources like lottery revenues or land monetisation.

What is the way forward for States’ fiscal health?

  1. Prudent fiscal management: Focus on long-term debt sustainability instead of short-term populism.
  2. Rationalised welfare: Targeted subsidies over blanket schemes to avoid unsustainable fiscal stress.
  3. Strengthened GST framework: Ensure timely compensation and greater autonomy in tax mobilisation.
  4. Balanced expenditure: Redirect focus toward capital creation and infrastructure while safeguarding essential welfare.

Conclusion

The macro-fiscal health of Indian States has reached a critical juncture. The transition from buoyancy and surpluses in the 2000s to widespread borrowing and debt stress post-pandemic illustrates both structural vulnerabilities and political compulsions. While welfare commitments reflect democratic imperatives, unchecked populism coupled with weak revenue growth risks undermining fiscal stability. The future of India’s growth story rests not only on the Centre but equally on how States recalibrate their spending priorities and borrowing practices.

PYQ Relevance

[UPSC 2024] Examine the pattern and trend of public expenditure on social services in the post-reforms period in India. To what extent this has been in consonance with achieving the objective of inclusive growth?

Linkage: The article’s discussion on States’ rising welfare spending, shrinking capital outlays, and mounting debt post-pandemic directly links to this PYQ by questioning whether such expenditure patterns genuinely advance inclusive growth.

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Forest Conservation Efforts – NFP, Western Ghats, etc.

Cold Desert named India’s 13th UNESCO Biosphere Reserve

Places in newsPrelims Only | Enviro & Biodiversity | Mains Paper 3: Conservation, Environmental Pollution & Degradation, Eia

Why in the News?

UNESCO added India’s Cold Desert Biosphere Reserve (CDBR) to the World Network of Biosphere Reserves (WNBR) under the Man and the Biosphere (MAB) programme.

With this, India now has 13 UNESCO-recognized biosphere reserves out of 18 designated nationally.

What are UNESCO Biosphere Reserves?

  • Overview: Sites integrating biodiversity conservation + cultural heritage + sustainable development.
  • Programme: MAB (1971).
  • Designation Criteria:
    • Must include a protected core zone.
    • Must represent a unique biogeographical unit.
    • Involve local communities in conservation.
    • Potential to preserve traditional lifestyles.
  • Functions: Conservation, Development, Logistic Support.
  • Global Network (WNBR): 785 sites, 142 countries (2025); 7.4 million sq. km (~5% Earth’s surface); home to 275 million people.

About Cold Desert Biosphere Reserve (CDBR):

  • Location: Lahaul–Spiti (Himachal Pradesh), part of Trans-Himalayan biogeographic province.
  • Constituents: Includes Pin Valley National Park, Kibber Wildlife Sanctuary, Chandratal Wetland, Sarchu Plains.
  • Biodiversity:
    • Flora:  732 vascular plants, incl. 30 endemic, 47 medicinal plants (Amchi / Sowa Rigpa).
    • Fauna: Snow leopard (flagship), Tibetan wolf, Himalayan ibex, blue sheep (800+ in Spiti), Himalayan snowcock, golden eagle, bearded vulture.
  • Communities: ~12,000 people; practice yak & goat herding, barley/pea farming, Tibetan herbal medicine, Buddhist monastic councils.
  • Significance: Boosts eco-tourism, climate research, community-led conservation, sustainable livelihoods. Supports climate-resilient development in fragile ecosystems.

cold desert biosphere reserve

Biosphere Reserves in India:

  • Total: 18 designated, of which 13 in UNESCO-WNBR (as of 2025).
  • First: Nilgiri BR (1986); Largest: Gulf of Kachchh (Gujarat); Smallest: Dibru-Saikhowa (Assam).
  • Scheme: Launched 1986; implemented by MoEFCC under MAB Programme.
  • Three zones: Each biosphere reserve is organised into-
    1. Core zone (strictly protected),
    2. Buffer zone (limited human activity such as research, grazing, and tourism permitted), and
    3. Transition zone (sustainable human settlements and economic activities allowed).
  • Funding: 90:10 (NE & Himalayan states); 60:40 (others).
[UPSC 2019] Which of the following are in Agasthyamala Biosphere Reserve?

Options: (a) Neyyar, Peppara and Shendurney Wildlife Sanctuaries; and Kalakad Mundanthurai Tiger Reserve*

(b) Mudumalai, Sathyamangalam and Wayanad Wildlife Sanctuaries; and Silent Valley National Park

(c) Kaundinya, Gundla Brahmeswaram and Papikonda Wildlife Sanctuaries; and Mukurthi National Park

(d) Kawal and Sri Venkateswara Wildlife Sanctuaries; and Nagarjunasagar-Srisailam Tiger Reserve

 

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Internal Security Architecture Shortcomings – Key Forces, NIA, IB, CCTNS, etc.

National Security Act of 1980

Prelims Only | Security Issues | Mains Paper 3: External State & Non-State Actors: Challenges To Internal Security.

Why in the News?

Climate activist Sonam Wangchuk, leading the demand for statehood and Sixth Schedule protections for Ladakh, was detained under the National Security Act (NSA) in Leh.

About the National Security Act, 1980:

  • Enactment: Passed on 23 September 1980; applicable across India (earlier not in Jammu & Kashmir).
  • Constitutional Basis: Rooted in Article 22(3)(b) (preventive detention permitted) and Article 22(4) (limit of 3 months unless Board approves).
  • Objective: Provides for preventive detention to safeguard defence, national security, public order, foreign relations, and essential supplies/services.
  • Grounds for Detention: Acts prejudicial to India’s defence or security, harming foreign relations, disturbing public order, endangering essential supplies, or regulating foreigners’ presence/expulsion.
  • Authorities Empowered: Centre, States, District Magistrates, and Police Commissioners (if authorised).
  • Duration: Detention up to 12 months; must communicate grounds within 5 days (extendable to 15). A person can be held 10 days without disclosure of charges.
  • Advisory Board: Composed of three persons qualified to be High Court judges. Orders reviewed within 3 weeks; if no sufficient cause exists, release is mandatory.
  • Background: Builds on colonial-era Bengal Regulation III (1818), Rowlatt Acts (1919), post-independence Preventive Detention Act (1950), and MISA (1971, repealed 1977). Reintroduced by Indira Gandhi in 1980.

Legal Options after Arrest under NSA:

  • Representation to Government: Detainee can file a written representation challenging detention.
  • Advisory Board Review: Must be reviewed within 3 weeks; release ordered if detention unjustified.
  • Judicial Remedies: Writ petition in High Court (Art. 226) or Supreme Court (Art. 32).
  • Revocation: Centre or State may revoke detention anytime.
  • Limitations: No right to lawyer before Advisory Board; grounds may be withheld in “public interest.”
[UPSC 2023] Consider the following statements:

1. According to the Constitution of India, the Central Government has a duty to protect States from internal disturbances.

2. The Constitution of India exempts the States from providing legal counsel to a person being held for preventive detention.

3. According to the Prevention of Terrorism Act, 2002, the confession of the accused before the police cannot be used as evidence.

How many of the above statements are correct?

(a) Only one* (b) Only two (c) All three (d) None

 

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ISRO Missions and Discoveries

India’s first space observatory AstroSat completes 10 years

Prelims Only | Science Tech | Mains Paper 3: Achievements Of Indians In S&T

Why in the News?

AstroSat, India’s first multi-wavelength space observatory has completed 10 years on September 28, 2025, boosting India’s role in multi-messenger astronomy.

What is Multi-Messenger Astronomy?

  • Overview:  A modern approach that uses different cosmic messengers to study the universe, not just light.
  • Messengers:
    • Light (photons): Radio, visible, UV, X-ray, gamma rays.
    • Gravitational waves: From black hole/neutron star mergers.
    • Neutrinos: From nuclear reactions in stars.
    • Cosmic rays: Charged particles from space.
  • Insights: Light shows stellar surfaces; Gravitational waves show collisions; Neutrinos probe stellar interiors.
  • Example: 2017 neutron star collision observed with both light and gravitational waves, proving origin of heavy elements like gold.
  • AstroSat’s Role: Enabled simultaneous UV, optical, and X-ray observations, tracking flares, black holes, and neutron stars.

What is AstroSat?

  • Overview: India’s first dedicated multi-wavelength space observatory, launched on September 28, 2015 by PSLV-C30 from Sriharikota.
  • Objective: To study celestial sources simultaneously in X-ray, ultraviolet (UV), and optical bands, unlike most single-band missions.
  • Management: Controlled by the Mission Operations Complex (MOX), ISTRAC, Bengaluru.
  • Mission Life: Designed for 5 years but operational even after 10 years.
  • Payloads:
    • UVIT (Ultra Violet Imaging Telescope).
    • LAXPC (Large Area X-ray Proportional Counter).
    • CZTI (Cadmium-Zinc-Telluride Imager).
    • SXT (Soft X-ray Telescope).
    • SSM (Scanning Sky Monitor).

Its Accomplishments:

  • Extended Life: Surpassed design life; still generating data.
  • Black Hole Studies: Captured 500+ black hole births, advancing high-energy astrophysics.
  • Galaxy Detection: Tracked extreme UV light from a galaxy 9.3 billion light-years away, aiding early universe studies.
  • Gamma-Ray Bursts: 500+ bursts studied by CZTI.
  • Discoveries: Identified rare UV-bright Milky Way stars, thousands of times brighter than the Sun.
[UPSC 2016] With reference to ‘Astrosat’,’ the astronomical observatory launched by India, which of the following statements is/are correct?

1. Other than USA and Russia, India is the only country to have launched a similar observatory into space.

2. Astrosat is a 2000 kg satellite placed in an orbit at 1650 km above the surface of the Earth.

Select the correct answer using the code given below.

(a) 1 only (b) 2 only (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2*

 

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Modern Indian History-Events and Personalities

[pib] Who was Rani Rashmoni (1793-1861)?

Prelims Only | History | Mains Paper 1: Modern Indian History

Why in the News?

The Prime Minister has paid tribute to Rani Rashmoni on her birth anniversary on 28th September.

Rani Rashmoni (1793-1861)

Who was Rani Rashmoni (1793–1861)?

  • Overview: A prominent zamindar, businesswoman, philanthropist, and social reformer from 19th-century Bengal.
  • Birth: Born on 28 September 1793 in Halisahar, Bengal.
  • Marriage: Married at the age of 11 to Raja Raj Chandra Das, wealthy zamindar of Janbazar, Kolkata.
  • Leadership: Took charge of the estate and business after her husband’s death in 1836, unusual for women of her time.
  • Reputation: Revered as “Lokmata” (Mother of the People) for her courage, administration, and social commitment.

Her Contributions:

  • Patronage: Built the Dakshineswar Kali Temple (1847–1855); appointed Sri Ramakrishna Paramahamsa as chief priest despite caste opposition.
  • Social Reforms: Opposed polygamy and child marriage; supported widow remarriage; submitted a draft bill against polygamy to the British.
  • Public Welfare & Infrastructure: Constructed major ghats on the Ganga including Babughat, Ahiritola Ghat, Nimtala Ghat. Funded roads, reservoirs, and pilgrim facilities, such as the road from Subarnarekha River to Puri.
  • Resistance to British Rule: Fought against fishing taxes on Hooghly fishermen by blocking river traffic, compelling British to abolish the tax. Defied British restrictions on Durga Puja processions, preserving traditions.
  • Support for Education & Culture: Donated to the Imperial Library (now National Library of India) and Hindu College (now Presidency University). Established schools for women and marginalized groups.
[UPSC 2024] Consider the following statements about Raja Ram Mohan Roy:

I. He possessed great love and respect for the traditional philosophical systems of the East.

II. He desired his countrymen to accept the rational and scientific approach and the principle of human dignity and social equality of all men and women.

Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

(a) I only (b) II only (c) Both I and II* (d) Neither I nor II

 

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Port Infrastructure and Shipping Industry – Sagarmala Project, SDC, CEZ, etc.

[pib] The Indian Ports Act, 2025

PIB | Economics | Mains Paper 3: Infrastructure: Energy, Ports, Roads, Airports, Railways Etc.

Why in the News?

The Indian Ports Act, 2025 enacted in August, repealing the age-old Indian Ports Act of 1908 seeks to establish a more modern legal and institutional framework for India’s port sector.

About Indian Ports Act, 2025:

  • Overview: Enacted in August 2025, replacing the Indian Ports Act of 1908 to modernize India’s port governance.
  • Aim: To integrate port law, tariff regulation, safety, environmental standards, and Centre–State cooperation into one comprehensive legal framework.
  • Vision: Aligns with broader maritime reforms alongside the Merchant Shipping Act, 2025 and Carriage of Goods by Sea Act, 2025.
  • Seeks to position India’s port sector for global competitiveness through transparency, sustainability, and efficient regulation.

Key Features:

  • Maritime State Development Council (MSDC): Becomes a statutory consultative body to coordinate between Centre and States, advise on national port strategy, tariff transparency, data standards, and connectivity planning.
  • State Maritime Boards: Each coastal state must establish or recognize a board within 6 months to regulate non-major ports, manage licensing, tariffs, development, safety, and environmental compliance.
  • Tariff Setting:
    • Major Ports: Tariffs fixed by Port Authority Boards or Boards of Directors.
    • Non-Major Ports: Tariffs fixed by State Maritime Boards or concessionaires.
    • All tariffs must be electronically published for transparency.
  • Dispute Resolution: States must create Dispute Resolution Committees; appeals go directly to High Courts. Arbitration and ADR allowed.
  • Environmental Norms: Mandates waste management, pollution control, disaster preparedness, ballast water restrictions, and penalties for violations.
  • Applicability: Covers all existing and future ports, navigable channels, and vessels within port limits, except those serving armed forces, Coast Guard, or customs.
[UPSC 2023] With reference to India, consider the following pairs:

Port : Well Known as

1. Kamarajar Port : First major port in India registered as a company

2. Mundra Port : Largest privately owned port in India

3. Visakhapatnam Port : Largest container port in India

How many of the above pairs are correctly matched?

(a) Only one pair (b) Only two pairs* (c) All three pairs (d) None of the pairs

 

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Climate Change Impact on India and World – International Reports, Key Observations, etc.

Ganga River is drying faster than in 1,300 years: Report

Prelims Only | Enviro & Biodiversity | Mains Paper 1: Geographical Features & Their Location

Why in the News?

A recent study by researchers from IIT Gandhinagar and the University of Arizona warns that the Ganga River is drying at a rate unseen in more than a millennium.

About Drying of the Ganga River: New Study Findings

  • Overview: Reconstructed streamflow since 700 AD using tree-ring records (Monsoon Asia Drought Atlas) and hydrological models. Validated against historic droughts and famines such as the Bengal famine.

  • Findings:

    • Between 1991 and 2020, multiple droughts lasted 4–7 years, the rarest in the past 1,300 years.
    • The 2004–2010 drought was the most severe in 1,300 years.
    • Post-1990s drying was 76% more intense than the worst 16th-century drought.

  • Causes:

    • Weaker monsoons from Indian Ocean warming and aerosol pollution.
    • Groundwater over-extraction reducing river baseflow.
    • Land-use change disrupting natural recharge.
  • Climate Models: Most fail to reproduce the drying trend, raising doubts about optimistic rainfall projections.
  • Implications: Severe threats to agriculture, 600 million livelihoods, Bay of Bengal ecosystems, and the 40% GDP share of the basin. Calls for adaptive water management.

ganga

About the Ganga River:

  • Length: ~2,525 km, the longest river in India.
  • Origin: Gangotri Glacier in Uttarakhand at 3,892 m elevation as Bhagirathi.
  • Formation: Named Ganga at Devprayag after meeting Bhagirathi and Alaknanda.
  • Course: Flows through Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Jharkhand, West Bengal before entering Bangladesh as Padma and emptying into the Bay of Bengal through the Sundarbans Delta.
  • Basin: Covers about 8.61 lakh sq. km, which is 26.4% of India’s area.

  • Tributaries:

    • Left bank: Ramganga, Gomti, Ghaghara, Gandak, Burhi Gandak, Koshi, Mahananda.
    • Right bank: Yamuna, Tons, Karamnasa, Sone, Punpun, Falgu, Kiul, Chandan, Ajoy, Damodar, Rupnarayan.
  • Population: Supports over 600 million people, making it the world’s most densely populated river basin.
  • Cultural Importance: Sacred in Indian culture; declared National River in 2008.
  • Economic Role: Central to agriculture, fisheries, and trade, contributing about 40% of India’s GDP.
  • Ecological Significance: Home to snow leopard, elephants, and Ganga dolphin; includes Corbett, Dudhwa, and Sundarbans reserves.
  • Conservation Efforts: Ganga Action Plan (1985) and Namami Gange Programme (2014); persistent issues of pollution, over-extraction, and climate change.
[UPSC 2024] With reference to the Himalayan rivers joining the Ganga downstream of Prayagraj from West to East, which one of the following sequences is correct?

Options: (a) Ghaghara – Gomati – Gandak – Kosi

(b) Gomati – Ghaghara – Gandak – Kosi*

(c) Ghaghara – Gomati – Kosi – Gandak

(d) Gomati – Ghaghara – Kosi – Gandak

 

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