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Foreign Policy Watch: India-China

[18th October 2025] The Hindu Op-ed: Better global governance led by China and India

op-ed snap | International Relations | Mains Paper 2: India & Its Neighborhood - Relations

PYQ Relevance

[UPSC 2023] Virus of Conflict is affecting the functioning of the SCO.” In the light of the above statement, point out the role of India in mitigating problems.

Linkage: This PYQ is important as it tests India’s diplomatic balance within the SCO, amid regional rivalries. The article connects by showing how the Xi–Modi meeting and Global Governance Initiative reflect India’s role in restoring trust and strengthening multilateralism within the SCO framework.

Mentor’s Comment

As the world enters a phase of geopolitical churn and institutional fatigue, the call for a reformed, people-centric global governance system grows louder. The 75th anniversary of India-China diplomatic ties and the 80th year of the UN offer a historical moment: two Asian giants, once colonised, now rising powers, can redefine global order. For UPSC aspirants, this theme bridges multilateral diplomacy, global reforms, and India’s evolving foreign policy—key areas across GS Paper 2 and IR essays.

Introduction

The year 2025 marks a milestone in both bilateral and global history. India and China, home to over 2.8 billion people, commemorate 75 years of diplomatic relations, even as the United Nations celebrates its 80th anniversary. Against the backdrop of unilateralism and weakening multilateralism, the Global Governance Initiative (GGI) proposed by China, with India’s cooperation, offers a blueprint for a more equitable international order. As Asia’s two leading powers move from rivalry to partnership, their convergence could transform the world’s governance architecture, symbolising a decisive shift toward multipolarity and shared prosperity.

Why is the India-China cooperation in 2025 a landmark moment?

  1. Historical Context: The two leaders, Xi Jinping and Narendra Modi, have met 18 times since 2014, an unprecedented frequency symbolising sustained engagement despite border tensions.
  2. Symbolic Restoration: The bilateral meeting at the 16th BRICS Summit in Kazan (2024) and now at the 25th SCO Summit in Tianjin (2025) reflects a conscious reset in relations.
  3. Global Expectation: Their 19th meeting during the Tianjin Summit is being seen globally as a moment to restore balance to multilateral decision-making, especially amid Western dominance fatigue.
  4. Public Diplomacy: Both sides emphasise “partners, not rivals,” signaling a shift from competition to cooperation.

What is changing in the global governance discourse?

  1. Erosion of Trust: The early 21st century witnessed rising unilateralism, protectionism, and hegemonism, eroding faith in international institutions.
  2. UN at 80: The UN system, though foundational, now faces criticism for its limited representation of developing nations and sluggish response to global crises.
  3. Reform Imperative: The question before humanity is not just “who governs” but “how governance is shared.” The article highlights the need for reform without rupture, evolving existing systems rather than replacing them.
  4. Asia’s Moment: The decline of Western dominance and the rise of Asia and Eurasia are redefining the rules of the game, with India and China at the center.

What is the Global Governance Initiative (GGI)?

  1. New Vision: The GGI, announced by President Xi at the Tianjin SCO Summit, aims to correct the deficit in global governance by promoting a fair, inclusive order.
  • Five Core Principles:
    1. Sovereign Equality: Respect for all nations’ independence and dignity; greater democracy in international relations.
    2. Rule of Law: Equal application of international law and rejection of double standards.
    3. Multilateralism: Strengthening the UN as the core platform for global decision-making.
    4. People-Centric Approach: Governance should prioritise well-being, safety, and fulfillment of citizens globally.
    5. Real Results Orientation: Developed nations must shoulder more responsibility, while developing nations must cooperate for shared solutions.
    6. Essence: The GGI is not about creating parallel institutions but reforming and improving existing ones to respond effectively to modern challenges.

How can India-China cooperation strengthen multilateralism?

  1. Shared Responsibilities: Both countries, as major developing economies and SCO/BRICS members, bear the responsibility to defend international fairness and justice.
  2. Strategic Coordination: The leaders’ dialogue stresses communication on major international and regional issues to bridge divides in the Global South.

Complementary Visions:

  1. China’s “community of shared future for mankind”
  2. India’s “Vasudhaiva Kutumbakam” (One Earth, One Family, One Future)
  3. Together, they embody the moral and developmental leadership needed for a post-Western global order.
  4. Practical Gains: Resumption of direct flights, maintenance of border stability, and enhanced trade cooperation show concrete steps toward normalisation.

What challenges lie ahead for India-China collaboration?

  1. Trust Deficit: Lingering border disputes and differing political models may slow strategic trust-building.
  2. Competing Ambitions: While both aspire to leadership in the Global South, perception management and narrative balance will be crucial.
  3. Western Reaction: The West may perceive India-China cooperation as a counterweight to transatlantic power, potentially complicating India’s strategic autonomy.
  4. Need for Institutionalisation: Long-term progress demands institutional mechanisms, track-II dialogues, multilateral coordination cells, and joint UN reform working groups.

Conclusion

The India-China partnership in 2025 signals more than a diplomatic milestone, it represents a potential rebalancing of world order. As the UN turns 80, the call for shared leadership between emerging powers grows urgent. If pursued with mutual trust and strategic maturity, the GGI-led collaboration can make the 21st century truly an Asian century rooted in equity, inclusivity, and sustainability. In a fractured world, cooperation, not competition, may be the only path to survival and progress.

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Internal Security Architecture Shortcomings – Key Forces, NIA, IB, CCTNS, etc.

Gorkhaland statehood, Government names ex-DY NSA as interlocutor

Explained | Polity | Mains Paper 2: Indian Constitution - historical underpinnings, evolution, features, amendments, significant provisions and basic structure

Introduction

India’s federal architecture is unique: it allows the creation of new states to accommodate cultural, linguistic, administrative, or developmental aspirations under Article 3 of the Constitution. Yet, every statehood movement also reflects deeper struggles over identity, representation, and development.

The Gorkhaland issue, revived by the Centre’s recent move to appoint an interlocutor, is one of the oldest and most persistent among these. While it directly concerns the Darjeeling hills and adjoining areas of West Bengal, it mirrors similar aspirations voiced across India, from Vidarbha to Bodoland, Harit Pradesh, and Kukiland.

The Gorkhaland Appointment: Why is this news significant?

The Centre’s decision to name ex-Dy NSA Pankaj Kumar Singh as interlocutor for Gorkha talks is a politically charged step:

  1. First formal engagement in years: It revives official talks after a long hiatus, moving beyond ad hoc arrangements like the Gorkhaland Territorial Administration (GTA).
  2. High-level signalling: The appointment of a senior security expert signals that the government sees the issue as sensitive, with implications for internal security and electoral politics.
  3. Identity at stake: It concerns recognition of the Gorkha community’s distinct identity, and a permanent political solution to decades of protests and autonomy struggles.
  4. Pre-election dimension: With West Bengal Assembly elections approaching, the move is seen as an attempt to politically engage the hill electorate, which has historically swung between national and regional parties.
  5. Potential precedent: Success in structured dialogue may offer a model for addressing other regional aspirations through negotiation instead of agitation.

Understanding the Gorkhaland Issue

Historical Context

  1. Origins: The demand for Gorkhaland dates back to 1907, when the Hillmen’s Association first sought a separate administrative unit for the Nepali-speaking people of Darjeeling under British rule.
  2. Post-Independence Phase: With linguistic reorganisation (1950s), Nepali-speaking Gorkhas felt their identity was inadequately represented in Bengali-dominated West Bengal.
  3. 1980s Uprising: The movement, led by Subhash Ghising’s Gorkha National Liberation Front (GNLF), turned violent; it led to the creation of the Darjeeling Gorkha Hill Council (DGHC) in 1988 as a compromise.
  4. Second Wave: In 2007, Bimal Gurung formed the Gorkha Janmukti Morcha (GJM), renewing the demand; this led to the Gorkhaland Territorial Administration (GTA) in 2011, but unrest persisted.
  5. Present Phase: The latest talks under an interlocutor aim to find a “permanent political solution” and recognition of 11 sub-tribes as Scheduled Tribes.

Key Demands

  1. Separate Gorkhaland State: Carved out of Darjeeling and parts of Kalimpong, to ensure administrative autonomy and cultural recognition.
  2. Scheduled Tribe Status: For 11 Gorkha sub-tribes to ensure constitutional protections and socio-economic inclusion.
  3. Constitutional Recognition: Safeguards for the political identity and rights of the Gorkha people under the Indian Constitution.

Statehood Demands in India: The Bigger Picture

India has witnessed over 30 major statehood demands since Independence. While the Constitution empowers Parliament to reorganize states under Article 3, these movements have tested the balance between administrative efficiency, cultural autonomy, and political representation.

Why Do Statehood Demands Arise?

  • Cultural & Linguistic Identity:
      1. Key reason: Desire for recognition of unique language, ethnicity, or cultural practices.
      2. Examples: Gorkhaland (Nepali-speaking identity), Bodoland (Bodo tribes), Vidarbha (Marathi dialect and identity).
  • Developmental Disparities:
      1. Economic neglect and poor resource distribution often drive demands.
      2. Example: Telangana’s movement was anchored in perceived neglect by Andhra’s political elite.
  • Administrative Efficiency:
      1. Smaller states are believed to ensure better governance and resource management.
      2. Example: Creation of Chhattisgarh and Uttarakhand in 2000.
  • Political Representation & Power-sharing:
      1. Regional elites demand greater political space or autonomy to reflect local aspirations.
  • Ethnic Security and Integration:
    1. Fear of cultural assimilation or discrimination by dominant groups drives ethnic-based mobilisation (e.g., Bodoland, Kukiland, Karbi Anglong).
Year Movement Outcome
1953 Andhra State (Potti Sriramulu movement) First linguistic state formed
1960 Maharashtra & Gujarat Bombay Reorganisation Act
1972 Meghalaya, Manipur, Tripura New northeastern states created
1987 Mizoram & Arunachal Pradesh Granted full statehood
2000 Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, Uttarakhand Created for administrative and developmental reasons
2014 Telangana Result of sustained agitation
Ongoing Gorkhaland, Bodoland, Vidarbha, Bundelkhand Unresolved, periodic agitations

Constitutional Mechanism for Creating New States

Article 3 empowers Parliament to form new states by altering the boundaries or names of existing ones.

Procedure:

  1. Process: Bill introduced in Parliament → Referred to State Legislature for views (not consent) Passed by simple majority.
  2. Centre’s Discretion: State opinion is advisory, not binding — ensuring national flexibility but sometimes triggering discontent.
  3. Examples:
    • Telangana was created despite Andhra Pradesh’s legislature opposing it.
    • Jharkhand was carved out of Bihar through a parliamentary process.

Challenges and Implications of Statehood Movements

  1. Political Fragmentation: Multiplying small states may weaken national coherence and increase Centre-State friction.
  2. Administrative Burden: Creating new bureaucratic structures increases fiscal costs.
  3. Resource Distribution Issues: Conflicts over rivers, minerals, and forest resources (e.g., Telangana-Andhra).
  4. Ethnic Competition: One community’s recognition can fuel new demands from others.
  5. Positive Outcomes: Improved local governance, targeted development, and better representation when well-implemented (e.g., Chhattisgarh’s success in rural health and PDS).

Lessons from Gorkhaland and Other Movements

  1. Need for Institutional Dialogue: Interlocutors and commissions reduce the risk of violent agitation by creating formal channels for negotiation.
  2. Multi-stakeholder Approach: Engagement should include Centre, State, local bodies, and civil society, not just political parties.
  3. Development-Based Solutions: Autonomy and identity must align with socio-economic development for long-term peace.
  4. Model for Others: If successful, the Gorkhaland dialogue could serve as a precedent for resolving other autonomy demands peacefully.

Conclusion

The Gorkhaland issue is not merely a regional agitation; it is part of India’s broader story of balancing unity with diversity, integration with autonomy, and identity with development. The Centre’s interlocutor initiative provides a constitutional, consultative path forward, one that aligns with India’s ethos of resolving internal aspirations democratically.

As India continues to evolve, the challenge will be to ensure that new demands for statehood or autonomy are addressed through dialogue, data, and development, not through division or delay.

PYQ Relevance

[UPSC 2013] Creation of a large number of smaller States would bring in effective governance at the State level. Discuss.

Linkage: This PYQ links directly with Gorkhaland and other statehood demands, testing ideas of better governance and federal balance. The article helps students with examples, chronology, and constitutional context to write precise GS II answers.

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Air Pollution

Rising carbon dioxide levels

Explained | Enviro & Biodiversity | Mains Paper 3: Conservation, Environmental Pollution & Degradation, Eia

Introduction

The atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide (CO₂), the most significant greenhouse gas responsible for climate change, has increased by a record amount between 2023 and 2024, according to the World Meteorological Organization (WMO). The global average CO₂ concentration reached 423.9 parts per million (ppm) in 2024, 3.5 ppm higher than in 2023, representing the steepest one-year increase since records began.

This unprecedented rise coincides with 2024 being the hottest year on record, with average global temperatures 1.55°C higher than pre-industrial levels, breaching the 1.5°C limit scientists consider critical to prevent irreversible impacts.

Why This Is a Big Deal

This spike is unprecedented in modern climate history. Never before have CO₂ levels risen so sharply in a single year. It not only breaks the trend of relative stability observed over the last decade but also exposes the collapse of the global climate response despite the Paris Agreement. The rate of increase (3.5 ppm) is more than four times the average annual increase recorded between 2011 and 2020.

What makes this even more concerning is that both human-induced emissions (from fossil fuels, deforestation, and industrial activity) and natural feedback loops (like reduced ocean absorption and forest diebacks) are now amplifying each other, creating a self-perpetuating climate crisis.

What Is Driving the Surge in CO₂ Concentrations?

  1. Record-breaking increase: Global average CO₂ near Earth’s surface reached 423.9 ppm in 2024, marking a 3.5 ppm rise, the largest annual jump ever.
  2. Failure of climate frameworks: Despite international efforts under the Paris Agreement, emissions continue to climb, reflecting inadequate implementation and weak compliance.
  3. Global warming feedback: Higher temperatures reduce oceans’ capacity to absorb CO₂ and increase droughts and wildfires, releasing more carbon into the atmosphere.
  4. Burning of fossil fuels: Continued dependence on coal, oil, and gas remains the primary driver, responsible for more than 90% of anthropogenic CO₂ emissions.

How Are Natural Sinks Losing Their Absorptive Power?

  1. Reduced ocean absorption: Warmer oceans have absorbed less CO₂ in 2024 due to decreased solubility of gases in higher temperatures.
  2. Forest fires and droughts: A spike in wildfires and prolonged dry spells reduced the CO₂-absorbing capacity of trees and grasslands.
  3. Feedback loops: The decline of natural sinks worsens CO₂ imbalance, which in turn leads to even greater heat trapping and further degradation of these ecosystems.

How Do Other Greenhouse Gases (GHGs) Compare?

  1. Methane (CH₄): Second-most potent GHG, rose by 8 parts per billion in 2024 to reach 1,924 ppb, slightly below last decade’s average but still historically high.
  2. Nitrous oxide (N₂O): Increased by 1 ppb to 338 ppb in 2024, contributing to long-term warming effects due to its 270-year lifespan.
  3. Relative potency: While CH₄ and N₂O are more heat-trapping per molecule, CO₂ dominates because of its sheer volume and persistence in the atmosphere for thousands of years.

Why Is This Rise Unprecedented?

  1. Historical contrast: From the 1960s to 2010, CO₂ levels rose by 0.8 ppm per year; between 2011–2020, it increased by 2.4 ppm annually, far below the 2023–24 jump of 3.5 ppm.
  2. Crossing planetary limits: This rise pushed Earth past the 1.5°C warming threshold, previously considered a safe boundary.
  3. Interlinked causes: WMO attributes this to a mix of human emissions and natural CO₂ variability, indicating global climate systems are destabilizing.

Challenges for Global Climate Action

  1. WMO warning: The new data underscores the difficulty in curbing GHG accumulation in the atmosphere.
  2. Failure of control mechanisms: Despite decades of negotiations, anthropogenic activities continue unchecked.
  3. Feedback intensification: Natural processes, once climate stabilizers, are now acting as amplifiers of warming.
  4. Paris Agreement setback: The emission reduction targets for 2030 are unlikely to be met, while global temperatures already breached the 1.5°C mark.

Conclusion

The record-breaking surge in CO₂ levels between 2023 and 2024 is not just a statistical anomaly, it’s a planetary red alert. The intertwining of human actions and natural feedback loops signifies that climate change has entered a runaway phase unless drastic global mitigation is undertaken. The failure to meet emission targets and the collapse of natural carbon sinks highlight that the climate crisis is no longer a distant threat, it’s a present emergency demanding immediate collective action.

PYQ Relevance

[UPSC 2022] Discuss global warming and mention its effects on the global climate. Explain the control measures to bring down the level of greenhouse gases which cause global warming, in the light of the Kyoto Protocol, 1997.

Linkage: The article is important as it highlights the sharpest-ever rise in global CO₂ levels, signalling a critical climate tipping point and the failure of existing global frameworks like the Kyoto and Paris Agreements to curb emissions. It links directly with the question by showing how unchecked greenhouse gases are intensifying global warming and threatening climate stability.

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Indian Air Force Updates

Tejas Light Combat Aircraft (LCA)-Mk1A

Prelims Only | Science Tech | Mains Paper 3: Awareness in various sc and tech fields

Why in the News?

Defence Minister inaugurated the third production line of Tejas Light Combat Aircraft (LCA) Mk1A at Hindustan Aeronautics Limited (HAL), Nashik.

About Tejas Light Combat Aircraft (LCA)-Mk1A:

  • Overview: Single-engine, 4.5-generation, supersonic multirole fighter aircraft developed indigenously under India’s LCA programme.
  • Developers: Designed by the Aeronautical Development Agency (ADA) of DRDO and produced by Hindustan Aeronautics Limited (HAL).
  • Purpose: Conceived in the late 1980s to replace the ageing MiG-21 and Su-7 fleets of the Indian Air Force.
  • Operational Induction: Entered production for the Indian Air Force (IAF) in 2024 after extensive flight trials and certification.
  • Roles: Designed for air superiority, ground attack, close air support, and interception missions.
  • Manufacturing Hubs: Produced at HAL Bengaluru and HAL Nashik, with parallel assembly lines to meet IAF delivery targets.

Key Features of Tejas LCA-Mk1A:

  • Design: Tailless compound delta-wing configuration ensuring high agility, aerodynamic efficiency, and reduced radar cross-section.
  • Engine: Powered by General Electric F404-GE-IN20 turbofan, enabling speeds up to Mach 1.8.
  • Avionics: Equipped with Active Electronically Scanned Array (AESA) radar, Electronic Warfare Suite, and Onboard Oxygen Generation System (OBOGS).
  • Flight Control: Features Digital Fly-by-Wire System for enhanced stability and pilot control.
  • Weapons Integration: Can carry air-to-air, air-to-ground, and precision-guided munitions, including Beyond Visual Range (BVR) missiles.
  • Cockpit: Modern glass cockpit with Helmet Mounted Display (HMD) and Hands-On-Throttle-And-Stick (HOTAS) controls.
  • Payload & Range: Payload capacity over 4,000 kg across eight external hardpoints; combat radius around 500 km, ferry range up to 1,700 km.
  • Network Capability: Integrated with secure data link systems for real-time communication and situational awareness.
  • Maintenance: Modular design allowing easy servicing, high turnaround rate, and improved mission readiness for sustained operations.
[UPSC 2024] Consider the following aircraft:
1. Rafael 2. MiG-29 3. Tejas MK-1
How many of the above are considered fifth-generation fighter aircraft?
Options: (a) Only one (b) Only two (c) All three (d) None*

 

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RBI Notifications

RBI’s Gold Reserve exceeds $100 billion

Prelims Only | Economics | Mains Paper 3: Indian Economy

Why in the News?

The Reserve Bank of India (RBI) reported that India’s gold reserves surpassed $100 billion for the first time in history, reaching $102.365 billion in the week ending October 10, 2025.

India’s Gold Reserves and Composition (2025):

  • Total Holdings: As of March 31, 2025, the Reserve Bank of India (RBI) held approximately 879.58 metric tonnes of gold.
  • Valuation Milestone: In October 2025, the value of India’s gold reserves crossed USD 100 billion, reaching about USD 102.36 billion, the highest in history.
  • Forex Share: Gold’s share in India’s total foreign exchange reserves rose to 14.7 %, the highest since 1996–97, driven by valuation gains and steady accumulation.
  • Yearly Rise: Early in 2025, gold comprised 12.5 % of reserves, indicating a sharp increase through the year amid global market volatility.
  • Repatriation Move: During FY 2024–25, the RBI repatriated 100.32 tonnes of gold from overseas vaults to India, expanding domestic holdings.

Distribution of Gold Holdings (March 2025):

  • Domestic Holdings: About 200 metric tonnes held within India.
  • Overseas Holdings: Around 367 metric tonnes stored abroad.
  • Deposits with Foreign Institutions: Approximately 19 metric tonnes.
  • Trend Evolution: Gold share in reserves rose from 5.9 % (2021) to 11.7 % (2025) due to strategic diversification and valuation gains.

What are Gold Reserves?

  • A gold reserve is the gold held by a country’s central bank, acting as a backup for financial promises and a store of value.
  • India, like other nations, stores some of its gold reserves in foreign vaults to spread out risk and facilitate international trading.
  • India’s Gold Reserves:
    • As of the end of March 2024, the RBI held 822.10 tonnes of gold, with 408.31 tonnes stored domestically.
    • The share of gold in the total forex of India is around 7-8% as of 2023.

Where does the RBI store its gold?

  • India’s gold reserves are primarily stored in the Bank of England, which is known for its stringent security protocols.
  • The RBI also stores a portion of its gold reserves at the:
    1. Bank for International Settlements (BIS) in Basel, Switzerland, and the
    2. Federal Reserve Bank of New York in the United States.
During India’s foreign exchange crisis in 1990-91, the country pledged some of its gold reserves to the Bank of England to secure a $405 million loan, according to reports.

Even though the loan was paid back by November 1991, India decided to keep the gold in the UK for convenience.

Why does the RBI store its gold in foreign banks?

  • Convenience: Storing gold overseas makes it easier for India to trade, engage in swaps and earn returns.
  • Averting Risks: There are risks involved, especially during times of geopolitical tensions and war.
    • The recent freezing of Russian assets by Western nations has raised worries about the safety of assets kept abroad and the RBI decision to shift a portion of the gold reserve to India could be prompted by these concerns.
  • Stable Prices: Unlike fiat currencies, which can be subject to inflation or devaluation due to various economic factors, the value of gold tends to be relatively stable over time, which makes it an attractive asset for central banks to hold as a reserve.

Benefits Offered by Gold Reserves

  • Control domestic gold prices: With its big stash of gold, the RBI can help control local gold prices by using some of it in India. Last financial year, the RBI added about 27.47 tonnes of gold to the total reserve, bringing it to 794.63 tonnes.
  • Security buffer: The increased gold reserve works as a hedge against any financial crisis and to take measures to control inflation as well as currency devaluation.
[UPSC 2015] The problem of international liquidity is related to the non-availability of:

(a) Goods and services

(b) Gold and silver

(c) Dollars and other hard currencies *

(d) Exportable surplus

 

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Global Geological And Climatic Events

Taftan Volcano, Iran 

Places in newsPrelims Only | Geography | Mains Paper 1: Important Geophysical Phenomena

Why in the News?

New satellite data in Geophysical Research Letters (October 2025) shows Iran’s Taftan volcano, dormant for 710,000 years, is reactivating.

Taftan Volcano, Iran 

About Taftan Volcano:

  • Location: Situated in southeastern Iran, about 56 km from the Pakistan border, within the Makran continental volcanic arc.
  • Elevation: Rises to 3,940 metres (12,927 feet), Iran’s only active volcano in the Makran arc.
  • Tectonic Origin: Formed by subduction of the Arabian oceanic plate beneath the Eurasian continental plate.
  • Volcanic Type & Composition: A stratovolcano composed mainly of andesitic and dacitic lava, with pyroclastic flows and volcanic breccias.
  • Structure: Features two summits, Narkuh and Matherkuh, and extensive ignimbrite and lava fans stretching over 30 km.
  • Hydrothermal Activity: Hosts sulfur-emitting fumaroles, visible from up to 100 km, sustained by an active hydrothermal system.
  • Eruptive History: Major activity phases around 8 Ma, 6 Ma, and 0.7 Ma; last lava flow dated to about 6,950 years ago.
  • Recent Observations: 2023–24 satellite data detected 9 cm ground uplift, indicating subsurface pressure buildup and reclassification from extinct to dormant.

Scientific Interpretation and Outlook:

  • Magma Dynamics: Uplift linked to gas accumulation or shallow magma intrusion at 490–630 m depth, possibly fed by deeper chambers (~3.5 km).
  • Current Status: No imminent eruption expected; likely pressure release via degassing or minor eruptions.
  • Monitoring Gap: Lack of ground-based GPS or seismic sensors; reliance on satellite InSAR data for deformation tracking.
  • Scientific Recommendations: Call for establishing a volcano observatory in southeastern Iran for real-time monitoring and gas analysis.
  • Regional Significance: Highlights Makran arc tectonic activity and underscores the need for international geophysical collaboration.
  • Research Importance: Taftan’s reawakening demonstrates the role of remote sensing in detecting hidden volcanic unrest and stresses continuous monitoring to assess eruption potential and regional hazard mitigation.
[UPSC 2024] Consider the following:
1. Pyroclastic debris 2. Ash and dust 3. Nitrogen compounds 4. Sulphur compoundsHow many of the above are products of volcanic eruptions?

Options: (a) Only one (b) Only two (c) Only three (d) only four*

 

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Foreign Policy Watch: United Nations

UN Global Geospatial Information Management for Asia and the Pacific (UN-GGIM-AP)

IOCR | International Relations | Mains Paper 2: Important International Institutions

Why in the News?

India has been elected as Co-Chair of the Regional Committee of the United Nations Global Geospatial Information Management for Asia and the Pacific (UN-GGIM-AP) for a three-year term till 2028.

About UN-GGIM-Asia and the Pacific (UN-GGIM-AP):

  • Objective: Maximises social, economic, and environmental benefits of geospatial data through regional collaboration, innovation, and policy harmonisation.
  • Overview: It is one of the five regional committees under the UN Committee of Experts on Global Geospatial Information Management (UN-GGIM).
  • Function: Serves as the highest inter-governmental platform in the region for joint decision-making on geospatial data generation, governance, and utilisation.
  • Mandate: Coordinates geospatial policy, promotes data standardisation, and supports applications in sustainable development, disaster management, and environmental monitoring.
  • Establishment: Formed in 1995 as the Permanent Committee on GIS Infrastructure for Asia and the Pacific (PCGIAP); rebranded in 2012 following UN-GGIM’s global launch in 2011.
  • Membership: Comprises 56 national geospatial agencies from across the Asia-Pacific region.
  • Secretariat: Hosted by the UN Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific (UN-ESCAP) since 2018, providing institutional and technical support.

India’s Role and Significance:

  • Leadership Role: India elected Co-Chair (2025–2028), reflecting global recognition of its geospatial governance and digital mapping expertise.
  • Strategic Influence: Strengthens India’s position in regional policy formation, data ethics, and standardisation frameworks.
  • Policy Alignment: Complements India’s National Geospatial Policy 2022, Digital India, and PM GatiShakti National Master Plan initiatives.
  • Regional Contribution: India to lead capacity-building, data interoperability, and open-access frameworks for disaster management and climate resilience.
  • Institutional Integration: Links ISRO’s remote sensing and Survey of India’s ground mapping to regional development goals.
  • Global Impact: Positions India as a knowledge hub in geospatial innovation and ensures its active role in defining global spatial data standards for sustainable growth.
[UPSC 2023]  Consider the following infrastructure sectors :

1. Affordable housing 2. Mass rapid transport 3. Health care 4. Renewable energy

On how many of the above does UNOPS Sustainable Investments in Infrastructure and Innovation (S3i) initiative focus for its investments?

Options: (a) Only one (b) Only two (c) All three* (d) All four

 

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Wildlife Conservation Efforts

Blackbuck Re-Introduction in Chhattisgarh

Species | Enviro & Biodiversity | Mains Paper 3: Conservation, Environmental Pollution & Degradation, Eia

Why in the News?

Chhattisgarh launched a five-year Blackbuck Reintroduction Plan (2021–2026) at Barnawapara Wildlife Sanctuary to revive the species after 50 years of local extinction.

Blackbucks have vanished from Chhattisgarh by the 1970s, primarily due to poaching, habitat loss, and grassland encroachment.

About the Blackbuck (Antilope cervicapra):

  • Habitat: Native to India and Nepal, commonly found in Rajasthan, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, Odisha, and Tamil Nadu.
  • Physical Traits: Medium-sized antelope with males having spiral horns and black coats; known as the fastest land mammal in India.
  • Behaviour: Diurnal grazer that thrives in open plains and grasslands.
  • Ecological Role: Serves as an indicator species for grassland ecosystem health.
  • State Animal: Designated as the State Animal of Punjab, Haryana, and Andhra Pradesh.
  • Cultural Symbolism: Represents purity in Hinduism and good fortune in Buddhism.
  • Legal Protection:
    • Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972: Schedule I.
    • IUCN Red List: Least Concern.
    • CITES: Appendix III.
[UPSC 2017] In India, if a species of tortoise is declared protected under Schedule I of the Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972, what does it imply?

Options: (a) It enjoys the same level of protection as the tiger. *

(b) It no longer exists in the wild, a few individuals are under captive protection; and how it is impossible to prevent its extinction.

(c) It is endemic to a particular region of India.

(d) Both (b) and (c) stated above are correct in this context.

 

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Climate Change Negotiations – UNFCCC, COP, Other Conventions and Protocols

[17th October 2025] The Hindu Op-ed: Ensure safeguards for India’s carbon market

op-ed snap | Enviro & Biodiversity | Mains Paper 3: Conservation, Environmental Pollution & Degradation, Eia

PYQ Relevance

[UPSC 2015] Should the pursuit of carbon credit and Clean Development Mechanism set up under UNFCCC be maintained even though there has been a massive slide in the value of carbon credit? Discuss with respect to India’s energy needs for economic growth.

Linkage: The article directly aligns with this PYQ as it examines how India can sustain carbon credit mechanisms while ensuring justice and inclusivity in its domestic carbon market. It stresses that ethical safeguards and equitable benefit-sharing are essential to reconcile climate finance with India’s growth needs.

Mentor’s Comment

In an era when climate markets are rapidly gaining traction, India’s push to create its own carbon credit trading system represents a major step towards balancing growth and sustainability. However, as global experiences reveal, the promise of carbon markets often hides complex questions of equity, consent, and justice. This article examines how India can build a just, transparent, and credible carbon market, drawing lessons from global failures and aligning with its developmental and environmental priorities.

Why in the News

India is rolling out its Carbon Credit Trading Scheme (CCTS), a landmark move that will create a domestic carbon market for emission trading and offset generation. The scheme comes amid a global boom in carbon credits, with 175–180 million credits retired annually. Yet, recent controversies such as the Northern Kenya Rangelands Carbon Project suspension by Verra (2023, 2025) have exposed how poorly governed carbon projects can violate community rights and reproduce colonial-style exploitation. This makes it crucial for India to institutionalize safeguards to prevent land alienation, ensure free, prior and informed consent (FPIC), and guarantee fair benefit-sharing, especially for farmers and marginalized communities who stand at the frontline of climate action.

Introduction

The industrial era’s growth model has pushed the Earth beyond its planetary boundaries, creating a need to decouple economic expansion from environmental degradation. For developing nations like India, degrowth is neither feasible nor just. The path forward lies in green growth, powered by cleaner energy, sustainable agriculture, and carbon crediting mechanisms that reward climate-positive behavior.

However, as India builds its carbon market, it must ensure that climate justice is not sacrificed at the altar of climate finance.

Growth and Sustainability, A Delicate Balance

  1. Decoupling growth from pollution: The industrial revolution model is no longer viable; India must grow while reducing emissions through renewable energy, micro-irrigation, and sustainable farming.
  2. Equitable development: Developing countries cannot afford “degrowth”; instead, they must innovate for green growth pathways that align prosperity with environmental protection.
  3. Indian examples: Rapid progress in solar energy and micro-irrigation exemplifies how growth and sustainability can reinforce each other.

What Are Carbon Credits and Why Do They Matter?

  1. Definition: A carbon credit represents a certified reduction or removal of greenhouse gases (GHGs), measured in CO₂-equivalents.
  2. Generation sources: Created through mitigation activities like renewable energy or sequestration measures such as reforestation, agroforestry, and biochar.
  3. Global scenario: Annually, about 175–180 million credits are retired, with most originating from renewable energy and nature-based projects like REDD+.
  4. India’s initiative: The CCTS sets emission-intensity benchmarks for industries and includes voluntary offsetting mechanisms, managed through a national registry and trading platform.
  5. Emerging sectors: Draft methods for biomass, compressed biogas, and low-emission rice cultivation have already been released.

The Promise and Peril of Carbon Projects

  1. Untapped agricultural potential: Despite 64 Indian projects listed under Verra, only four are registered, none have issued credits yet, largely due to weak farmer engagement and training gaps.
  2. Risk of exploitation: Without safeguards, carbon projects can mirror colonial plantation logic, especially as carbon prices rise.
  3. Global warning signs: The Northern Kenya Rangelands Carbon Project (2012) faced suspension for bypassing consent and misrepresenting community participation.

Violations documented:

  1. Lack of FPIC from indigenous communities.
  2. Projects implemented on unregistered community land.
  3. Enforced by armed rangers; governance opaque.
  4. 2025 Kenyan court judgment confirmed absence of public participation.
  5. Parallel cases: The Lake Turkana Wind Project fenced 150,000 acres of community land — cutting herders off from water and grazing.

India’s Vulnerability: A Warning from Kenya

  1. Community impact: Carbon projects on village commons, forest fringes, or grazing lands can disrupt traditional livelihoods without proper consent.
  2. Caste and equity issues: Agricultural carbon projects have shown tendencies to exclude marginalized caste farmers, offering minimal benefits.
  3. Regulatory gap: India’s CCTS prioritizes procedural compliance but neglects land rights, FPIC, and benefit-sharing — leaving space for exploitation.
  4. Potential consequence: Without reforms, India risks replicating extractive climate models that alienate vulnerable communities.

Towards a Fair and Transparent Carbon Market

  1. Balanced regulation: Overregulation deters genuine actors, while underregulation invites exploitation. India needs a “light but firm” regulatory model.

Core safeguards needed:

  1. Transparency: Mandatory disclosure of benefit-sharing agreements.
  2. Community consent: Institutionalize FPIC before project initiation.
  3. Adaptive regulation: Policies that evolve through stakeholder consultations.
  4. Trust building: Incorporate third-party audits and grievance redressal.
  5. Justice as the foundation: Climate action must empower, not exploit, those sustaining the land.

Conclusion

India’s journey toward a low-carbon future cannot rely solely on markets, it must rest on ethics, equity, and empowerment. As the Carbon Credit Trading Scheme (CCTS) takes shape, the focus must move beyond procedural compliance to protecting land rights, ensuring free, prior, and informed consent (FPIC), and guaranteeing fair benefit-sharing with those who nurture the environment. Learning from global pitfalls, India has the opportunity to design a carbon market that is transparent, just, and inclusive, turning climate finance into a true instrument of climate justice and sustainable development. Only then can India demonstrate that growth and green governance are not competing goals, but two sides of the same equitable future.

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Finance Commission – Issues related to devolution of resources

Restoring fiscal space for the states

Explained | Polity | Mains Paper 2: Federalism

Introduction

India’s fiscal federalism has long been guided by the principle of cooperative balance, where both the Centre and States share resources, responsibilities, and accountability. However, the post-GST era has altered this equilibrium. The recent merger of the GST compensation cess with regular tax marks a watershed moment, ending an era of fiscal cushioning for States and raising pressing questions about States’ financial independence.

With rising public aspirations, widening service delivery gaps, and increased welfare commitments, States are grappling with constrained fiscal space. The centralisation of taxation powers, growing dependence on Central transfers, and the limited flexibility to raise revenue are redefining India’s fiscal federalism.

Why in the News?

The abolition of the GST compensation cess, after five years of implementation, marks a turning point in India’s fiscal framework. For the first time since GST’s rollout in 2017, the compensation mechanism, which assured States 14% annual revenue growth, has ended.

This is significant because:

  • The cess previously cushioned States from revenue shortfalls during GST transition.
  • Its removal exposes the true fiscal capacity of States, revealing wide disparities in revenue generation.
  • The Centre’s growing use of cesses and surcharges, which are not shareable with States, has further squeezed State finances.
  • The resulting imbalance has rekindled the debate on “fiscal autonomy versus fiscal efficiency.”

Evolving Fiscal Architecture

How has GST altered India’s tax landscape?

  1. Shift from origin-based to destination-based taxation: GST replaced multiple State taxes with a unified structure, eroding the States’ control over indirect taxes.
  2. Shared tax base: Both Centre and States levy GST, but decision-making lies with the GST Council, where the Centre has a dominant role.
  3. Erosion of fiscal autonomy: States lost independent authority to adjust tax rates or design fiscal responses tailored to their economies.
  4. Cess and surcharge dominance: These have become a parallel fiscal instrument for the Centre, bypassing the divisible tax pool.

Changing Centre–State Financial Relations

How have constitutional mechanisms evolved over time?

  1. Articles 268–293 define the fiscal relationship between Centre and States.
  2. The Finance Commission (Article 280) determines devolution, but several States allege that the criteria penalise progressive, industrial States.
  3. With the abolition of the Planning Commission in 2014, only two main transfer channels remain, Finance Commission grants and Centrally Sponsored Schemes (CSS).
  4. Article 282 allows discretionary Central grants, often perceived as politically influenced, affecting opposition-ruled States disproportionately.

Declining Devolution and Fiscal Dependence

How serious is the resource imbalance between Centre and States?

  1. Despite recommendations of 42% devolution (14th Finance Commission), actual transfers as a share of gross tax revenue have declined.
  2. Cesses and surcharges, which are non-shareable, reached ₹3.86 lakh crore (RE 2024–25) and are projected at ₹4.23 lakh crore (BE 2025–26).
  3. Central transfers still account for 44% of States’ revenue receipts, ranging from 72% for Bihar to 20% for Haryana, highlighting the uneven dependency landscape.
  4. The Centre collects 67% of total tax revenue, while States handle over 52% of total expenditure, particularly in health, education, and agriculture.
  5. This structural mismatch constrains States’ fiscal flexibility and deepens intergovernmental friction.

Emerging Demands for Fiscal Reforms

What are States and experts proposing for fiscal autonomy?

  1. Restructuring tax-sharing principles: Revisiting Finance Commission formulas to reflect true expenditure needs and reward performance equitably.
  2. Personal Income Tax sharing: Proposal to share or allow States to “top up” the personal income tax base to reduce fiscal dependence.
  3. Learning from Canada: Canadian provinces collect 54% of taxes and spend 60%, offering a model of greater subnational flexibility.
  4. Transparent devolution: Merging cesses and surcharges into the divisible pool could enhance transparency and equity.
  5. Independent fiscal oversight: Establishing a permanent intergovernmental fiscal council for mediation and coordination.

The Way Forward: Towards Cooperative Fiscal Federalism

How can fiscal space be restored to States?

  1. Revisit GST architecture: Grant States limited powers to vary tax rates within a band for specific commodities or services.
  2. Rationalise CSS schemes: Allow greater flexibility for States to design locally suited welfare interventions.
  3. Enhance fiscal responsibility: Encourage States to improve tax compliance, widen base, and adopt technology-driven revenue administration.
  4. Periodic fiscal reviews: Institutionalise data-based monitoring to balance efficiency with equity.
  5. Political cooperation: Encourage a non-partisan GST Council model where fiscal debates remain guided by economic logic, not politics.

Conclusion

India’s growth story is fundamentally federal. The vitality of its States determines the resilience of its economy. As the GST compensation era ends and States’ expenditure responsibilities rise, restoring their fiscal autonomy is essential for sustainable growth. True cooperative federalism demands not just consultation but real power-sharing in fiscal decision-making. Empowering States fiscally is not a concession — it is a constitutional necessity for a balanced and vibrant India.

PYQ Relevance

[UPSC 2024] What changes has the Union Government recently introduced in the domain of Centre-State relations? Suggest measures to be adopted to build the trust between the Centre and the States and for strengthening federalism.

Linkage: The phasing out of the GST compensation cess and rising use of non-shareable cesses and surcharges reflect the Centre’s growing fiscal dominance, compelling States to seek reforms in tax devolution to rebuild trust and uphold true cooperative federalism.

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Empower ASI to do its job

Explained | Governance | Mains Paper 2: Governance, Transparency & Accountability, Citizens Charters

Introduction 

The government’s move to allow private oversight of protected monuments is a watershed moment. For decades, ASI has been the statutory guardian of India’s tangible past, born in the colonial era and burdened by bureaucracy, underfunding and a shrinking sense of mission. Simultaneously, private actors and civic organisations have shown how resources, managerial skill and community energy can revive museums and sites. The question is not whether to choose one side; it is how to combine ASI’s technical authority with the creativity, funds and operational capability that partnerships bring, without commodifying culture.

The Human Cost of Institutional Drift

The shrinking imagination of public stewardship

  1. Institutional fatigue: ASI carries a legacy of scholarship but suffers from low morale and an inward-looking culture that treats conservation as paperwork rather than cultural care.
  2. Loss of interpretive vision: When custodians stop telling stories, monuments become inert props rather than living places of memory and identity.
  3. Urban neglect: Historic neighbourhoods, bazaars and ritual spaces around monuments decay when site management ignores everyday people.

The emotional stakes for communities

  1. Cultural dislocation: For villagers, priests and artisans, monuments are part of life, losing access or ritual meaning severs social ties.
  2. Livelihoods at risk: When heritage is mismanaged, local guides, craftspeople and small vendors lose incomes tied to respectful tourism.

The Promise of Partnerships and PPPs

Partnerships as custodianship boosters

  1. Financial rescue: PPPs can create endowments and recurring funding streams for long-term maintenance, freeing conservation from short political cycles.
  2. Example: Museum restorations in Mumbai combined corporate funding, municipal support and conservation expertise to revive institutions.
  3. Operational professionalism: Private sector expertise in project management, visitor services and marketing improves site upkeep and interpretive programming.
  4. New experiences, same respect: Thoughtful PPPs design museum displays, lighting, interpretation centres and guided routes that invite learning, not spectacle.

PPPs and local empowerment

  1. Livelihood integration: PPP projects that hire local artisans and vendors create shared incentives for conservation.
  2. Example: Community-run craft stalls and guided-walk programs increase earnings and local ownership.
  3. Skill-building: Partnerships can fund training for conservators, guides, and site managers, expanding the conservation workforce.

When PPPs get it right: conditions of success

  1. ASI oversight: Technical conservation plans must be approved and monitored by ASI or accredited conservation experts.
  2. Community clauses: Contracts should guarantee access, rituals and a share of revenue for local stakeholders.
  3. Transparent accountability: Public dashboards, audited accounts and sunset clauses prevent permanent privatization.

The Risks of Commercialisation and How to Guard Against Them

Commodification and loss of sacredness

  1. Over-entertainment danger: Turning a temple or tomb into a stage for events can strip its sanctity and alienate devotees.
  2. Tourist-first trap: If revenue becomes the sole metric, conservation values degrade.
  3. Equity and access concerns
  4. Paywall problem: Higher fees and exclusive events can exclude local communities; safeguards must keep access affordable and meaningful.

Technical and ethical lapses

  1. Skill imbalance: Corporates without heritage expertise may favour cosmetic changes over reversible, scientifically sound conservation.
  2. Short-termism: Event-driven models can fund repairs but not create long-term technical capacity for conservation.

A Practical, Human-Centred Roadmap

Reinventing ASI as knowledge steward and regulator

  1. Autonomy with accountability: Grant ASI managerial freedom and stable budgets while insisting on transparency and citizen oversight.
  2. Specialist cadres: Create conservation architect and urban heritage cadres, fellowships and cross-disciplinary teams (historians, anthropologists, conservators).

Designing PPPs for people and preservation

  1. Model MoU essentials: ASI-approved conservation plan, community benefit clause, revenue-sharing mechanism, independent monitoring, exit/sunset clause.
  2. Performance metrics: Conservation integrity, community welfare indicators, visitor-impact thresholds, financial sustainability.
  3. Phased pilots: Start with clearly defined pilot projects (museums, small sites) before scaling to larger or sacred monuments.

Community as co-custodians

  1. Local governance: Empower panchayats, municipal trusts and temple committees in day-to-day stewardship with technical backup from ASI.
  2. Benefit linking: Ensure training, employment and revenue-sharing for local craftspeople and service providers.

Modern tools for timeless care

  1. Digital records: 3D scans, GIS mapping and condition-monitoring dashboards to track deterioration and plan interventions.
  2. Public access to data: Open reports and accessible interpretive material strengthen democratic stewardship.

Conclusion — A human promise, not a transaction

Heritage is ethical work: it asks us to keep memory alive while serving the living. The ASI must be renewed into a vibrant, expert body that sets standards and guarantees access. PPPs — when framed by clear agreements, community rights and technical oversight — can supply funds, skills and fresh ideas. The aim is not to monetise memory but to steward it: to ensure that stones continue to tell stories, and that those stories remain deeply, unmistakably, Indian.

PYQ Relevance

[UPSC 2024] Public charitable trusts have the potential to make India’s development more inclusive as they relate to certain vital public issues. Comment.

Linkage: This PYQ highlights how non-state actors and philanthropic trusts can complement government efforts in addressing public issues. It is linked to the article as PPPs and heritage trusts similarly expand conservation beyond ASI’s limited capacity, ensuring inclusive and sustainable preservation of cultural assets.

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Air Pollution

Carbon Di-oxide Levels in 2024 set new records: WMO

Prelims Only | Enviro & Biodiversity | Mains Paper 3: Conservation, Environmental Pollution & Degradation, Eia

Why in the News?

The World Meteorological Organization (WMO) reported that carbon dioxide (CO₂) concentrations reached a record 423.9 ppm in 2024, marking the highest annual increase (3.5 ppm) since global measurements began in 1957.

About WMO Report 2025:

  • Publisher: Issued by the World Meteorological Organization (WMO), the UN specialised agency for weather, climate, and water systems.
  • Document: The 2025 Greenhouse Gas Bulletin presents global atmospheric data for carbon dioxide (CO₂), methane (CH₄), and nitrous oxide (N₂O).
  • Global Record: Confirms 2024 as the warmest year ever, with average temperatures 1.55 °C above pre-industrial (1850–1900) levels.
  • Context & Timing: Released ahead of COP30 (Belém, Brazil) to guide mitigation policies and national climate commitments.
  • Key Warning: Notes a record surge in CO₂ and the weakening of natural carbon sinks such as oceans and forests.

Key Highlights about Greenhouse Gases:

  • Carbon Dioxide (CO₂): Global mean reached 423.9 ppm in 2024, up 3.5 ppm from 2023, the largest annual rise since 1957. Concentrations are 152 % above pre-industrial (278.3 ppm); land and ocean sinks are declining in efficiency.
  • Methane (CH₄): Climbed to 1,942 ppb, 166 % above pre-industrial levels; ~60 % of emissions stem from livestock, fossil fuels, and rice cultivation.
  • Nitrous Oxide (N₂O): Reached 338 ppb, 25 % higher than pre-industrial; emitted mainly from fertiliser use, biomass burning, and industry; the third major long-lived GHG.
  • Drivers of Increase: Human emissions, El Niño-linked droughts and wildfires, and reduced oceanic absorption, especially from the Amazon and southern Africa in 2024.

Implications and Risks:

  • Warming Acceleration: CO₂ causes ~66 % of total warming and 79 % over the last decade; persistent buildup locks in long-term temperature rise.
  • Weakening Carbon Sinks: Warmer seas and drought-stricken lands absorb less CO₂, reinforcing a feedback loop of accumulation.
  • Extreme Events: Intensified heatwaves, floods, droughts, and wildfires signal proximity to irreversible tipping points like ice-sheet loss and coral die-off.
[UPSC 2012] The increasing amount of carbon dioxide in the air is slowly raising the temperature of the atmosphere, because it absorbs

Options: (a) the water vapour of the air and retains its heat.

(b) the UV part of the solar radiation.

(c) all the solar radiations.

(d) the infrared part of the solar radiation. *

 

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Non-Aligned Movement (NAM)

IOCR | International Relations | Mains Paper 2: Bilateral, Regional and Global Groupings and agreements involving India

Why in the News?

The 19th Non-Aligned Movement (NAM) Mid-Term Ministerial Meeting was recently held in Kampala, Uganda.

About the Non-Aligned Movement (NAM)

  • Overview: A grouping of states not formally aligned with or against any major power bloc, established to uphold sovereignty, independence, and neutrality during the Cold War.
  • Formation: Founded in 1961 at Belgrade, Yugoslavia, emerging from the 1955 Bandung Conference (Indonesia) which laid down the Ten Principles of Bandung as its ideological foundation.
  • Founding Leaders:
    1. Jawaharlal Nehru (India)
    2. Gamal Abdel Nasser (Egypt)
    3. Josip Broz Tito (Yugoslavia)
    4. Ahmed Sukarno (Indonesia)
    5. Kwame Nkrumah (Ghana)
  • Membership:
    • 120 countries: 53 from Africa, 39 from Asia, 26 from Latin America & the Caribbean, and 2 from Europe.
    • Includes Palestine as a member and 17 observer nations with 10 observer organisations.
    • Represents nearly 60% of UN membership, making it the second-largest intergovernmental bloc after the UN.
  • Structure: NAM functions without a permanent secretariat, charter, or budget, relying on rotational leadership and consensus-driven decision-making.

Non-Aligned Movement (NAM)

India’s Contemporary Role in NAM:

  • India advocates for reinvigorating NAM as a platform for South-South cooperation in technology, trade, and climate resilience.
  • It seeks to make NAM relevant in a multipolar world, focusing on digital equity, global governance reforms, and sustainable development.
  • India views NAM not as an anti-West bloc but as a forum of balanced autonomy, promoting strategic non-alignment and global partnership in the 21st century.
[UPSC 2009] Among the following Presidents of India, who was also the Secretary General of Non-Aligned Movement for some period ?

Options: (a) Dr. Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan (b) Varahairi Venkatagiri (c) Giani Zail Singh * (d) Dr. Shanker Dayal Sharma

 

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Forest Conservation Efforts – NFP, Western Ghats, etc.

CG HC upholds cancellation of Forest Rights of Villagers

Prelims Only | Enviro & Biodiversity | Mains Paper 3: Conservation, Environmental Pollution & Degradation, Eia

Why in the News?

The Chhattisgarh High Court has dismissed a petition challenging the cancellation of Community Forest Rights (CFRs) granted to villagers of Ghatbarra in the Hasdeo Arand forest, an area where Adani Enterprises–linked coal mines operate.

Background of the Case:

  • Dispute Origin: The District-Level Committee (DLC) revoked CFR titles in 2016, citing that the area had already been diverted for mining in 2012 with MoEF clearance.
  • Petitioners’ Claim: The Hasdeo Arand Bachao Sangharsh Samiti argued that the Forest Rights Act (FRA), 2006 provides no revocation clause and that villagers were not given a fair hearing before cancellation.
  • Court’s View: The High Court upheld the State’s decision, calling the 2013 CFR grant a “mistake” void ab initio, and legally cancellable.

Key Judicial Findings:

  • Legality of Revocation: FRA lacks explicit revocation provision, but erroneous grants may be rectified; hence cancellation was valid.
  • Prior Approvals Prevail: 2012 MoEFCC mining clearance overrode subsequent CFR grants.
  • State Mineral Ownership: FRA does not affect the State’s control over minerals beneath forest land.
  • Locus Standi: Petitioners lacked standing after the Forest Rights Committee withdrew; no authorised village representation remained.
  • Suppression of Facts: Petitioners had earlier challenged land acquisition (case dismissed in 2022) but failed to disclose it.

Significance:

This ruling marks the first judicial interpretation of whether forest rights granted under the Forest Rights Act, 2006 (FRA) can be revoked or cancelled, despite the Act containing no explicit provision for cancellation.

About the Forest Rights Act (FRA), 2006:

  • Overview: The Scheduled Tribes and Other Traditional Forest Dwellers (Recognition of Forest Rights) Act, 2006, commonly called the Forest Rights Act (FRA).
  • Purpose: Enacted to correct historical injustices faced by forest-dwelling communities deprived of traditional land and resource rights during colonial rule.
  • Core Objective: Ensures tenurial security, livelihood protection, and ecological stewardship of forest-dependent populations.
  • Beneficiaries: Covers Scheduled Tribes (STs) and Other Traditional Forest Dwellers (OTFDs) who have lived in and depended on forests for generations.
  • Scope: Recognises both individual and collective rights over forest land and produce, extending to cultivation, habitation, and minor forest produce use.
  • Governance Principle: Empowers Gram Sabhas as the central authority for recognising and managing forest rights, reinforcing local autonomy.
  • Integration Goal: Aligns forest governance with tribal self-rule, complementing the Panchayats (Extension to Scheduled Areas) Act, 1996 (PESA).

Key Features of the FRA:

  • Individual & Community Rights: Legal recognition for occupation, cultivation, residence, and use/sale of minor forest produce.
  • Community Forest Resource (CFR) Rights: Grants Gram Sabhas control to protect, regenerate, and manage community forests.
  • Habitat Rights: Protects Particularly Vulnerable Tribal Groups (PVTGs) and pre-agricultural forest communities.
  • Governance Structure: Multi-level verification, Gram Sabha → Sub-Divisional Committee → District-Level Committee, for rights adjudication.
  • Development Provisions: Allows limited diversion of forest land for public utilities with Gram Sabha consent.
  • Eviction Safeguard: No eviction until claims are fully processed and rights recognised.
  • Decentralised Oversight: Empowers Gram Sabha as the final decision-making authority on forest rights and management.
  • Legal Integration: Reinforces PESA’s participatory governance and community-led conservation in Scheduled Areas.
[UPSC 2021] At the national level, which ministry is the nodal agency to ensure effective implementation of the Scheduled Tribes and Other Traditional Forest Dwellers (Recognition of Forest Rights) Act, 2006?

Options: (a) Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change
(b) Ministry of Panchayati Raj
(c) Ministry of Rural Development
(d) Ministry of Tribal Affairs*

 

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Wetland Conservation

Sustainable Aquaculture in Mangrove Ecosystems (SAIME) Initiative

Prelims Only | Enviro & Biodiversity | Mains Paper 3: Conservation, Environmental Pollution & Degradation, Eia

Why in the News?

The SAIME Initiative, developed by the Nature Environment and Wildlife Society (NEWS) in the Sundarbans of West Bengal, has been conferred Global Technical Recognition by the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations.

What is SAIME Initiative?

  • Concept: A multi-stakeholder partnership model integrating shrimp aquaculture with mangrove restoration in the Sundarbans.
  • Implementing Agencies: Developed by the Nature Environment and Wildlife Society (NEWS) with support from the Global Nature Fund (Germany), Naturland, and Bangladesh Environment & Development Society (BEDS).
  • Purpose: Promotes climate-adaptive, conservation-linked livelihoods balancing ecological health with local economic growth.
  • Implementation: Covers 29.84 hectares with 42 fish farmers, achieving 100% rise in net profits through low-input, eco-friendly methods.
  • Target Group: Focuses on climate-vulnerable coastal communities, encouraging chemical-free shrimp farming to build coastal resilience.

Core Features and Approach:

  • Ecosystem Integration: Maintains 5–30% mangrove cover within aquaculture ponds, directly linking productivity with ecosystem restoration.
  • Community Participation: Adopts a bottom-up co-management model, involving local farmers in planning, monitoring, and benefit-sharing.
  • Sustainable Practices: Utilises mangrove litter as shrimp feed, cutting chemical dependence and improving natural nutrient cycles.
  • Climate Resilience: Mitigates cyclones, salinity intrusion, and erosion, functioning as a nature-based adaptation system.
  • Economic Efficiency: Promotes low-input, high-yield aquaculture, enhancing smallholder profitability and resource efficiency.
  • Environmental Benefits: Supports carbon sequestration, biodiversity conservation, and blue carbon economy objectives.
  • Global Alignment: Advances SDG-13 (Climate Action), SDG-14 (Life Below Water), and SDG-15 (Life on Land) through integrated coastal sustainability.

About the Sundarbans:

Sustainable Aquaculture in Mangrove Ecosystems (SAIME) Initiative

  • Location: Situated in the South and North 24-Parganas districts of West Bengal, at the southern tip of the Gangetic Delta, where the Ganga, Brahmaputra, and Meghna rivers meet the Bay of Bengal.
  • Area: Currently spans 2,585.89 sq km, with an expansion proposal to 3,629.57 sq km, making it the largest mangrove forest in the world.
  • Status: Designated as a Tiger Reserve, National Park, Biosphere Reserve, and a UNESCO World Heritage Site (since 1987).
  • Topography: Characterised by a dense network of tidal creeks, estuaries, and 105 mangrove-covered islands, influenced by daily tidal inundation.
  • Flora and Fauna:
    • Flora: Dominated by Avicennia, Rhizophora, Sonneratia, and Heritiera species.
    • Fauna: Includes Royal Bengal Tiger, Fishing Cat, Estuarine Crocodile, Irrawaddy Dolphin, King Cobra, and several endangered bird species.
  • Boundaries:
    • East: Bangladesh border (Raimangal & Harinbhanga rivers)
    • South: Bay of Bengal
    • North/West: Matla, Bidya, and Gomdi rivers
  • Ecological Importance: Acts as a natural shield against cyclones and tsunamis, a carbon-rich ecosystem, and a vital nursery ground for fisheries — forming the ecological heart of India’s blue economy and coastal resilience framework.

 

[UPSC 2023] Which one of the following is the best example of repeated falls in sea level, giving rise to present-day extensive marshland?

Options: (a) Bhitarkanika Mangroves

(b) Marakkanam Salt Pans

(c) Naupada Swamp

(d) Rann of Kutch*

 

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Indian Missile Program Updates

Akash Missile System 

Prelims Only | Science Tech | Mains Paper 3: S&T - Applications In Everyday Life

Why in the News?

India has pitched for the supply of the Akash missile system to Brazil.

akash

About Akash Missile System:

  • Overview: Developed by the Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO) and manufactured by Bharat Dynamics Ltd (BDL).
  • Type: A short-range Surface-to-Air Missile (SAM) designed to defend against aircraft, UAVs, and helicopters.
  • Operational Users: Inducted by both the Indian Army and the Indian Air Force, forming part of India’s layered air defence grid.
  • Purpose: Protects vital assets from aerial threats within the short to medium range segment.
  • Deployment Mode: Mounted on mobile launchers for rapid positioning, flexibility, and operational agility.
  • Comparison: Functionally comparable to Israel’s Iron Dome, though Akash focuses on intercepting larger aerial targets rather than small projectiles.

Key Features:

  • Range & Altitude: Effective range 4.5–25 km; altitude coverage 100 m–20 km.
  • Engagement Capacity: A single firing unit can engage four targets simultaneously in both autonomous and group modes.
  • Speed & Accuracy: Capable of high-speed interceptions with radar-guided precision.
  • Propulsion & Dimensions: Length 5.87 m, diameter 350 mm, weight 710 kg; powered by solid-fuel propulsion.
  • Automation: Fully automated system ensuring rapid reaction time from detection to neutralization.
  • ECCM Capability: Built-in Electronic Counter-Counter Measures (ECCM) to resist enemy jamming
[UPSC 2023] Consider the following statements:

1. Ballistic missiles are jet-propelled at subsonic speeds throughout their fights, while cruise missiles are rocket-powered only in the initial phase of flight.

2. Agni-V is a medium-range supersonic cruise missile, while BrahMos is a solid-fuelled intercontinental ballistic missile.

Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

Options: (a) 1 only (b) 2 only (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2*

 

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Economic Indicators and Various Reports On It- GDP, FD, EODB, WIR etc

[16th October 2025 ] The Hindu Op-ed: Navigating the global economic transformation

op-ed snap | Economics | Mains Paper 3: Indian Economy

PYQ Relevance

[UPSC 2019] The long-sustained image of India as a leader of the oppressed and marginalised nations has disappeared on account of its new found role in the emerging global order.

Linkage: The question reflects India’s shift from moral leadership to strategic pragmatism in global affairs. The article builds on this, urging India to reclaim that leadership by shaping a fair, inclusive global economic order for the Global South.

Mentor’s Comment

The tectonic shifts in the world economy today echo the reshaping of global power equations. Salman Khurshid’s article presents a comprehensive analysis of how populist politics, state capitalism, and digital colonialism are reshaping the global economic order. This piece unpacks those arguments and situates them in a UPSC-relevant analytical frame, connecting them to India’s strategic choices and the future of the Global South.

Introduction: Why in the News

The world economy is undergoing a seismic transformation, marked by the U.S.–China great-power rivalry, reshaped trade flows, and the rise of state-driven capitalism. This shift is more than cyclical; it is structural, redefining the principles of globalisation itself. For the first time in decades, both economic and political systems are converging towards protectionism and state control, breaking away from the neoliberal consensus that defined the post–Cold War era. The article underscores how these disruptions open a rare opportunity for India and the Global South to shape a fairer and more inclusive global economic order.

Understanding the New Economic Paradigms

How are populist autocrats reshaping capitalism?

  1. State–capital fusion: Populist autocrats have created a “state-capital Gordian knot”, replacing laissez-faire capitalism with systems that serve oligopolies in exchange for political loyalty.
  2. Corporate dominance: Crony-capitalists now influence state policies, prioritising corporate gains over citizen welfare — mortgaging public assets and weakening the social contract.
  3. Socio-political consequences: This model centralises power, marginalises public accountability, and distorts market competitiveness — leading to plutocracies, not democracies.

Why are traditional power politics resurfacing in the economic sphere?

  1. Resurgent statecraft: America’s recalibration to “Make America Great Again” marks a return of economic nationalism.
  2. Strategic control: U.S. actions — shifting Taiwan’s chip manufacturing, securing Panama routes, weaponising rare earths, and asserting dominance in the Arctic — reflect geo-economic containment of China.
  3. Ecological imperialism: By controlling supply chains and energy corridors, global powers are expanding influence under the guise of “strategic autonomy.”
  4. Global instability: These assertive spheres of influence have led to conflicts and genocides, reigniting the dangers of zero-sum geopolitics.

How is digital colonialism reshaping global economies?

  1. Big Tech dominance: Cloud capitalists have captured value chains and data flows, influencing politics and governance.
  2. Digital imperialism: Initiatives like the AI Action Plan, Cloud Act, and SWIFT weaponisation allow powerful states to dominate financial and cyber infrastructure.
  3. Erosion of sovereignty: Over 100 central banks are piloting state-backed digital currencies, which could ease transactions but risk undermining national autonomy.
  4. Political risks: Digital finance systems complicate political funding, giving populist regimes more tools for manipulation.

How have aid withdrawals widened global inequalities?

  1. Funding collapse: G-7 nations’ $44 billion cuts in developmental aid could push 5.7 million Africans into poverty by 2026.
  2. Ripple effects: In Nepal, reduced grants for small enterprises led to eight lakh migrations, intensifying domestic dissatisfaction.
  3. Humanitarian fallout: 16.7 million people lost access to the World Food Programme in 2023, sparking recruitment into militias across the Sahel region.
  4. Moral crisis: Retrenchment of aid reflects a shift from shared prosperity to self-preservation, amplifying instability in the Global South.

What challenges and opportunities emerge for India and the Global South?

  1. Debt and inequality: Neoliberal globalisation fostered sovereign debt traps and extreme wealth concentration in the Global North.
  2. Poverty crisis: The World Bank’s 2022 Poverty and Shared Prosperity Report notes 47% of humanity lives below the $6.85 poverty line, while 735 million suffer hunger.
  3. Collaborative alternatives: India and the Global South can construct a New Economic Deal through debt-relief frameworks, institutional reforms, and South–South cooperation.
  4. Strategic vision: Building bipartisan international ties and fair trade alliances through BRICS and regional groupings will ensure resilience against Western hegemony.

How must India recalibrate its domestic policies to lead globally?

  1. State leadership: The government must play a commanding role in strategic sectors — energy, data, infrastructure, healthcare, and agriculture — as done by East Asian economies.
  2. Anti-monopoly mechanisms: Creating sovereign wealth funds (like Norway) and enforcing anti-trust norms can prevent oligarchic dominance.
  3. Reimagining PSUs: Instead of privatisation, redeploying PSUs like China’s state-owned enterprises can serve national and geopolitical goals.
  4. Knowledge economy: Heavy investment in research, education, and innovation will secure India’s place as a globally competitive power.
  5. True non-alignment: India’s foreign policy must remain substantive, not performative — driven by consensus and independence rather than partisan interests.

Conclusion

The global economic transformation is not merely about trade or finance; it is about who controls the architecture of global interdependence. As old hierarchies fracture and new alignments emerge, India stands at a crossroads, between aligning with entrenched powers or leading a new era of equitable globalization. The coming decade will test whether the Global South can collectively author a future defined by justice, sustainability, and shared prosperity. The moment is precarious, but also profoundly promising.

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The Crisis In The Middle East

The future of the IMEC

Explained | International Relations | Mains Paper 2: Bilateral, Regional and Global Groupings and agreements involving India

Introduction

In an era where connectivity defines power, the India–Middle East–Europe Economic Corridor (IMEC) emerged as a visionary project connecting India’s western ports with Europe via the Arabian Peninsula. Envisaged as a multi-modal corridor encompassing maritime, rail, energy, and digital infrastructure, IMEC sought to integrate economies across continents while promoting peace and prosperity in a historically volatile region.

However, the optimism that surrounded IMEC’s launch quickly met the harsh reality of geopolitics. The October 7 Hamas attacks and subsequent Israel–Gaza war exposed the fragility of West Asian stability, placing IMEC’s implementation in question. Yet, beyond the uncertainty lies an opportunity for India to reshape its connectivity vision, adapting routes and partnerships to new global dynamics.

Why in the News

The IMEC has resurfaced in policy discussions as its viability faces uncertainty amid the deteriorating West Asian security environment. The October 7 Hamas–Israel conflict disrupted regional optimism nurtured by the Abraham Accords and slowed progress on IMEC’s proposed transnational links. At the same time, climate-driven Arctic trade routes and Red Sea disruptions by the Houthis are redrawing global shipping patterns, forcing India and its partners to reconsider IMEC’s configuration. The issue is critical as the corridor represents both an economic and strategic counterweight to China’s Belt and Road Initiative (BRI).

The Strategic Vision Behind IMEC:

  1. Comprehensive Connectivity: IMEC aims to upgrade maritime routes between India and the Arabian Peninsula and establish high-speed rail links from UAE ports to Haifa, Israel, via Saudi Arabia and Jordan.
  2. Integration with Europe: From Haifa, goods would be shipped to Europe’s Mediterranean ports, ensuring faster, secure, and sustainable trade connectivity.
  3. Beyond Transport: The corridor also includes plans for a clean hydrogen pipeline, electricity cable, and high-speed undersea digital cable, linking energy and digital ecosystems across three continents.
  4. Strategic Objective: IMEC provides a non-Chinese, rules-based alternative to the Belt and Road Initiative (BRI), enhancing India’s strategic outreach and economic influence.

The Geopolitical Context of 2023:

  1. Favourable Climate: The Abraham Accords (2020) created optimism for regional peace, bringing Israel and several Arab states closer. This atmosphere facilitated multilateral cooperation frameworks such as I2U2 (India, Israel, UAE, U.S.), paving the way for IMEC.
  2. India’s Upward Trajectory: India’s improving ties with Saudi Arabia and the UAE, coupled with strong U.S. relations, allowed it to play a central role in IMEC’s conception.
  3. Global Endorsement: The corridor was launched at the G-20 Summit in Delhi, with support from the EU, France, Germany, Italy, and Saudi Arabia, underscoring India’s emergence as a trusted global partner.

The Security Setback and Regional Volatility

  1. Conflict Shock: Within weeks of IMEC’s announcement, the Hamas–Israel conflict erupted, reversing the post-Abraham optimism.
  2. Regional Fallout: Israel’s military operations strained ties with Arab countries, undermining cross-border infrastructure cooperation.
  3. Red Sea Disruptions: The Houthi attacks on cargo ships forced rerouting via the Cape of Good Hope, increasing transit time and cost.
  4. Lesson: The events underscore that geopolitical stability remains the cornerstone of connectivity, and corridors like IMEC must remain adaptable to shifting realities.

Europe’s Changing Maritime Interests

  1. Arctic Openings: Climate change has opened new northern sea routes, shortening Asia–Europe shipping times. Beneficiaries include Russia, the U.S., China, and northern European nations.
  2. Mediterranean Anxiety: Countries like Italy, dependent solely on the Mediterranean, fear economic marginalisation if Arctic routes dominate trade.
  3. Strategic Importance of IMEC: Hence, Mediterranean states see IMEC as a means to sustain their maritime relevance and diversify trade partnerships.
  4. India’s Role: For India, the Mediterranean remains vital, as Arctic routes offer no immediate logistical advantage.

Why IMEC Still Matters for India

  1. Economic Scale: With $136 billion in annual trade, the EU remains India’s largest trading partner, highlighting the need for resilient connectivity.
  2. Supply Chain Resilience: IMEC offers a secure, shorter route connecting India to Europe while reducing dependence on the Red Sea–Suez chokepoint.
  3. Strategic Leverage: Enhanced engagement with Arab economies can dilute Pakistan’s influence and integrate India deeper into West Asia’s economic architecture.
  4. Innovation Space: As a multi-member initiative, IMEC allows India to propose new routes via Saudi Arabia and Egypt, adapting to political flux.

Challenges and the Way Forward

  1. Security Dependencies: Ongoing instability in Gaza and Israel poses a persistent threat.
  2. Financial and Political Coordination: Multi-country infrastructure projects face coordination delays, regulatory inconsistencies, and funding constraints.
  3. Need for Parallel Efforts: India must also upgrade domestic ports and logistics infrastructure, including Sagarmala and Dedicated Freight Corridors, to complement IMEC.
  4. Diplomatic Continuity: Sustaining dialogue through I2U2 and G-20 cooperation can help preserve IMEC’s spirit even if its routes evolve.

Conclusion

The IMEC’s future will depend not merely on the pacification of West Asia but on the political agility and diplomatic imagination of its members. While the corridor’s physical routes may shift, its strategic essence remains intact, to build resilient, diversified, and sustainable connectivity between India and Europe. For India, IMEC is more than an infrastructure project; it is a statement of intent, to be at the centre of global supply chains and a stabilising power in a fractured world.

PYQ Relevance

[UPSC 2018] The China-Pakistan Economic Corridor (CPEC) is viewed as a cardinal subset of China’s larger ‘One Belt One Road’ initiative. Give a brief description of CPEC and enumerate the reasons why India has distanced itself from the same.

Linkage: While China’s CPEC runs through disputed territory, making India wary, the IMEC shows how India is building its own clean, safe, and cooperative route to connect with Europe. It’s India’s way of staying in the global connectivity game—on its own terms.

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Renewable Energy – Wind, Tidal, Geothermal, etc.

The critical factor in India’s clean energy ambition

Explained | Economics | Mains Paper 3: Infrastructure: Energy, Ports, Roads, Airports, Railways Etc.

Introduction

India’s ambition to achieve 500 GW of renewable energy by 2030 and net zero emissions by 2070 depends not just on sunlight and wind but on minerals buried beneath the earth’s surface. Lithium, cobalt, and REEs form the backbone of technologies driving the clean energy revolution. However, India imports almost all of these minerals, exposing its renewable future to external shocks. The article explores how India is gearing up to build a resilient supply chain, promote domestic mining, and move toward a circular economy, turning its green dreams into a self-reliant reality.

India’s Clean Energy Journey and the Mineral Imperative

  1. Critical minerals as enablers: They power EV batteries, solar panels, and wind turbines, the pillars of the green transition.
  2. Explosive market growth: India’s EV market is projected to grow at a 49% CAGR from 2023 to 2030, driven by the Electric Mobility Promotion Scheme (EMPS) 2024.
  3. Battery boom: The battery storage market, valued at $2.8 billion in 2023, is set to surge with renewable energy integration.
  4. Import dependency: India currently imports nearly 100% of lithium, cobalt, and nickel, and over 90% of REEs, creating severe strategic vulnerabilities.

Why Dependence is Dangerous: Global Supply Chain Vulnerabilities

  1. China’s dominance: Controls 60% of global REE production and 85% of processing capacity, giving it massive leverage.
  2. Geopolitical risks: Trade restrictions, conflicts, and supply disruptions can derail India’s energy transition plans.
  3. National security angle: Critical minerals are not just about clean energy,  they are strategic assets influencing defence, technology, and economic sovereignty.

India’s Domestic Potential: A Hidden Treasure Beneath the Soil

  1. New discoveries: The Geological Survey of India (GSI) identified 5.9 million tonnes of inferred lithium in Jammu & Kashmir in 2023, a major breakthrough.
  2. Policy push: The National Mineral Exploration Policy (NMEP), 2016, and amendments to the Mines and Minerals (Development and Regulation) Act, 2021, opened up exploration to private players.
  3. Auctions driving interest: In 2023 alone, 20 critical mineral blocks (lithium, graphite, REEs) were auctioned, attracting domestic and multinational bidders.
  4. Potential-rich states: Jammu & Kashmir, Rajasthan (lithium), Odisha, and Andhra Pradesh (REEs) have emerged as mineral hotspots.

From Discovery to Refinement: The Missing Link

  1. Production bottleneck: India contributes less than 1% of global REE production due to weak refining and processing infrastructure.
  2. Need for partnerships: Public-private collaborations can bring in advanced processing technologies and recycling systems.
  3. Government incentives: Subsidies, tax breaks, and R&D grants are critical to scale domestic lithium and cobalt pilot projects.

Investment and Policy Momentum: Building the Foundation

  1. Regulatory reforms: The Mines and Minerals (Amendment) Act, 2023 allows private exploration but the sector faces high costs and environmental concerns.
  2. Economic potential: Mining contributes only 2.5% to India’s GDP, compared to 13.6% in Australia — signalling untapped opportunity.
  3. National Critical Mineral Mission (NCMM): With an outlay of ₹34,300 crore, it aims to strengthen the value chain — from exploration to recycling.

Institutional efforts:

  1. NMDC diversifying through its Australian arm.
  2. IREL (India) Ltd. extracting REEs like neodymium, praseodymium, and dysprosium.
  3. KABIL (Khanij Bidesh India Ltd.), formed in 2019, tasked with overseas acquisitions of mineral assets.

Moving Towards a Circular Economy

  1. E-waste as opportunity: India produces 4 million metric tonnes of e-waste annually, yet only 10% is formally recycled.
  2. Recycling policies: The Battery Waste Management Rules (2022) and E-Waste Management Rules (2022) aim to improve recovery of critical minerals.
  3. Challenges: Weak enforcement, poor infrastructure, and lack of awareness hinder progress.
  4. Way forward: Public-private recycling hubs can boost technology access, cut costs, and reduce environmental footprint, paving the way for a circular economy.

Conclusion

Critical minerals are the backbone of India’s clean energy transformation. Securing them is not just about green growth, but about economic independence and strategic security. India’s policy thrust through the National Critical Mineral Mission, domestic auctions, and recycling reforms signal intent, but execution remains key. A coherent strategy involving private investment, state backing, and global partnerships can ensure India does not just consume green technology, it creates it. The success of this mission will determine whether India emerges as a leader in the global clean energy race or remains dependent on others for its green dreams.

PYQ Relevance

[UPSC 2022] Do you think India will meet 50 percent of its energy needs from renewable energy by 2030? Justify your answer. How will the shift of subsidies from fossil fuels to renewables help achieve the above objective?

Linkage: India’s ability to meet 50% of its energy needs from renewables by 2030 hinges on securing critical minerals like lithium and REEs that power solar, wind, and EV technologies. A shift of subsidies from fossil fuels to renewables will accelerate domestic mining, recycling, and innovation—building the self-reliant green infrastructure essential for achieving this target.

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ISRO Missions and Discoveries

Mission Drishti: World’s First Multi-sensor EO Satellite

Prelims Only | Science Tech | Mains Paper 3: Awareness in various sc and tech fields

Why in the News?

Indian space-tech start-up GalaxEye, based in Bengaluru, has announced the upcoming launch of Mission Drishti, the world’s first multi-sensor Earth Observation (EO) satellite, in the first quarter of 2026.

About Mission Drishti:

  • Objective: To provide high-resolution, real-time geospatial intelligence for governments, defence, and industries across critical domains such as disaster management, infrastructure, agriculture, and national security.
  • Developer: Conceived by Bengaluru-based GalaxEye Space, an Indian space-tech start-up founded by IIT Madras alumni.
  • Nature: World’s first multi-sensor Earth Observation (EO) satellite, capable of integrating multiple imaging technologies on a single platform.
  • Launch Timeline: Scheduled for first quarter of 2026, serving as the first step in GalaxEye’s plan to deploy a constellation of 8–12 satellites by 2029.
  • Innovation: Combines Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) and optical sensors for multi-dimensional imaging across all weather and lighting conditions.
  • Significance: Marks India’s largest privately built satellite and establishes India’s position in the global EO market with indigenous, high-precision imaging technology.

Key Features:

  • Multi-Sensor Payload: Integrates SAR and optical imaging systems on one platform, a first in global satellite technology.
  • Resolution and Capacity: Offers 1.5-metre resolution, providing ultra-clear imagery for tactical and analytical applications.
  • All-Weather Operation: SAR enables imaging day and night, through cloud cover and adverse weather, ensuring continuous monitoring capability.
  • Satellite Specifications: Weighs 160 kg, making it India’s heaviest privately developed EO satellite, designed for spatial, spectral, and temporal precision.
  • Constellation Vision: Part of GalaxEye’s long-term plan to deploy 8–12 satellites by 2029 for near-real-time global coverage.
  • Applications: Defence surveillance, disaster management, infrastructure auditing, agriculture analytics, and environmental monitoring.
[UPSC 2019] For the measurement/estimation of which of the following are satellite images/remote sensing data used?

1. Chlorophyll content in the vegetation of a specific location 2. Greenhouse gas emissions from rice paddies of a specific location 3. Land surface temperatures of a specific location

Select the correct answer using the code given below.

Options: (a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3*

 

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