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  • Interstate River Water Dispute

    What is Rule Curve of a river?

    Prelims Only | Enviro & Biodiversity | Mains Paper 3: Conservation, Environmental Pollution & Degradation, Eia

    The Supreme Court has warned the Tamil Nadu Chief Secretary against the failure to give information on the rule curve for Mullaperiyar dam.

    Do you know?

    The Mullaperiyar dam is located in Kerala on the river Periyar but is operated and maintained by the neighbouring state of Tamil Nadu.

    What is the Rule Curve?

    • A rule curve or rule level specifies the storage or empty space to be maintained in a reservoir during different times of the year.
    • Here the implicit assumption is that a reservoir can best satisfy its purposes if the storage levels specified by the rule curve are maintained in the reservoir at different times.
    • It decides the fluctuating storage levels in a reservoir.
    • The gate opening schedule of a dam is based on the rule curve.
    • It is part of the “core safety” mechanism in a dam.

    Why such a move?

    • During the high-voltage hearing, the Tamil Nadu government blamed Kerala for delaying the finalization of the rule curve for the 123-year-old dam.
    • Kerala government has accused Tamil Nadu of adopting an “obsolete” gate operation schedule dating back to 1939.

    About Mullaperiyar Dam

    • Mullaperiyar Dam is a masonry gravity dam on the Periyar River in the Indian state of Kerala.
    • It is located on the Cardamom Hills of the Western Ghats in Thekkady, Idukki District of Kerala.
    • It was constructed between 1887 and 1895 by John Pennycuick and also reached an agreement to divert water eastwards to the Madras Presidency area (present-day Tamil Nadu).
    • It has a height of 53.6 m from the foundation, and a length of 365.7 m.
    • The Periyar National Park in Thekkady is located around the dam’s reservoir.
    • The dam is built at the confluence of Mullayar and Periyar rivers.

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  • Wildlife Conservation Efforts

    Project RE-HAB

    Prelims Only | Enviro & Biodiversity | Mains Paper 3: Conservation, Environmental Pollution & Degradation, Eia

    The forest authorities intend to mitigate human-elephant conflict by installing bee boxes along the periphery of the forest and the villages under the Project RE-HAB.

    On similar lines, try this PYQ:

    Q.The term ‘M-STrIPES’ is sometimes seen in the news in the context of:

    (a) Captive breeding of Wild Fauna

    (b) Maintenance of Tiger Reserves

    (c) Indigenous Satellite Navigation System

    (d) Security of National Highways

    Project RE-HAB

    • Project RE-HAB stands for Reducing Elephant-Human Attacks using Bees. It is an initiative of the Khadi and Village Industries Commission (KVIC).
    • It intends to create “bee fences” to thwart elephant attacks in human habitations using honeybees.
    • Bee boxes have been placed on the ground as well as hung from the trees.
    • The boxes are connected with a string so that when elephants attempt to pass through, a tug causes the bees to swarm the elephant herds and dissuade them from progressing further.
    • This idea stems from the elephants’ proven fear of the bees.

    Areas covered by the project

    • The pilot project was launched at four locations around Chelur village in the Kodagu district of Karnataka.
    • These spots are located on the periphery of Nagarahole National Park and Tiger Reserve, known conflict zones.

    Benefits offered

    • The biggest advantage of Project RE-HAB is that it dissuades elephants without causing any harm to them.
    • It is extremely cost-effective as compared to various other measures such as digging trenches or erecting fences.

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  • Government Budgets

    State budgets belies the hopes of public-spending-led recovery

    op-ed snap | Economics | Mains Paper 3: Government Budgeting

    The article highlights the trends emerging from the State budgets which dashes the hopes of public-spending led economic recovery.

    State-level budget trends

    • Over the past few weeks, several state governments have presented their budgets for the financial year 2021-22.
    • The states, put together, account for a larger share of general government spending than the Centre.
    • States’ spending stance is pivotal to the hopes of a government spending-led economic recovery.

    5 Broad trends from the state budgets

    • The broad state-level budget trends are based on 11 states that account for a little over 60 per cent of India’s GDP.

    1) Offsetting the additional spending by Centre

    • There is a collapse in states’ revenues and transfers from the Centre.
    • Along with it, there is a “reluctance” among some states to borrow more to spend.
    • Thus, the aggregate level spending by these states in 2020-21 will end up being lower than what they had budgeted for before the onset of the pandemic.
    • The revised estimates peg their total expenditure to decline by around 6 per cent in 2020-21 from their budget estimates.
    • If these trends were to hold for the other states as well, then it would imply that the additional spending by the central government, over and above its budget estimate is likely to be offset by the decline in spending by states.

    2) From revenue surplus to revenue deficit

    • This year, states which typically run revenue surpluses will run revenue deficits.
    • The collapse in revenues meant that states that usually borrow to finance capital expenditure have had to borrow to finance their recurring expenditure (revenue expenditure) as well.
    • As a consequence, capital spending by states has been cut sharply.
    • States, though, expect the situation to reverse in the coming fiscal year, with most projecting a return to revenue surpluses even as the Centre will continue to run revenue deficits.
    • This anomaly is unlikely to be resolved unless the root cause of the situation — the nature of the fiscal compact between the Centre and the states — is addressed.

    3) Reluctance by states to borrow

    • The Centre had raised the ceiling on their market borrowings from 3 to 5 per cent of GSDP.
    • Of this 2 percentage point increase in the borrowing limit, part was unconditional while the remaining was subject to fulfilling Centre-mandated reforms.
    • As per ICRA’s estimate, 17 states qualified based on the One Nation One Ration Card reforms, 15 qualified based on the ease of doing business reforms, seven partially completed power sector reforms, while six had completed the urban local body reforms.
    • But, it is only the low-income states of Bihar, Rajasthan and Madhya Pradesh with already stretched finances that seem to have availed the additional borrowing space.
    • The high-income states of Gujarat, Maharashtra and Karnataka, all of whom had greater fiscal headroom going to the crisis, and were better placed to borrow more and spend, have not done so.

    4) Aggressive fiscal consolidation

    • As is the case with the Centre, states have, remarkably, budgeted for aggressive fiscal consolidation next year.
    • The average fiscal deficit across these states is expected to fall by more than 1 percentage point of GSDP, more than twice the decline recommended by the 15th finance commission.

    5) Ambitious revenue assumptions

    • The aggressive consolidation next year is expected to be achieved not by expenditure compression, as is the case with the Centre, but by significant revenue enhancement.
    • However, some revenue assumptions are quite ambitious, to say the least — some states have pegged their GST and VAT collections to grow far in excess of 30 per cent in 2021-22.
    • A deterioration in fiscal marksmanship will mean that expenditure in the coming fiscal year will also end up being lower than what has been budgeted for.

    Consider the question “The pandemic has upended the States’ fiscal space, which is evident in their budgets. In light of this, examine the trends emerging from the budgets of the States and their implications for the economy.”

    Conclusion

    Subdued general government spending during these tumultuous years heightens the risks to economic recovery. Considering the possibility of the economy exiting from this period with lower medium-term growth prospects, there is a strong case for greater government spending during these years.

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  • Banking Sector Reforms

    India should abandon its suspicion of digital currency

    | Economics | Mains Paper 3: Indian Economy

    The article discusses the advantages of central bank digital currency which could combine the advantages of both fiat money and cryptocurrency.

    India’s suspicion of the cryptocurrencies

    • In 2018, the Reserve Bank of India prohibited regulated entities from providing services to anyone who deals with or settles trades in any virtual currency.
    • This was effectively banning Bitcoin trading in the country.
    • The Supreme Court lifted this restriction in 2020.
    • There were rumours earlier this year that a new law was in the works that would make it a crime to possess, issue, mine, trade or transfer crypto assets in India.

    Thinking of digital currencies as asset not currency

    • There are concerns over the speculative nature of cryptocurrencies.
    • There are also law enforcement concerns around how digital currencies make it hard for the police to track down criminals.
    • One of the most important attributes of a currency is that it should be a stable store of value, and Bitcoin is anything but.
    • To deal with this difficulty, it will be helpful to think of digital currencies as just another asset—the digital equivalent of a scarce commodity that, like gold, certain collectors prize.

    Difference between working of banks and cryptocurrencies

    • Our financial system relies on banks to record transactions.
    • It is a ‘permissioned’ ledger system in that only trusted intermediaries-registered banks under the supervision of the central bank-can make changes to the ledgers to certify that a given transaction has been completed.
    • Cryptocurrencies, on the other hand, are ‘permissionless’ systems that need no intermediary.
    • Instead of a centralized ledger, transactions are recorded on a distributed database.
    • A purely permissionless system has no need of banks.

    Role of banks in maintaining financial health

    • Central banks are not just intermediaries managing the great big financial ledger of the country, they are responsible for its financial health.
    • To perform this function, they need to be able to take money out of the system when required or put money back into economic circulation.
    • None of this is possible in a purely permissionless system.

    Advantages of digitally native currencies

    • Digitally native currencies are programmable and capable of being incorporated into smart contracts, offering various opportunities for innovative digital solutions.
    • Since they can be directly allotted to citizens who don’t have a bank account, they are ideal for financial inclusion.
    • Being digitally auditable, transactions can be audited, reducing the scope for illicit activity.
    • The challenge is one of integrating the best that digital currencies have to offer into the traditional financial paradigm.

    Central bank digital currencies as an alternative

    • CBDCs are a completely re-engineered form of money that use a distributed ledger as their underlying technology layer, but are backed by suitable amounts of monetary reserves, just like normal fiat currency.
    • Many countries have been toying with the idea of a central bank digital currency (CBDC).
    • They are run by central banks along with select financial entities responsible for managing the distributed ledger.
    • The best CBDCs will converge the best of both worlds—the programability and security of cryptocurrencies and the reserve-backed stability of fiat currency.
    • Several countries are already testing this concept.

    How central bank digital currency differs from cryptocurrency? What are its advantages?”

    Conclusion

    Banning technology has never made it go away. Instead, let’s make an effort to better understand it, and having done so, do all we can to create the digital currency our country needs.

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  • Foreign Policy Watch: India-United States

    A robust economic relationship between India and U.S.

    | International Relations | Mains Paper 2: Bilateral, Regional and Global Groupings and agreements involving India

    The article outlines the potential for India-U.S. collaboration in certain ares of trade which will bring many gains.

    India-U.S. bilateral trade

    • In the five years to 2019, bilateral trade grew at a CAGR of 7.7% per year to $146 billion.
    • If we assume the same rate of growth, the $500 billion target will be achieved by 2036.
    • To ensure this, the CAGR would need to be set at 11.9%.
    • This is doable if the right policy actions are taken.

    Areas of collaboration

    1) Healthcare exchanges

    • A collaborative response to the pandemic would contribute to global containment of the virus.
    • Business partnerships are already taking place in the supply chain.
    • As India becomes the hub of global vaccine distribution, building confidence in the Indian IPR regime, reviving the U.S.-India Health Dialogue, and mutually recognising standards and approvals will help drive healthcare exchanges.

    2) Improving the macro trade architecture

    • The macro trade architecture can be strengthened with a broad trade agreement focusing on resolving the low-hanging fruit.
    • The U.S.-India Trade Policy Forum meetings can be revived along with a cross-sector track-2 group to look at convergence on issues such as market access.
    • There is potential for flexibility from both sides for restoring the Generalised System of Preferences.
    • The two countries should consider initiating discussions on a free trade agreement.

    3) Trade in services

    • Recent regulations in the U.S. have impacted labour mobility which can be addressed through immigration reforms for employment-based visa backlogs and smooth and timely processes.
    • The MoU on labour cooperation signed in 2011 could be updated in line with India’s recent labour regulatory changes.
    • This may also be a good time to reconsider a totalisation agreement pertaining to social security, given that both have already entered into such agreements with many of the same partner countries.

    4) Defence industry ties

    • Defence industry ties can be stepped up in coordination with industry.
    • A defence dialogue including the private sectors of both sides could help in co-production and co-development in the defence and aerospace sectors.

    5) Stepping up engagement of SMEs

    • Five, engagement of small and medium enterprises (SMEs) can be stepped up.
    • Smaller U.S. companies can find significant new opportunities for investments in India and sourcing from India.
    • A U.S.-India SME CEOs Forum can be set up to catalyse such partnerships.

    6) Clean energy and climate change

    • The U.S.-India Strategic Energy Partnership should be geared towards joint investments in industrial decarbonisation, carbon dioxide removal and green hydrogen.
    • The programmes of Partnership to Advance Clean Energy Research, Partnership to Advance Clean Energy Deployment and Promoting Energy Access through Clean Energy must be relaunched.

    7) Digital economy partnership

    • India has proved its ability in this space with new opportunities opening up in robotics, space, AI and electric vehicles.
    • It is also important to disseminate information on India’s IPR regime improvements and work towards taking India off the U.S. Trade Representative IPR priority watchlist.

    8) Other areas

    • Other opportunities in the bilateral economic relationship include education, innovation and R&D, and agricultural trade and technology.

    Conclusion

    A closer economic partnership would bring gains to both sides in terms of GDP, employment, and productivity, given the complementary natures of their economies.

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  • Innovations in Sciences, IT, Computers, Robotics and Nanotechnology

    Responsible and ethical AI

    op-ed snap | | Mains Paper 3: Awareness in various sc and tech fields

    The article highlights the challenges and opportunities offered by the Artificial Intelligence and suggests the ways to deal with them.

    AI as a part of our life

    • AI is embedded in the recommendations we get on our favourite streaming or shopping site; in GPS mapping technology; in the predictive text that completes our sentences when we try to send an email or complete a web search.
    • And the more we use AI, the more data we generate, the smarter it gets.
    • In just the last decade, AI has evolved with unprecedented velocity.

    How AI could help us

    • AI has helped increase crop yields, raised business productivity, improved access to credit and made cancer detection faster and more precise.
    • It could contribute more than $15 trillion to the world economy by 2030, adding 14% to global GDP.
    • Google has identified over 2,600 use cases of “AI for good” worldwide.
    • A study published in Nature reviewing the impact of AI on the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) finds that AI may act as an enabler on 134 of all SDG targets.

    Concerns with AI

    • Yet, the study in Nature also finds that AI can actively hinder 59 — or 35% — of SDG targets.
    • AI requires massive computational capacity, which means more power-hungry data centres — and a big carbon footprint.
    • AI could compound digital exclusion.
    • Many desk jobs will be edged out by AI, such as accountants, financial traders and middle managers.
    • Without clear policies on reskilling workers, the promise of new opportunities will in fact create serious new inequalities.
    • Investment is likely to shift to countries where AI-related work is already established widening gaps among and within countries.
    • AI also presents serious data privacy concerns. 
    • We shape the algorithms and it is our data AI operate on.
    • In 2016, it took less than a day for Microsoft’s Twitter chatbot, “Tay”, to start spewing egregious racist content, based on the material it encountered.

    Way forward

    • Without ethical guard rails, AI will widen social and economic schisms, amplifying any innate biases.
    • Only a “whole of society” approach to AI governance will enable us to develop broad-based ethical principles, cultures and codes of conduct.
    • Given the global reach of AI, such a “whole of society” approach must rest on a “whole of world” approach.
    • The UN Secretary-General’s Roadmap on Digital Cooperation is a good starting point.
    • This approach lays out the need for multi-stakeholder efforts on global cooperation.
    • UNESCO has developed a global, comprehensive standard-setting draft Recommendation on the Ethics of Artificial Intelligence to Member States for deliberation and adoption.
    • Many countries, including India, are cognisant of the opportunities and the risks, and are striving to strike the right balance between AI promotion and AI governance.
    • NITI Aayog’s Responsible AI for All strategy, the culmination of a year-long consultative process, is a case in point.

    Consider the question “What are the ways in which Artificial Intelligence in helping humanity? What are the concerns with the promotion and the governance of AI?”

    Conclusion

    Chellenging part starts where principles meet reality that the ethical issues and conundrums arise in practice, and for which we must be prepared for deep, difficult, multi-stakeholder ethical reflection, analyses and resolve. Only then will AI provide humanity its full promise.

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  • BREXIT

    UK turns to Indo-Pacific  

    | International Relations | Mains Paper 2: Bilateral, Regional and Global Groupings and agreements involving India

    Britain wants to expand its influence among countries in the Indo-Pacific region to try to moderate China’s global dominance.

    Seems like QUAD is getting attention from other democratic nations for the big-brother role!

    What is the news?

    • A document laying out post-Brexit has highlighted foreign defence policy priorities of the UK.

    Britain’s post BREXIT plan

    • This document is Britain’s biggest foreign and defence policy review since the end of the Cold War.
    • It sets out a planned increase to Britain’s nuclear arsenal to weigh against evolving global security threats and underlines the importance of strong ties with the US while naming Russia as the top regional threat.
    • It sets out how PM Boris Johnson wants to be at the forefront of a reinvigorated, rules-based international order based on cooperation and free trade.

    Focus on Indo-pacific

    • China and the U.K. both benefit from bilateral trade and investment, but China also presents the biggest state-based threat to the U.K.’s economic security, the report said.
    • Calling the Indo-Pacific increasingly the geopolitical centre of the world, the government highlighted a planned British aircraft carrier deployment to the region.
    • Britain, the world’s sixth-largest economy, is dwarfed economically and militarily by China.
    • The UK believes, through soft power and strategic alliances, it can help persuade Beijing to play by the rules of a new, more dynamic international system.

    Content over Hong Kong

    • The Sino-British ties have tensed since over issues including Beijing’s security crackdown on former British colony Hong Kong.

    UK needs India for this juncture

    • UK PM Boris Johnson has called ”India is an increasingly indispensable partner for the United Kingdom.”
    • India’s skilled labour, technological assistance and the vibrant market will open a lot of avenues for Britain which has recently parted ways with the European Union.
    • India is not the world’s largest telecom market; it is also the fastest-growing.
    • According to a study on India’s telecom sector, an increase in telecom subscriptions often touches 20 million a month.
    • India also offers the cheapest data compared at current market exchange rates. As per cable.co.uk, the price per GB data in India to be $0.09.
    • Along with the world, India is now steering towards 5G. The UK will need India’s help to marginalize China in the telecom market.

    What else?

    • The report categorised India as “an international actor of growing importance”
    • Earlier the British government has approached Washington about a “D10” club of democratic partners, based on G7 plus Australia, South Korea and India.

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  • Mother and Child Health – Immunization Program, BPBB, PMJSY, PMMSY, etc.

    Rajya Sabha passes MTP Bill, 2020

    | Polity | Mains Paper 2: Laws, Institutions & Bodies Constituted For The Vulnerable Sections

    The Rajya Sabha has passed the Medical Termination of Pregnancy (Amendment) Bill, 2020 that increases the time period within which an abortion may be carried out.

    What are the differing opinions with regards to the Termination of Pregnancy (MTP) Amendment Bill, 2020? Discuss.

    MTP Bill, 2020

    The MTP Bill was passed in Lok Sabha in March 2020. Its salient features included:

    • Proposing requirement for the opinion of one provider for termination of pregnancy, up to 20 weeks of gestation and introducing the requirement of the opinion of two providers for termination of pregnancy of 20-24 weeks of gestation.
    • Enhancing the upper gestation limit from 20 to 24 weeks for special categories of women which will be defined in the amendments to the MTP Rules and would include ‘vulnerable women including survivors of rape, victims of incest and other vulnerable women (like differently-abled women, Minors) etc.
    • Upper gestation limit not to apply in cases of substantial foetal abnormalities diagnosed by Medical Board. The composition, functions and other details of the Medical Board to be prescribed subsequently in Rules under the Act.
    • Anonymity of the person: The name and other particulars of a woman whose pregnancy has been terminated shall not be revealed except to a person authorised in any law for the time being in force.

    Benefits sought with the bill

    • It is seen as a step towards the safety and well-being of the women and many women will be benefitted from this.
    • Recently several petitions were received by the Courts seeking permission for aborting pregnancies at a gestational age beyond the present permissible limit on grounds of foetal abnormalities or pregnancies due to sexual violence faced by women.
    • The proposed increase in gestational age will ensure dignity, autonomy, confidentiality and justice for women who need to terminate the pregnancy.

    Flaws in the bill

    • The Bill allows abortion after 24 weeks only in cases where a Medical Board diagnoses substantial foetal abnormalities.
    • This implies that for a case requiring abortion due to rape, that exceeds 24-weeks, the only recourse remains through a Writ Petition.
    • The Bill does not specify the categories of women who may terminate pregnancies between 20-24 weeks and leaves it to be prescribed through Rules.
    • The Act (and the Bill) requires an abortion to be performed only by doctors with a specialization in gynaecology or obstetrics.
    • As there is a 75% shortage of such doctors in community health centres in rural areas, pregnant women may continue to find it difficult to access facilities for safe abortions.

    Key Issues and Analysis

    • There are differing opinions with regard to allowing abortions. One opinion is that terminating a pregnancy is the choice of the pregnant woman and a part of her reproductive rights.
    • The other is that the state has an obligation to protect life, and hence should provide for the protection of the foetus.
    • Across the world, countries set varying conditions and time limits for allowing abortions, based on foetal health, and risk to the pregnant woman.
    • Several Writ Petitions have been filed by women seeking permission to abort pregnancies beyond 20-weeks due to foetal abnormalities or rape.

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  • Anti Defection Law

    Anti-defection law: when a nominated MP loses RS membership

    | Polity | Mains Paper 2: Parliament & State Legislatures

    A nominated MP had to resign from Rajya Sabha before the completion of his term due to the Anti-defection law.

    The story of Nominated Members

    • During the making of the Constitution, members of the Constituent Assembly felt that Rajya Sabha should have members who might not win elections but will bring knowledge and expertise to discussions.
    • It led to Rajya Sabha having 12 nominated members from different walks of life.
    • The broad criterion for their nomination is that they should have distinguished themselves in fields like literature, science, art, and social service.
    • The President nominates such individuals as recommended by the Centre.
    • Nominated members have the same rights and privileges as elected members, with one notable difference — they cannot vote in the election of the President.

    Anti-defection law

    • In 1985 the Tenth Schedule, popularly known as the anti-defection law, was added to the Constitution.
    • But its enactment was catalyzed by the political instability after the general elections of 1967.
    • This was the time when multiple state governments were toppled after MLAs changed their political loyalties.
    • The purpose of the 1985 Constitution Amendment was to bring stability to governments by deterring MPs and MLAs from changing their political parties on whose ticket they were elected.
    • The penalty for shifting political loyalties is the loss of parliamentary membership and a bar on becoming a minister.

    Try this PYQ:

    Consider the following statements:

    1. The Chairman and the Deputy Chairman of the Rajya Sabha are not the members of that House.
    2. While the nominated members of the two Houses of the Parliament have no voting right in the presidential election, they have the right to vote in the election of the Vice President.

    Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

    (a) 1 only

    (b) 2 only

    (c) Both 1 and 2

    (d) Neither 1 nor 2

    What invites defection?

    The law covers three types of scenarios with respect to MP switching parties.

    1. The first is when a member elected on the ticket of a political party “voluntarily gives up” membership of such a party or votes in the House contrary to the wishes of the party.
    2. The second possibility is when an MP who has won his or her seat as an independent candidate after the election joins a political party. In both these instances, the MP lose the seat in the House on changing (or joining) a party.
    3. The third scenario relates to nominated MPs. In their case, the law specifies that within six months of being nominated to the House, they can choose to join a political party.

    Why is a nominated member given 6month time?

    • The time is given so that if a nominated MP is not a member of a political party, they can decide to join one if they want.
    • But if they don’t join a political party during the first six months of their tenure, and join a party thereafter, then they lose their seat in Parliament.

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  • Air Pollution

    World Air Quality Report, 2020

    IOCR | Enviro & Biodiversity | Mains Paper 3: Conservation, Environmental Pollution & Degradation, Eia

    Delhi remained the most polluted capital city in the world but India, on the whole, had improved its average annual PM 2.5 (particulate matter) levels higher in 2020 than in 2019, according to a report from World Air Quality Report Air.

    Try this question from CS Mains 2015:

    Q.Mumbai, Delhi and Kolkata are the three megacities of the country but air pollution is a much more serious problem in Delhi as compared to the other two. Why is this so?

    World Air Quality Report

    • It is released by a Swiss air quality technology company IQAir.
    • IQAir is an air quality technology company that since 1963 seeks to empower individuals, organizations and communities to breathe cleaner air through information, collaboration and technology solutions.
    • The 2020 Report is based on PM2.5 data from 106 countries that have been measured by ground-based monitoring stations.

    Highlights of the report

    • Of the 14 most polluted cities, 13 were in India.
    • When ranked by cities, Hotan in China was the most polluted, with an average concentration of 110.2 µg/m³, followed by Ghaziabad in Uttar Pradesh at 106.
    • Delhi’s concentration level, based primarily on data from the Central Pollution Control Board, was 84.1 µg/m³ in 2020, a 15% improvement from the 98.6 µg/m³ recorded in 2019 — a consequence of the lockdown.
    • Bangladesh and Pakistan were the countries in 2020 with worse average PM 2.5 levels than India, says the report.
    • China ranked 11th in the latest report, a deterioration from the 14th in the previous edition of the report. In the 2020 report, 106 countries were evaluated.

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