Parliament passed the Mines and Minerals (Development and Regulation) Amendment Bill, 2026. It bars states from imposing specified levies on mineral rights except on terms set by the Centre, reopening a fiscal federalism dispute.
What does the Mines and Minerals (Development and Regulation) Amendment Bill, 2026 do?
Levy restriction: States cannot impose specified taxes on mineral rights or mineral-bearing land except as the Centre prescribes.
Dues extinguished: Pre-amendment dues estimated near 2 lakh crore rupees stand extinguished.
Scope: The Bill applies to major minerals such as iron ore, coal, bauxite, manganese, and copper.
Why is this a fiscal federalism flashpoint?
2024 ruling reversed in effect: The Supreme Court in 2024 upheld states’ power to tax mineral rights, which the Bill now constrains.
Revenue dependence: Mining was 84.9% of Jharkhand’s non-tax revenue in 2024-25.
Mineral-rich states hit: States holding large mineral reserves lose an expected revenue stream.
What is the Centre’s justification?
Uniform rates: The government argues uniform mineral rates prevent a patchwork of state levies.
No revenue loss claim: The Centre states that states retain powers over minor minerals.
Investment climate: Predictable levies are framed as protecting mining-sector investment.
What are the major debates surrounding it?
Tax versus royalty: The dispute turns on whether a levy on minerals is a tax or a royalty, which the 2024 ruling addressed.
Tribal concerns: Mineral belts overlap with Scheduled Areas, raising questions of local benefit-sharing.
Divisible resource control: Centralising mineral levies shifts fiscal power toward the Union.
Conclusion
The amendment centralises control over mineral taxation soon after the Supreme Court affirmed states’ taxing power. The immediate stage is enactment, with a likely constitutional challenge the next development.
Back2Basics
Constitutional Framework Governing mineral taxation
Entry 50, State List: Taxes on mineral rights, subject to Parliament’s limitations relating to mineral development.
Entry 54, Union List: Regulation of mines and mineral development declared expedient in public interest.
Article 246: Distributes legislative power between Union and states via the Seventh Schedule.
What did the Supreme Court hold in 2024?
The Mineral Area Development Authority v. SAIL judgment is the constitutional backdrop to the 2026 amendment. The 9-judge Constitution Bench, by 8:1 majority, held that royalty is not a tax and that States have legislative competence to tax mineral rights under Entry 50, State List. It also recognised the States’ power to tax mineral-bearing land under Entry 49, State List.
Royalty ≠ Tax: Royalty paid under the MMDR Act is consideration for the right to extract minerals and is distinct from a tax.
State Taxing Power: States can impose taxes on mineral rights under Entry 50, List II, subject to limitations imposed by Parliament.
Mineral-Bearing Land: States can also levy taxes on land under Entry 49, List II.
MMDR Limitation: The Court held that the MMDR Act, as it then stood, did not impose a limitation on the States’ taxing power.
Why is the 2026 Amendment significant?
The 2026 amendment seeks to alter this position prospectively by restricting State taxation of mineral rights and mineral-bearing lands, except in accordance with conditions or restrictions prescribed by the Centre
PYQ Relevance
[UPSC 2025] Examine the evolving pattern of Centre-State financial relations in the context of planned development in India. How far have the recent reforms impacted the fiscal federalism in India?
Linkage: The 2025 PYQ examines the evolution of Centre–State financial relations and their impact on fiscal federalism. The Bill raises fresh concerns over the Union’s role in restricting States’ mineral revenue powers and fiscal autonomy.
A NITI Aayog report titled Key Sectors to Position India as a Global Manufacturing Hub calls for deeper localisation and value addition across four sectors. It argues that India’s manufacturing remains stuck at assembly, with high import dependence for inputs.
What does the report cover?
Four focus sectors: Chemicals, telecom and networking equipment, textiles, and solar photovoltaic (PV).
Central diagnosis: India assembles finished goods but imports the high-value inputs, capping domestic value addition.
What are the sector-specific findings?
Chemicals: The industry stood at $200-220 billion in FY25, roughly 3% to 3.5% of the global market, growing 6% to 8%.
Textiles: About 80% of textile and apparel producers are MSMEs, limiting scale and technology adoption.
Import reliance: Around 35% of mono-ethylene glycol, a key textile input, is imported.
Solar PV: Domestic capacity depends on imported cells and wafers.
Why does deeper localisation matter?
Value capture: Assembly adds little domestic value, so moving up the chain raises incomes and jobs.
Strategic resilience: Import dependence for inputs exposes India to supply shocks and price volatility.
Trade balance: Substituting imported inputs narrows the manufacturing trade deficit.
What are the challenges to a manufacturing hub strategy
Scale deficit: An MSME-heavy base struggles to achieve globally competitive scale.
Technology gap: Weak research and development limits movement into complex components.
Logistics cost: High freight and power costs erode cost competitiveness.
Skilling shortfall: A shortage of trained industrial labour slows productivity gains.
Input ecosystem: Absence of a domestic supplier base for critical inputs keeps assembly dependent on imports.
Conclusion
The report reframes the manufacturing goal from output volume to domestic value addition. Its recommendations depend on building an input-supplier ecosystem, which the Production Linked Incentive (PLI) scheme alone has not delivered.
Back2Basics
Government Initiatives for manufacturing
Make in India: Umbrella programme to raise manufacturing’s share of GDP.
Production Linked Incentive (PLI) scheme: Output-linked incentives across 14 sectors.
National Manufacturing Mission: Announced to coordinate sectoral manufacturing push.
MUDRA & Credit Guarantee Scheme: Improve access to institutional credit for MSMEs, supporting investment, expansion and employment generation.
Semicon India Programme: Supports semiconductor fabrication, packaging and related ecosystems to build strategic manufacturing capabilities and reduce import dependence.
Key Concepts
Assembly vs. Value Addition
Assembly-led model: Importing components and assembling finished products in India.
Value-added manufacturing: Domestic production of components, intermediate goods, technology and final products.
Key concern: High domestic output does not necessarily mean high domestic value capture.
China+1 Strategy
Global firms are diversifying supply chains beyond China.
India can leverage this opportunity, but competitive costs, reliable infrastructure and deeper localisation are essential.
PYQ Relevance
[UPSC 2025] Discuss the rationale of the Production Linked Incentive (PLI) scheme. What are its achievements? In what way can the functioning and outcomes of the scheme be improved?
Linkage: The 2025 PYQ examines the role and effectiveness of the PLI scheme in strengthening India’s manufacturing sector. The report highlights the need to move beyond assembly towards deeper localisation, domestic value addition and stronger supplier ecosystems.
Retail inflation rose to 4.45% in July 2026, its highest reading in 19 months. The number stayed above the Reserve Bank of India (RBI) target of 4% for a second straight month, even as the central bank held its policy rate.
What is the Consumer Price Index (CPI) inflation target framework?
Flexible inflation targeting: The RBI is mandated to keep CPI inflation at 4%, within a tolerance band of 2% to 6%.
Monetary Policy Committee (MPC): A six-member committee sets the repo rate to steer inflation toward that target.
Mandate basis: The framework flows from the amended Reserve Bank of India Act, 1934, and a 2016 agreement between the government and the RBI.
What is driving the price rise?
Food inflation: Vegetables led the increase, with sharp jumps in onion, garlic and ginger prices.
Fuel and transport:Higher energy costs fed into the headline number.
Rural stress:Rural food inflation ran ahead of the national average.
Imported pressure: A depreciating rupee and disrupted West Asian crude supply raised input costs.
Why does core inflation tell a calmer story?
Core below 3%: Inflation excluding food and fuel stayed under 3%, showing weak underlying demand pressure.
Divergence: The gap between headline and core inflation points to a supply-side food shock rather than broad overheating.
Why did the RBI hold the repo rate?
Rate on hold: The MPC kept the repo rate at 5.25% for a fourth straight meeting.
Balancing act: A food-driven spike is not easily controlled by interest rates, so the RBI avoided tightening into a supply shock.
Conclusion
Headline inflation is being pushed by food and fuel, not by demand. The RBI has chosen to hold rates, and the trajectory depends on whether the monsoon eases vegetable prices in the coming months.
Back2Basics
What is Fiscal versus Monetary control of inflation?
Monetary tools: Repo rate, cash reserve ratio, and open market operations, used by the RBI to manage demand-side inflation.
Fiscal and supply tools: Buffer stocks, import duty cuts, and export curbs, used by the government to tackle food-supply shocks.
Types of Inflation
Headline Inflation: Overall CPI inflation, including food and fuel.
Core Inflation: Inflation excluding volatile food and fuel prices.
Food Inflation: Rise in prices of food items such as cereals, vegetables, pulses and edible oils.
Demand-Pull Inflation: Caused by aggregate demand growing faster than supply.
Cost-Push Inflation: Results from rising input costs such as fuel, wages and raw materials.
Imported Inflation: Domestic prices rise due to higher global commodity prices or currency depreciation.
Built-in Inflation: Persistent inflation arising from wage-price expectations and indexation.
Why Food Inflation Matters in India
Policy Challenge: Food inflation is largely supply-driven, limiting the effectiveness of monetary policy alone.
High CPI Weight: Food has a large weight in the CPI basket, making food-price changes strongly influence headline inflation.
Household Impact: Food inflation directly erodes purchasing power, especially for low-income households.
Rural Vulnerability: Rural households spend a larger share of income on food, making them more exposed to food-price shocks.
Inflation Expectations: Persistent food inflation can raise wage and price expectations, creating second-round effects. (Secod Round Effect: Persistent food inflation can spill over into wages, input costs and inflation expectations, turning a temporary supply shock into broader inflation.)
PYQ Relevance
[UPSC 2024] What are the causes of persistent high food inflation in India? Comment on the effectiveness of the monetary policy of the RBI to control this type of inflation.
Linkage: The PYQ talks about food inflation and limits of RBI monetary policy. Current inflation shows how supply-side food shocks can persist despite subdued core inflation.
The National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) has asked the Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) to join its Moon Base programme, a project to establish a permanent research station on the Moon. The offer exposes a tension between the chance to accelerate ISRO’s own crewed-mission goals and the risk of locking India into another agency’s technology ecosystem. Space cooperation has continued to progress even amid the volatility of India-US relations.
What is the Moon Base programme?
About: An ambitious project to establish a permanent research station on the Moon where astronauts can live, work, and carry out experiments for extended periods.
Sequence: It is the logical follow-up to landing humans on the Moon, aimed at preparing the ground for longer stays.
What is the Artemis programme?
About: A US-led programme that aims to land humans on the Moon before 2028, the first crewed return since 1972.
Purpose: It is spearheaded by the United States and is designed to move faster and more efficiently by bringing in partner countries and private companies.
What are the Artemis Accords?
About: A US-led coalition of spacefaring countries setting principles for cooperative and sustainable lunar exploration, which India has already signed.
Contested feature: The Accords sidestep and seek to replace the 1979 Moon Agreement, a framework for multilateral governance of lunar resources.
What is the 1979 Moon Agreement?
About: An international agreement that seeks to develop a multilateral governance framework for the use of lunar resources.
Relevance: The Artemis Accords are seen as an alternative that the Moon Agreement’s supporters view as bypassing multilateral governance.
What does India gain from joining?
Crewed-mission experience: ISRO, which plans to land humans on the Moon by 2040, would gain hands-on experience in executing complex crewed missions.
Technology access: Participation offers access to technologies relevant to sustained lunar operations.
Existing commitments: India has signed the Artemis Accords and agreed with the US to develop a strategic framework for human spaceflight cooperation.
Strategic stakes: Over coming decades the Moon could become strategically and economically important as countries begin to extract lunar resources.
What are the risks of joining? (the central tension)
US-led alliance perception: The Artemis Accords are increasingly seen as a US-led alliance, and two major space powers, China and Russia, are not part of it.
Technology lock-in: It is important that ISRO does not get locked into NASA’s technology ecosystem, which would make it vulnerable to technology denial.
Goal displacement: Cooperation should help ISRO achieve its own goals faster, not lead it to abandon or delay them in the service of someone else’s goals.
Wariness of structures: India has been wary of joining such international structures, and signing the Accords already represented a choice.
Government Initiatives in the Space Sector
Gaganyaan: India’s human spaceflight programme to send astronauts to low-Earth orbit.
Bharatiya Antariksh Station: India’s planned space station for sustained microgravity research.
IN-SPACe: The body enabling private participation in the space sector.
Challenges for India’s Lunar Cooperation
Technology denial: Dependence on foreign systems risks future denial.
Alliance optics: Alignment with a US-led coalition affects ties with other space powers.
Families of patients with psychiatric illness increasingly ask whether the condition is in their blood and whether a genetic test can settle their child’s future. There is a tension between the real progress of psychiatric genetics and its limited power to predict individual outcomes, especially for Indian populations underrepresented in genomic databases. The central point is that genes load the dice but do not determine destiny.
What is a genome-wide association study (GWAS)?
About: A GWAS compares millions of common genetic variants across very large groups of people with and without a condition, to find variants that appear more often in one group. . It compares DNA markers, most often single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs, between individuals with a condition and healthy control groups.
What it yields: It behaves like a satellite map highlighting genomic areas of interest, showing where to look for biological mechanisms rather than pinpointing a cause.
What does polygenic risk mean?
About: In common psychiatric disorders no single gene variant has a large effect, unlike single-gene diseases such as Tay-Sachs disease or Duchenne muscular dystrophy.
Mechanism: Risk is polygenic, emerging from the combined influence of thousands of variants together with rare genetic changes, development, environment, and chance.
What is a polygenic risk score?
About: A polygenic risk score (PRS) compresses many small genetic effects into a single number meant to estimate a person’s inherited susceptibility.
Limits: It cannot say whether a person will become ill, at what age, how severe it will be, or which medicine will work, because it captures only part of genetic liability.
How Polygenic Risk Works
Many small changes: Instead of one major gene causing an illness (like in cystic fibrosis), polygenic conditions involve hundreds or thousands of tiny DNA changes called single nucleotide polymorphisms
Adding it up: Each individual variant adds or subtracts a tiny amount of risk; a PRS totals these up to estimate your overall genetic predisposition.
Common conditions: It applies to complex diseases like heart disease, type 2 diabetes, schizophrenia, and certain common cancers
What have the major GWAS findings shown?
Schizophrenia: A 2022 landmark study identified associations at 287 genomic regions and pointed to genes active in neurons and synapses.
Bipolar disorder: A large 2021 study identified 64 associated regions.
Regulatory signals: Many signals lie in DNA that regulates when and where genes switch on, not in stretches that directly encode a protein.
Shared risk: A December 2025 study in Nature reported that some inherited risk is shared across schizophrenia and bipolar disorder.
Why is prediction unreliable, especially in India?
Score does not contain life: A person with a higher score may remain well while a person with a lower score may fall ill, because the score does not contain childhood adversity, sleep disruption, substance use, medical illness, or access to care.
Expert caution: The International Society of Psychiatric Genetics has cautioned that current scores for schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, and depression are not accurate enough for routine clinical prediction.
Ancestry bias: Genomic databases have drawn disproportionately from people of European ancestry, so scores are often less accurate in other populations.
Indian diversity: The GenomeIndia project generated whole-genome data from 10,000 healthy, unrelated Indians across 83 population groups and documented extraordinary genetic diversity, so a score developed elsewhere cannot simply be imported.
What can genetics usefully change in the clinic today?
Reduces blame: A mother did not cause schizophrenia by being too strict and a father did not transmit bipolar disorder through a moral failing, and biology matters.
Avoids fatalism: Genetic vulnerability should not be converted into a verdict, and no test can declare a person safe or doomed.
Focus on modifiable risk: The useful approach is to track early warning signs, avoid intoxicants, sleep well, seek help promptly, and focus on recovery.
Visible risks: Many risks are visible without sequencing, such as lost sleep before a manic episode, escalating cannabis use, treatment stopped due to stigma, and distance from specialist care.
Conclusion
The central idea is that psychiatric genetics will not identify people before they fall ill, but it can replace superstition and blame with a more accurate account of vulnerability. Prediction will remain probabilistic even as datasets grow larger and more representative. The task is to keep probabilities from being misunderstood, stigmatised, or commercialised, and to involve diverse populations while protecting privacy.
Back2Basics:
GenomeIndia Project
Convening body: Funded by the Department of Biotechnology (DBT), Government of India.
Aim: To build a catalogue of the genetic diversity of the Indian population.
Scale: Generated whole-genome data from 10,000 healthy, unrelated Indians across 83 population groups.
Significance: Provides an India-specific reference against which imported genetic risk scores can be tested rather than assumed to apply.
Genomics in India: About
Definition: Genomics studies the complete set of an organism’s DNA, including how variants relate to disease.
Diversity: India’s population carries extraordinary genetic diversity across many groups, making a single national reference essential.
Clinical caution: Risk scores derived from European-ancestry datasets can mislead when applied to Indian populations.
Challenges in Psychiatric Genetics
Weak prediction: Scores cannot forecast onset, severity, or treatment response for an individual.
Parliament passed the National Cooperative Development Corporation (Amendment) Bill, 2026, enabling the NCDC to provide loans and grants directly to cooperative societies.
What is NCDC?
NCDC (National Cooperative Development Corporation) is a statutory corporation established under the National Cooperative Development Corporation Act, 1962.
Functions under the Ministry of Cooperation.
Promotes and finances cooperatives involved in production, processing, marketing, storage and trade of agricultural and allied produce.
What does the Amendment Change?
Direct lending: NCDC can directly provide loans and grants to cooperative societies.
Wider coverage: Definition of foodstuffs expanded to include processed food and other food items notified by the Centre.
No additional budgetary outlay: The Bill does not provide for additional government financial assistance.
Why is it Needed?
Faster flow of credit by removing intermediary delays.
Supports over 8 lakh cooperatives with more than 30 crore members.
Extends cooperative financing into value added food chains.
Why are States Concerned?
Cooperation is largely a State subject.
Direct central lending may bypass State governments and registrars.
Raises concerns about cooperative federalism and centralisation.
Key Challenges
Financial weakness and poor governance of PACS (Primary Agricultural Credit Societies).
Dual regulatory control.
Regional concentration of cooperatives.
Delayed elections and audits.
Limited professional management.
Centre State friction.
Constitutional Framework
Entry 32, State List: Incorporation and regulation of cooperative societies within a State.
Article 43B: Promotes voluntary formation and autonomous functioning of cooperatives.
Part IXB, Articles 243ZH to 243ZT: Constitutional provisions on cooperatives.
Multi State Cooperative Societies Act, 2002: Governs cooperatives operating across multiple States.
The draft National Food Security (Amendment) Bill, 2026 proposes to link Antyodaya Anna Yojana (AAY) entitlements to household size, opening a new phase in India’s food security debate. The reset exposes a triple tension: correcting the inequity of a flat household ration without reducing existing foodgrain access, while building a pathway from cereal security toward nutrition security amid a rising burden of diabetes and other non-communicable diseases.
What is the National Food Security Act, 2013?
Definition: The National Food Security Act, 2013 (NFSA) legally guarantees subsidised foodgrains to a large share of the population through the Public Distribution System, treating food as a legal entitlement rather than welfare.
Coverage design: It allows coverage of up to 75% of the rural and 50% of the urban population, split into Priority Households and Antyodaya Anna Yojana households.
What is the Antyodaya Anna Yojana (AAY) category?
Definition: AAY covers the poorest of the poor households and provides a flat 35 kg of foodgrains per household per month, regardless of household size.
Contrast: Priority Households instead receive 5 kg of foodgrains per person per month, a per-head rather than per-household entitlement.
Why does the flat AAY entitlement create inequity?
Small households protected: The flat 35 kg shields smaller and highly vulnerable families, such as a widow or an older person living alone.
Large households squeezed: A seven-member AAY household receives only 5 kg per person and an eight-member household about 4.4 kg, below the Priority Household entitlement.
The distortion: Support per person falls as household size rises, inverting the intended pro-poor design.
What does the draft amendment propose?
Per-person formula: The draft proposes 7 kg of foodgrains per person, capped at 35 kg per household.
Winners and losers: It would reduce support for households with one to four members by 20% to 80%, leave those with five or more members unchanged, and give no AAY household any additional foodgrain.
The design flaw: By reducing rather than raising any allocation, it corrects inequity by levelling down.
Why does the proposal risk reducing existing access?
Tamil Nadu illustration: The State reports that 15.75 lakh of its 18.64 lakh AAY households, or 84.5%, have fewer than five members.
Allocation cut: The proposal would reduce the State’s monthly AAY allocation from 65,261 tonnes to 42,040 tonnes, a fall of about 35.6%.
Composition matters: A smaller household may include a person with a disability, a widow or an older person living alone, so headcount alone is a poor proxy for need.
Why must coverage, not just the formula, be reformed?
Outdated ceiling: The NFSA’s 81.35-crore beneficiary ceiling remains based on Census 2011, though about 80 crore people currently receive free foodgrains.
Coverage erosion: Against an estimated population of 146.4 crore in 2025, the ceiling covers only 55.6% of people.
Recalculation needed: The ceiling should be recalculated when Census 2027 figures become available, with accessible inclusion and appeal mechanisms in the interim.
Why is grain alone not nutrition security?
Uneven child nutrition: NFHS-6 (2023-24) found stunting among under-fives fell from 35.5% to 29.3%, but wasting barely moved from 19.3% to 19.0% and underweight from 32.1% to 31.8%.
Diet inadequacy: Only about 15% of children aged six to 23 months receive a minimally adequate diet.
Double burden: The ICMR-India Diabetes study estimated 101 million Indians had diabetes and 136 million had prediabetes in 2021.
Life-course risk: Maternal undernutrition and low birth weight raise the risk of non-communicable diseases later in life.
Should the PDS cereal basket be blamed for diabetes risk?
Not a direct cause: Foodgrain entitlement should not itself be equated with diabetes risk.
The real concern: A predominantly cereal-based basket, combined with diets already high in carbohydrates and low in protein, can reinforce dietary imbalance.
Evidence: A 2025 ICMR-INDIAB study of 18,090 adults found carbohydrates supplied 62.3% of daily energy and protein 12%, with the highest carbohydrate intake carrying 30% higher odds of newly diagnosed type 2 diabetes.
Millets caution: Replacing refined cereals with whole-wheat or millet flour was not linked to lower risk when the carbohydrate share stayed high, so more grain or millets alone is not a complete nutrition policy.
How can diets be diversified without cutting cereals?
Balanced target: The ICMR-NIN 2024 guidelines recommend cereals and millets provide at most 45% of energy, with more from pulses, milk, nuts, vegetables and fruits.
What the PDS can do: The PDS can best supply affordable, shelf-stable foods, with States supported to offer pulses, local rice, wheat, millet choices and healthy edible oils.
Procurement link: Local production and consumption should guide supply chains and effective Minimum Support Price procurement for pulse, millet and oilseed growers.
Programme convergence: Sustained investment should link the PDS, Anganwadi services and Pradhan Mantri Poshan Shakti Nirman (PM POSHAN), providing eggs, milk or suitable alternatives where feasible.
Separate budgeting: Dietary diversification must be separately budgeted, not financed by reducing cereal entitlements, against a food subsidy allocation of Rs 2,27,629 crore in the 2026-27 Union Budget.
Phased pilots: Additions should be tested through State pilots assessing consumption, dietary diversity, anaemia, glycaemic risk, wastage and exclusion.
How does the delivery network enable this reform?
Digitised last mile: By the end of 2025, 5.50 lakh of 5.51 lakh fair price shops used electronic point-of-sale devices.
Portability: One Nation One Ration Card covered nearly all NFSA beneficiaries, supporting portability and monitoring.
Safeguards needed: Systems must include reliable offline alternatives, assisted or doorstep access for people with limited mobility, and a guarantee that authentication failure will not deny entitled foodgrains.
Nutrition referral: Fair price shops could carry multilingual receipts and messages and, where feasible, link willing adults to diabetes and hypertension services, with over 1.86 lakh Ayushman Arogya Mandirs and 41.3 crore diabetes screenings recorded by June 2026.
What three safeguards should anchor the reform?
No-loss guarantee: Any per-person formula should preserve the existing 35 kg monthly entitlement for every AAY household.
Periodic review: The adequacy of the 35 kg ceiling should be reviewed for larger and high-dependency households using consumption, nutritional and fiscal evidence.
Separately financed diversification: Dietary diversification must be separately financed and progressively implemented without reducing existing cereal entitlements.
Conclusion
The proposed amendment is an opportunity to correct the inequity of a flat AAY ration, but only if it preserves the 35 kg entitlement, assesses the needs of larger households, and finances a gradual transition toward more diverse and nutritious diets. India’s next food security reform must protect people from hunger while addressing the dietary drivers of diabetes, judged not by tonnes of grain moved but by whether vulnerable families can eat enough, eat healthier and obtain their entitlements with dignity.
Food Security in India (Foundational Context)
About: Food security means physical, economic and social access to sufficient, safe and nutritious food for an active, healthy life.
Scale: The NFSA covers about 80 crore people through the world’s largest food-based safety net.
Progress: The share of households unable to afford the ICMR-NIN recommended diet fell from about 52% in 2011-12 to about 25% in 2023-24, at 25% rural and 21% urban.
Back2Basics: National Food Security Act, 2013
Coverage: Up to 75% of rural and 50% of urban population.
Entitlement: 5 kg per person per month for Priority Households; 35 kg per household for AAY households.
Woman as head: The eldest woman aged 18 or above is the head of household for ration card issuance.
Maternity and child benefits: Entitlements for pregnant and lactating women and for children through supplementary nutrition programmes.
Grievance redress: State and district-level redress and vigilance mechanisms.
Statutory Framework Governing Food Security
Article 21: The right to life, read to include the right to food.
Article 47 (DPSP): Duty of the State to raise nutrition levels and the standard of living.
National Food Security Act, 2013: Legal entitlement to subsidised foodgrains.
Essential Commodities Act, 1955: Regulation of production, supply and distribution of essential commodities.
Government Initiatives for Food and Nutrition Security
Public Distribution System: Distribution of subsidised foodgrains through fair price shops.
PM POSHAN: Hot cooked meals for schoolchildren.
Anganwadi and ICDS: Supplementary nutrition for young children and pregnant or lactating women.
One Nation One Ration Card: Portable ration access across States.
Pradhan Mantri Garib Kalyan Anna Yojana: Free foodgrains scheme scaling the NFSA entitlement.
Key Facts about Food Security
PoS coverage: 5.50 lakh of 5.51 lakh fair price shops digitised by end 2025.
Diabetes burden: 101 million diabetics and 136 million prediabetics estimated in 2021.
Guideline: ICMR-NIN 2024 caps cereals and millets at 45% of dietary energy.
Challenges in Food and Nutrition Security
Cereal-heavy basket: High carbohydrate share crowding out protein and micronutrients.
Double burden: Coexistence of undernutrition and rising non-communicable diseases.
Outdated coverage: Beneficiary ceiling frozen at Census 2011.
Exclusion errors: Authentication failures and mobility barriers at the last mile.
Fiscal pressure: Large and rising food subsidy bill.
Procurement skew: MSP concentrated in rice and wheat over pulses and oilseeds.
Way Forward
No-loss safeguard: Legally protect the 35 kg AAY entitlement in any new formula.
Update coverage: Recalculate the ceiling on Census 2027 with accessible appeals.
Diversify diets: Separately fund pulses, millets and healthy oils in the PDS.
Converge programmes: Link PDS, Anganwadi and PM POSHAN for nutrition delivery.
Pilot before scale: Test additions through phased State pilots measuring nutrition and fiscal outcomes.
Previous Year Question
[2018] With reference to the provisions made under the National Food Security Act, 2013, consider the following statements:
1. The families coming under the category of ‘below poverty line (BPL)’ only are eligible to receive subsidised food grains.
2. The eldest woman in a household, of age 18 years or above, shall be the head of the household for the purpose of issuance of a ration card.
3. Pregnant women and lactating mothers are entitled to a ‘take-home ration’ of 1600 calories per day during pregnancy and for six months thereafter.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
(a) 1 and 2
(b) 2 only
(c) 1 and 3
(d) 3 only
[2021 GS3 15m] What are the salient features of the National Food Security Act, 2013? How has the Food Security Bill helped in eliminating hunger and malnutrition in India?”
The government has told Parliament that its ethanol blending programme has saved large sums of foreign exchange, while Opposition leaders have launched campaigns arguing that E20 harms vehicles and is being forced on people. The debate exposes a tension between the energy security and forex gains of blending 20 per cent ethanol into petrol and the costs it imposes on the country’s large legacy vehicle fleet and, potentially, on food security. The dispute now runs through disputed damage studies and feedstock diversion.
What is E20?
About: E20 is petrol blended with 20 per cent ethanol, meant to replace a fifth of transport petrol with domestically produced ethanol.
Objective: The government targeted 10 to 11 billion litres of ethanol so that the money stays in the Indian economy rather than flowing out as a foreign exchange outgo on crude oil imports.
What is ethanol and why does it affect engines?
Polar solvent: Ethanol is a polar solvent that degrades older rubber compounds and plastics, hardening and cracking fuel hoses over time.
Hygroscopic behaviour: Ethanol absorbs atmospheric moisture, and in parked vehicles the ethanol-water mixture separates and forms an acidic layer that corrodes tanks, damages fuel pumps, and clogs filters with sludge.
What is the status of ethanol production?
Capacity ramp-up: India’s distillery capacity now can produce some 18 to 20 billion litres from around 500 distilleries.
Procurement contracted: For this ethanol year, which runs November to October, oil companies have contracted to procure some 10.5 billion litres of ethanol.
Feedstock mix: Government figures show 45 per cent of ethanol for petrol blending will come from maize, Food Corporation of India (FCI) rice about 22 per cent, sugarcane juice 16 per cent, B-heavy molasses about 10 per cent, damaged foodgrains around 4.5 per cent, and C-heavy molasses 1.1 per cent.
Maize expansion: India’s maize output grew 45 per cent in three years to 55 million tonnes in 2025-26, with more than 20 per cent of it going into ethanol.
Will E20 spur corn imports from the United States?
No import surge: There is no evidence of a surge in ethanol or maize imports in Ministry of Commerce statistics.
Import ban: Direct ethanol import for petroleum blending is banned, even as the US corn lobby pushes India to increase corn imports.
Sugar stocks stable: The closing stock of sugar was around 5 million tonnes and is expected to hold, indicating diversion to ethanol has not affected sugar availability.
Conditional risk: In the event of monsoon failure, crop losses, and foodgrain shortages, diversion of FCI rice, sugarcane juice, and B-heavy molasses will come under stress. This raises the possibility of corn imports.
Which vehicles are affected, and which are not?
Newer fleet safe: Vehicles bought after April 2023, when the Bharat Stage 6 Phase 2 mandate took effect, were factory-engineered for E20 with ethanol-resistant elastomers, fluorinated fuel lines, upgraded pump seals, and recalibrated engine control units.
Scale of newer fleet: These roughly 70 million vehicles are about 23 per cent of India’s active petrol fleet and face little cause for concern.
Legacy fleet at risk: The remaining 77 per cent, nearly 240 million legacy two-wheelers and cars built for E5 or E10, are the genuine worry.
Do the damage claims hold up? (the central tension)
Consumer complaints: Consumer surveys by LocalCircles found 66 per cent of pre-2023 owners reporting mileage losses exceeding 10 per cent, and 55 per cent reporting increased maintenance.
Institutional defence: IIT Kanpur’s Engine Research Laboratory maintains E20 causes no notable damage, with efficiency loss under 5 per cent, attributing most complaints to driving habits and traffic conditions.
Field disputes: Independent mechanics and automotive communities dispute this, citing real-world fuel pump and injector failures traced to ethanol’s solvent and low-lubricity properties.
Manufacturer data: The government told Parliament that one manufacturer serviced 2.84 crore vehicles in FY 2025-26, including about 1.5 crore legacy vehicles, without finding E20-linked engine damage, and reported an efficiency penalty of about 2 to 6 per cent in some E10-designed vehicles.
Why has the rollout drawn criticism?
Speed of transition: India reached the 10 per cent milestone in 2022 and ramped up to 20 per cent within three years, with very little information and advisories from manufacturers.
Contrast with Brazil: Brazil’s transition to high ethanol levels happened over several decades in a stable manner, alongside vehicle modifications, taking the public into confidence.
Information gap: The compressed rollout left legacy vehicle owners without clear guidance on effects and maintenance.
Has ethanol blending eased the oil supply burden?
Forex saving: The government said the programme has saved around 2 lakh crore rupees of foreign exchange and substituted some 32 million tonnes of crude oil imports.
Import substitution: Substituting 10 billion litres of petrol with ethanol amounts to dispensing with about a month of crude imports.
Price shielding claim: The government said that while crude prices rose 70 per cent during the war in West Asia, pump petrol prices rose only 7 to 8 per cent, though under-recoveries also increased.
Cost ambiguity: Oil companies procure ethanol at around 70 rupees per litre, and with the base price of petrol at 55 to 60 per cent of the pump price, it is difficult to conclude independently that ethanol has kept prices down.
Conclusion
The central idea is that E20 delivers real forex and energy-security gains but shifts costs onto a legacy fleet of nearly 240 million vehicles whose damage claims remain contested between consumer surveys and institutional studies. What remains unresolved is a transparent, phased communication of effects and maintenance, and a food-security cushion if monsoon failure forces feedstock diversion. A Brazil-style stable transition would have taken the public into confidence.
National Biofuel Policy: About
About: The National Policy on Biofuels sets targets for blending ethanol in petrol and biodiesel in diesel to cut import dependence.
Feedstock scope: It permits multiple feedstocks including sugarcane, damaged foodgrains, maize, and other surplus grains.
Blending target: The policy advanced the 20 per cent ethanol blending target, which India pursued aggressively from 2022.
Government Initiatives for Biofuels
Ethanol Blended Petrol (EBP) Programme: Mandates blending of ethanol with petrol and drives procurement by oil companies.
Pradhan Mantri JI-VAN Yojana: Supports second-generation ethanol from agricultural residues.
SATAT initiative: Promotes compressed biogas as a transport fuel from waste and biomass.
Key Facts about Ethanol Blending
Ethanol year: Runs from November to October.
Grades of molasses: B-heavy and C-heavy molasses are distinct sugar-industry by-products used as feedstock.
BS6 Phase 2: Took effect in April 2023 and coincided with factory engineering of vehicles for E20.
Challenges to the E20 push
Legacy fleet damage: Corrosion, hose degradation, and pump failures in pre-2023 vehicles.
Efficiency loss: Lower energy density reduces mileage, disputed in magnitude.
Food-fuel conflict: Diversion of rice, maize, and sugar feedstock risks food security in a bad monsoon.
Water intensity: Sugarcane and maize cultivation for ethanol strains groundwater.
Consumer information deficit: Rapid rollout without adequate advisories.
Cost transparency: Different tax and costing regimes obscure whether ethanol lowers pump prices.
Way Forward
Phased communication: Issue clear manufacturer advisories on effects and maintenance for legacy vehicles.
Feedstock diversification: Expand second-generation ethanol from residues to reduce grain diversion.
Food-security buffer: Build safeguards to pause grain diversion during monsoon failure.
Independent testing: Commission transparent, independent studies on legacy-vehicle impacts.
Consumer redress: Provide guidance and support for owners of affected pre-2023 vehicles.
PYQ Relevance
“[2020] According to India’s National Policy on Biofuels, which of the following can be used as raw materials for the production of biofuels?
The Tribal Council of Great and Little Nicobar has raised concerns that the Great Nicobar Island (GNI) Project could lead to assimilation and disturbance of the Shompen, a Particularly Vulnerable Tribal Group (PVTG).
What is the GNI Project?
Large infrastructure and township project in Great Nicobar.
Estimated cost: around ₹91,000 crore.
Includes a proposed power plant at Galathea, near Shompen settlements.
Who are the Shompen?
Hunter-gatherer indigenous community.
Fewer than 300 members.
Recognised as a PVTG.
Their isolation makes contact, displacement and forced assimilation particularly sensitive.
What are PVTGs?
PVTG = Particularly Vulnerable Tribal Group: Identified based on characteristics such as:
Pre-agricultural technology
Low literacy
Stagnant or declining population
Economic backwardness
India recognises 75 PVTGs.
Key Concerns
Assimilation: Proposal to shift the Shompen towards a modern lifestyle.
Displacement: Concern over possible settlement and relocation.
Consent: Questions regarding consultation over wildlife reserves and project decisions.
Health risks: Contact with isolated communities can expose them to diseases and other risks.
Assurance gap: Earlier assurance stated that the project would not disturb or displace the Shompen.
Laws Protecting Tribal Rights
Forest Rights Act, 2006: Recognises individual and community forest rights.
PESA, 1996: Provides self-governance and consent provisions in Scheduled Areas.
Andaman and Nicobar Islands (Protection of Aboriginal Tribes) Regulation, 1956: Restricts entry into tribal reserves.
Government Initiatives
PM-JANMAN: Development of PVTG households and habitations.
Development of PVTGs Scheme: Habitat-specific support for 75 PVTGs.
“[2009] In which one of the following places is the Shompen tribe found?
China’s Foreign Ministry described the India-China border as generally stable, responding to reports of rising tensions in Arunachal Pradesh’s eastern sector. The statement followed the 36th meeting of the Working Mechanism for Consultation and Coordination on China-India Border Affairs, held the previous week. The exchange highlights how a diplomatic and military consultation mechanism, rather than a boundary settlement, is what currently manages face-offs along an undemarcated frontier.
What is the Working Mechanism for Consultation and Coordination (WMCC) on China-India Border Affairs?
About: The WMCC is an institutional mechanism, established in 2012, for diplomatic-level consultation and coordination on maintaining peace along the India-China border.
Function: It provides a standing channel to communicate on border developments and defuse face-offs, and it does not itself negotiate the resolution of the boundary question.
What is the Line of Actual Control (LAC)?
About: The LAC is the notional line separating Indian-controlled and Chinese-controlled territory, and it is neither fully demarcated nor mutually agreed on the ground.
Consequence: Because the boundary is undemarcated, patrols from the two sides at times face off against each other in areas of overlapping claims.
What did the 36th WMCC meeting produce?
Communication channels: The two sides agreed to maintain communication via diplomatic and military channels.
Peace commitment: They agreed to jointly uphold peace and tranquillity in the border areas.
Official framing: China’s Foreign Ministry described the situation as generally stable at the moment.
What triggered the current concern in the eastern sector?
Reported crossing: Reports last week suggested that Chinese People’s Liberation Army (PLA) troops crossed the LAC at Pukar La and Ollo in the Taksing circle of Upper Subansiri.
State-level denial: On 7 August the Arunachal Pradesh Chief Minister denied reports of an incursion and said he would verify with the Army and local bodies.
Indian framing: India’s Ministry of External Affairs (MEA) said the maintenance of peace and tranquillity in border areas was of utmost importance, and did not deny a reported rise in tensions since late July.
Ground posture: The Army and the Indo-Tibetan Border Police (ITBP) are positioned to dominate the border and monitor Chinese activities.
Why does the mechanism matter more than the label of stability?
Undemarcated boundary: With no agreed line on the ground, incidents are inherent to patrolling and cannot be eliminated by declarations of stability.
Existing protocols: Face-offs are resolved through existing mechanisms and protocols rather than through a settled boundary.
Communication over settlement: The WMCC manages friction and keeps channels open, but it substitutes crisis management for a final resolution of the dispute.
Conclusion
The current status is that both sides publicly describe the border as generally stable and have agreed through the 36th WMCC meeting to keep diplomatic and military channels open. Reports of a PLA crossing in Upper Subansiri remain unconfirmed by officials. The next expected development is continued WMCC-level engagement and further border-area monitoring by the Army and the ITBP.
Border Management with China: About
Length and sectors: The India-China frontier runs about 3,488 km across three sectors, the western, middle, and eastern.
Nature: The alignment follows the LAC, which is disputed and undemarcated in several stretches.
Institutional layers: Border affairs are handled through the WMCC at the diplomatic level and the Special Representatives mechanism at the political level.
Statutory and Agreement Framework Governing the India-China Border
1993 Agreement: Provided for maintaining peace and tranquillity along the LAC.
1996 Agreement: Established military confidence-building measures in the border areas.
2005 Protocol: Set modalities for implementing military confidence-building measures.
2012 mechanism: Created the WMCC as a standing consultation channel.
2013 Agreement: The Border Defence Cooperation Agreement laid down procedures to avoid escalation during face-offs.
Government Initiatives for Border Areas
Border Area Development Programme (BADP): Funds development of villages near international borders to improve access and living conditions.
Border Infrastructure and Management (BIM) Scheme: Supports roads, fencing, floodlighting, and observation infrastructure along the borders.
Vibrant Villages Programme: Targets comprehensive development of border villages, including those along the northern frontier, to check outmigration.
Challenges in Border Management
Undemarcated LAC: Differing perceptions of the line cause recurring patrol face-offs.
Terrain and access: High-altitude terrain complicates infrastructure and rapid mobilisation.
Infrastructure asymmetry: Faster construction on the Chinese side pressures Indian logistics.
Grey-zone activity: Salami-slicing and forward patrolling test Indian positions below the threshold of conflict.
Coordination: Multiple agencies guarding different stretches require tight inter-force coordination.
Way Forward
Accelerate infrastructure: Complete border roads, tunnels, and forward connectivity to match logistics needs.
Strengthen mechanisms: Use WMCC and Special Representatives channels consistently to de-escalate.
Border-area development: Expand BADP, BIM, and the Vibrant Villages Programme to anchor populations.
Surveillance: Enhance ITBP and Army monitoring with technology-based domain awareness.
“[2024 GS3 15m] India has a long and troubled border with China and Pakistan fraught with contentious issues. Examine the conflicting issues and security challenges along the border. Also give out the development being undertaken in these areas under the Border Area Development Programme (BADP) and Border Infrastructure and Management (BIM) Scheme.”
