Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Chandra Shekhar Azad
Why in the News?
Leaders from across the political spectrum paid tributes to the freedom fighter Chandra Shekhar Azad on his martyrdom day (27th February 1931).
Who was Chandra Shekhar Azad?
- Chandra Shekhar Azad (1906–1931) was a revolutionary who played a key role in India’s independence struggle.
- Born in Bhabhra, Madhya Pradesh, he joined Gandhi’s Non-Cooperation Movement at 15 but turned to armed revolution after its suspension.
- He reorganized the Hindustan Republican Association (HRA) into the Hindustan Socialist Republican Association (HSRA) alongside Bhagat Singh.
- Azad vowed never to be captured alive and sacrificed himself in a shootout at Alfred Park, Allahabad, on February 27, 1931.
His Contributions to the Freedom Struggle
- Non-Cooperation Movement (1921): Arrested at 15, he declared his name as “Azad” (Free) in court and was punished with 15 lashes.
- Joining HRA (1924): Became a member of Ram Prasad Bismil’s HRA and raised funds through political dacoities.
- Kakori Train Robbery (1925): Helped loot a British train carrying treasury money; escaped capture while others were sentenced.
- Reorganizing HSRA (1928): Transformed HRA into HSRA with Bhagat Singh, introducing socialist ideology.
- Assassination of John Saunders (1928): Avenged Lala Lajpat Rai’s death, personally eliminating a police officer in the escape.
- Attempt to Blow Up Lord Irwin’s Train (1929): Planned to assassinate Viceroy Lord Irwin, but the plan failed.
- Final Stand (1931): Surrounded by British police, killed three officers, ensured his comrade’s escape, and shot himself with his last bullet.
PYQ:
[2020] Since the decade of the 1920s, the national movement acquired various ideological strands and thereby expanded its social base. Discuss. |
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PYQ Relevance:
Q) “In spite of adverse environmental impact, coal mining is still inevitable for Development”. Discuss. (UPSC CSE 2017) |
Mentor’s Comment: UPSC mains have always focused on the diverse environmental impact of coal (2017), and environmental impacts of coal-fired thermal plants(2014).
India relies on coal for 65% of its electricity due to its low cost and large reserves. Coal-fired power plants release harmful gases like CO₂, SOx, NOx, and particulate matter, causing pollution and climate issues. Using Low NOx Burners with Over Fire Air technology can reduce NOx emissions by 45-80% without affecting power generation.
Today’s editorial discusses pollution caused by coal-fired power plants in India. This information is relevant for GS Paper 3 in the UPSC Mains exam.
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Let’s learn!
Why in the News?
New research from Stanford University in the US shows that coal-fired power plants are reducing India’s rice and wheat production, causing up to a 10% loss in several states.
Why did the researchers focus on nitrogen dioxide (NO₂) emissions?
- Phytotoxic Effects on Crops: NO₂ is phytotoxic, meaning it directly harms plant health by interfering with cellular functions and enzymatic activities. Example: In agricultural areas near coal plants, NO₂ exposure leads to lower chlorophyll levels, reducing plant vitality and yield.
- Formation of Secondary Pollutants: NO₂ contributes to the formation of ground-level ozone, which further damages crops by limiting photosynthesis and causing oxidative stress. Example: Increased ozone formation near coal hubs like Chhattisgarh exacerbates crop loss during peak growing seasons.
- Limited Existing Research in India: While global studies link NO₂ to agricultural damage, there was no systematic study at the power-plant level in India. Example: This research fills the gap by connecting NO₂ emissions from coal plants directly to wheat and rice yield losses.
- Satellite Data Availability: Advanced satellites like TROPOMI allow precise tracking of NO₂ concentrations, making it easier to study the pollutant’s widespread effects. Example: Researchers used satellite-derived vegetation indices (NIRv) to measure crop health across polluted regions.
- High Contribution from Coal Plants: Coal-fired power plants are a major source of NO₂ emissions, especially in industrial and agricultural belts. Example: In Chhattisgarh, around 19% of monsoon-season NO₂ comes from coal plants, causing significant crop damage.
How does this pollutant impact plant health and crop yield?
- Disruption of Photosynthesis: NO₂ reduces the amount of sunlight available for photosynthesis by forming secondary pollutants like particulate matter. This limits energy production in plants. Example: In areas near coal plants, reduced sunlight exposure leads to a 5-10% decline in rice and wheat yields in states like West Bengal and Madhya Pradesh.
- Cellular and Enzymatic Damage: NO₂ interferes with crucial cellular processes and enzymatic functions, weakening plant growth and reducing their ability to absorb nutrients. Example: Crops exposed to high NO₂ levels in Chhattisgarh show slower growth and lower productivity, especially during peak seasons.
- Ozone Formation and Oxidative Stress: NO₂ contributes to ground-level ozone, which causes oxidative stress in plants, leading to leaf damage and reduced crop yields. Example: In Uttar Pradesh, where overall NO₂ levels are high, wheat crops suffer significant losses due to ozone-induced stress during the winter season.
Which states show the highest agricultural losses?
- Chhattisgarh: The most affected region with the highest share of NO₂ pollution from coal plants (19% during the monsoon and 12.5% in winter). It is a major hub for coal-fired power generation, leading to severe air pollution and crop yield losses.
- West Bengal: There are significant NO₂ exposure from coal plants that affects 5.7% of cropland, with yield losses between 5-10% and even greater than 10% in some areas. The proximity of coal plants to fertile agricultural zones increases the impact on rice and wheat production.
- Madhya Pradesh: About 5.9% of cropland near coal plants experiences 5-10% yield losses, while 11.9% of agricultural land could face losses exceeding 10%.
- Uttar Pradesh: High overall NO₂ pollution, but only a small portion originates from coal-fired power plants. The other industrial sources dominate NO₂ emissions, yet coal plants still add to the burden on winter wheat yields.
- Tamil Nadu: Low overall NO₂ levels but a large share comes from coal plants, disproportionately affecting local agriculture. The concentration of coal-fired power plants contributes a substantial portion of the region’s air pollution.
What steps have been taken by the Indian government?
- Increased Budget Allocation for Coal Sector: The 2025-2026 Union Budget has increased the allocation for the Ministry of Coal by 255% over the revised estimates of FY 2024-2025, reflecting a focus on managing coal resources and addressing environmental concerns.
- Pollution Control Mandates: The government has introduced emission norms for coal-fired power plants, requiring the installation of pollution control equipment like Flue Gas Desulphurization (FGD) to reduce nitrogen oxides (NO₂) and other pollutants.
- Renewable Energy Promotion: Policies such as the National Solar Mission and incentives for renewable energy aim to reduce coal dependency and minimize air pollution while promoting cleaner energy alternatives.
Way forward:
- Strengthen Emission Regulations: Implement stricter NO₂ emission limits for coal-fired power plants, enforce regular monitoring, and expedite the adoption of advanced pollution control technologies like selective catalytic reduction (SCR).
- Promote Sustainable Agriculture and Clean Energy: Support farmers in NO₂-affected regions with resilient crop varieties and promote a transition to renewable energy through increased investment in solar and wind infrastructure.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Mains level: Legal Maternity Benefit;
Why in the News?
All pregnant women in India are entitled to maternity benefits, yet the majority have not received any financial support in recent years.
What are the legal maternity benefit provisions under the National Food Security Act (NFSA) 2013?
- Universal Entitlement (Except Formal Sector): All pregnant and lactating women (excluding those already receiving maternity benefits in the formal sector) are legally entitled to receive ₹6,000 per child to support nutrition and health.
- Objective of Nutrition and Health Support: The provision aims to improve maternal and child health by ensuring better access to nutrition, rest, and medical care during pregnancy and after childbirth.
- Legal Obligation for Central Government: It is the legal duty of the central government to ensure maternity benefits are provided without arbitrary reductions or restrictions.
How do they compare to the benefits provided under the Pradhan Mantri Matru Vandana Yojana (PMMVY)?
- Coverage Scope
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- NFSA 2013: Provides ₹6,000 per child to all pregnant and lactating women (excluding those in the formal sector).
- PMMVY: Provides ₹5,000 only for the first child (recently extended to the second child if it is a girl), violating the universal entitlement under NFSA.
- Implementation Efficiency
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- NFSA 2013: Mandates universal coverage without restrictive conditions to ensure access for all eligible women.
- PMMVY: Imposes strict conditions (e.g., Aadhaar verification) and complex processes, leading to low disbursement rates and exclusion of many entitled women.
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What are the issues related to Scant information?
- Minimal Data Disclosure: The Ministry of Women and Child Development provides limited information on PMMVY, violating Section 4 of the RTI Act, which mandates proactive disclosure of public data. For example, basic details like the number of beneficiaries and payment status are not available.
- RTI-Driven Insights: Information on PMMVY coverage is only accessible through RTI queries. For instance, RTI data revealed that effective coverage dropped from 36% in 2019-20 to just 9% in 2023-24, highlighting the program’s declining reach.
- Budgetary Secrecy: There is little transparency about financial allocations and expenditures. For example, official records do not openly explain why central government spending fell to ₹870 crore in 2023-24—just one-third of the amount five years earlier.
Why has the effective coverage of the PMMVY declined sharply since 2019-20?
- Software-Related Issues and Technical Glitches: In 2023-24, major changes in the PMMVY’s software and implementation processes caused frequent system failures, delaying or blocking payments. Officials admitted to facing software issues “every day,” leading to a reduced disbursement rate despite consistent applications.
- Restrictive Eligibility and Complex Documentation: PMMVY limits benefits to only the first child (and a second child if a girl), violating the universal entitlement under the NFSA. Strict Aadhaar-based verification and other conditions exclude migrant workers and women in remote areas who struggle to complete the paperwork.
- Budget Cuts and Reduced Government Spending: Central government spending on PMMVY fell to ₹870 crore in 2023-24, just one-third of the amount five years earlier. This underfunding directly reduced the number of eligible women receiving maternity benefits.
How do the maternity benefit schemes in Tamil Nadu and Odisha differ from the PMMVY?
- Higher Financial Assistance: Tamil Nadu provides ₹18,000 per child (with a promise to increase it to ₹24,000), and Odisha offers ₹10,000 per child. In comparison, PMMVY provides only ₹5,000 for the first child (and a second child if a girl), which is below the ₹6,000 mandated by the NFSA.
- Inclusive Eligibility Criteria: Tamil Nadu and Odisha offer benefits for every childbirth without restrictive conditions. PMMVY, however, limits benefits to the first child (with a recent extension to the second child if a girl), excluding many eligible women.
- Better Implementation and Coverage: Tamil Nadu achieved 84% coverage in 2023-24, and Odisha covered 64% of births in 2021-22. In contrast, PMMVY’s effective coverage fell to just 9% in 2023-24 due to software glitches, reduced spending, and complex documentation.
What role did software-related problems play in further reducing disbursements in 2023-24?
- Frequent System Failures: Major changes in PMMVY’s software and implementation processes in 2023-24 caused regular technical glitches, disrupting the payment system and delaying disbursements. Officials reported encountering software issues daily.
- Reduced Disbursement Rate: Despite consistent applications, technical problems led to a sharp decline in the actual release of benefits. The disbursement rate dropped significantly, contributing to a fall in effective coverage to just 9% in 2023-24.
Way forward:
- Simplify Implementation and Strengthen Technology Infrastructure: Ensure robust, user-friendly software systems with regular maintenance to prevent glitches. Simplify application processes and reduce bureaucratic hurdles for timely disbursement.
- Expand Coverage and Increase Funding: Align PMMVY benefits with NFSA provisions by providing ₹6,000 for every child. Increase budgetary allocations to ensure universal access and include marginalized groups like migrant workers.
Mains PYQ:
Q What are the salient features of the National Food Security Act, 2013? How has the Food Security Bill helped in eliminating hunger and malnutrition in India? (UPSC IAS/2021)
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Mains level: Issues related to PwDs;
Why in the News?
The Ministry of Electronics and Information Technology (MeitY) plans to complete public consultations on the draft Rules for the Digital Personal Data Protection Act, 2023, by March 5. Meanwhile, disability rights activists are urging changes to a key provision of the Act.
Why are persons with disabilities concerned about a certain provision in the draft Rules of the Digital Personal Data Protection Act, 2023?
- Infringement on Autonomy and Decision-Making Capacity: Section 9(1) clubs adult PwDs with children, requiring consent from a legal guardian for processing personal data. This undermines their ability to make independent decisions.
- Example: An adult with a physical disability wanting to access online banking may be restricted if the platform requires guardian consent.
- Lack of Clarity and Ambiguity in Implementation: The Act does not clearly outline how consent should be obtained across various disabilities and degrees of severity, leading to confusion.
- Example: A person with limited cognitive impairment under “limited guardianship” may still be treated as entirely incapable.
- Conflict with UNCRPD Principles: The provision conflicts with the United Nations Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (UNCRPD), which emphasizes supported decision-making over substituted decision-making.
- Example: Under the RPWD Act, a PwD may receive assistance only when necessary, but the DPDP Act assumes total incapacity if a legal guardian exists, contradicting the UNCRPD framework.
- Concerns About Privacy and Data Security: Platforms may need to collect sensitive information (like whether a user has a disability) to verify guardianship status, raising privacy concerns.
- Exclusion from Digital Services: The additional procedural burden on PwDs and data fiduciaries could lead to exclusion from essential digital platforms.
How do guardianships for Persons with Disabilities (PwDs) function?
- Governed by Two Laws:
- Rights of Persons with Disabilities (RPWD) Act, 2016: Allows for limited guardianship, where PwDs are supported in making specific legal decisions. This aligns with the UN Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (UNCRPD) by preserving decision-making autonomy.
- National Trust (NT) Act, 1999: Provides for full guardianship for individuals with autism, cerebral palsy, intellectual disabilities, or multiple disabilities. This model is more paternalistic and conflicts with the UNCRPD’s emphasis on autonomy.
- Practical Challenges: Although the RPWD Act emphasizes limited guardianship, PwDs often report that their guardians control all aspects of their lives. The NT Act’s rigid framework assumes a lack of decision-making capacity without defining clear standards for assessing it.
How are legal guardians defined under the draft rules?
- legal guardians: Under the draft Digital Personal Data Protection Rules, 2025, legal guardians are defined as individuals appointed through specific legal frameworks to act on behalf of persons with disabilities (PwDs).
- Data Fiduciaries are required to verify the guardian’s appointment by a court of law, designated authority, or local-level committee under applicable guardianship laws.
Who are data fiduciaries and data principals?
- Data Fiduciaries: Entities (organizations, companies, or individuals) that collect, store, and process personal data while determining the purpose and means of such processing under the Digital Personal Data Protection (DPDP) Act, 2023.
- Data principals: Individuals whose personal data is being collected, processed, or stored. This term generally refers to users, consumers, or citizens under the DPDP Act.
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Where does the conflict lie?
- Presumption of Incapacity vs. Legal Recognition of Capacity: The DPDP Act assumes adult PwDs lack the capacity to give consent if a guardian is involved, whereas the RPWD Act recognizes their legal capacity and promotes their right to make decisions.
- Example: A person with mild intellectual disability working in a corporate setting may need guardian approval for routine data-related tasks, despite their ability to understand and consent.
- Data Privacy vs. Intrusive Verification: The DPDP Act may require platforms to collect and verify sensitive disability information, potentially breaching privacy rights, while the UNCRPD emphasizes the right to privacy without discrimination.
- Example: An online service requiring disability verification for consent could store unnecessary sensitive data, increasing risks of unauthorized access or misuse.
Way forward:
- Adopt a Supported Decision-Making Model: Align the DPDP Act with the RPWD Act and UNCRPD by recognizing limited guardianship and allowing PwDs to provide independent consent with appropriate support when needed.
- Ensure Privacy and Minimize Data Collection: Limit the collection of sensitive disability information to essential cases, ensuring purpose limitation and data minimization while protecting PwDs’ privacy rights.
Mains PYQ:
Q Impact of digital technology as a reliable source of input for rational decision-making is a debatable issue. Critically evaluate with a suitable example. (UPSC IAS/2021)
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Tea Horse Road
Why in the News?
Recently, China’s Ambassador to India highlighted the historical significance of ‘Tea Horse Road’ in fostering Sino-Indian ties.
About the Tea Horse Road
- The Tea Horse Road originated during the Tang Dynasty (618-907 CE).
- Buddhist monk Yijing (635-713 CE) recorded early trade between China, Tibet, and India, mentioning exchanges of sugar, textiles, and herbs.
- By the Song Dynasty (960-1279 CE), the trade focused on tea exports to Tibet and importing horses for China’s military.
- The network spanned over 2,000 km, crossing treacherous mountain passes at altitudes above 10,000 feet.
- The Tea Horse Road was not a single road but a network of multiple routes. Two primary routes were:
- Yunnan Route: Starting from Pu’er and Dali, passing through Lijiang, reaching Lhasa (Tibet), and extending into India (via Sikkim, Nepal, and Bhutan).
- Sichuan Route: Connecting Chengdu (Sichuan) to Tibet and North India.
- Tea from southwestern China was transported to Tibet, then moved through the Himalayan passes to Kolkata and beyond, reaching Europe and Asia.
- The rise of modern roads and railways in the mid-20th century led to its gradual decline.
Historical Significance:
- Trade & Economy: Connected Tibet and China to India’s markets, facilitating the export of Chinese tea and Tibetan wool to Kolkata while Indian textiles and spices moved northward.
- Horses for Indian Cavalry: Tibetan horses, transported through the route, were crucial for Indian military campaigns, especially in the Mughal and British periods.
- Spread of Buddhism: The route enabled Buddhist scholars and monks to travel between Nalanda, Tibet, and China, promoting cultural and religious exchanges.
- Political & Diplomatic Relations: British India sought control over Sikkim and Tibet’s trade routes, leading to diplomatic interventions like the 1904 British expedition to Tibet.
- Impact on Himalayan Regions: Strengthened trade and cultural ties between Ladakh, Sikkim, Arunachal Pradesh, and Tibet, influencing their shared heritage and economy.
PYQ:
[2018] The China-Pakistan Economic Corridor (CPEC) is viewed as a cardinal subset of China’s larger ‘One Belt One Road’ initiative. Give a brief description of CPEC and enumerate the reasons why India has distanced itself from the same.
[2016] ‘Belt and Road Initiative’ is sometimes mentioned in the news in the context of the affairs of
(a) African Union
(b) Brazil
(c) European Union
(d) China |
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Ultra-Conserved Elements (UCEs) in DNA
Why in the News?
Researchers have discovered a reason why certain segments of the human and mouse genomes (Tra2b gene) have remained unchanged for 80 million years. These segments, known as ultra-conserved elements (UCEs), play a vital role in regulating protein production
What are Ultra-Conserved Elements (UCEs) in DNA?
- Ultra-Conserved Elements (UCEs) are long, highly conserved DNA sequences (200+ base pairs) that have remained unchanged for millions of years across multiple species, including humans, mice, rats, chickens, and even fish.
- Key Characteristics:
- Found in both coding (gene) and non-coding (regulatory) regions of the genome.
- Do not tolerate mutations, meaning they remain identical across species for tens of millions of years.
- Many UCEs do not code for proteins but play crucial roles in gene regulation and cellular function.
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- Evolutionary Significance: Their extreme conservation suggests they are essential for survival, as any mutation would likely be harmful.
- Gene Regulation: UCEs may function as enhancers or silencers, controlling when and where genes are activated.
- Developmental Roles: They are often linked to brain development, fertility, and immune response.
- Disease Prevention: UCEs may protect against genetic disorders and cancers by stabilizing gene expression.
Why do Human and Mouse Genomes overlap?
- Humans and mice share a common mammalian ancestor that lived around 80 million years ago.
- Genomic Similarity:
- Around 85% of mouse genes have direct counterparts in humans.
- Nearly 500 UCEs are identical between humans and mice, despite millions of years of evolution.
- Many fundamental processes like cell division, metabolism, and brain function are similar between species, necessitating high conservation of crucial DNA regions.
- Medical Research:
- Because of these similarities, mice serve as a model organism for studying human genetics, diseases, and drug responses.
- UCEs help scientists understand gene function across species, leading to insights into evolution and biomedical advancements.
PYQ:
[2013] Recombinant DNA technology (Genetic Engineering) allows genes to be transferred
1. across different species of plants
2. from animals to plants
3. from microorganisms to higher organisms
Select the correct answer using the codes given below:
(a) 1 only
(b) 2 and 3 only
(c) 1 and 3 only
(d) 1, 2 and 3 |
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Read the attached story
Why in the News?
The Reserve Bank of India (RBI) survey on agricultural transactions reveals that cash remains the primary mode of payment among farmers, although digital payments are gradually increasing. Despite the rise of Unified Payments Interface (UPI) and mobile banking, over 70% of Indian farmers still rely on cash for selling their produce.
Key Findings of the RBI Survey
- In 2019, 88% of farmers used cash for transactions. By 2022, this figure dropped to 79% and further declined to 72% in 2024.
- However, this transition is slow compared to other sectors of the economy.
- The share of farmers using electronic payments has increased from 8% in 2019 to 18% in 2024.
- Among traders, the adoption of digital payments has been faster, rising from 8% in 2019 to 31% in 2024.
- Among retailers, the usage of electronic payments increased from 3% in 2019 to 22% in 2024.
Reasons behind low Digital Adoption
- 55% of farmers rely on traders to determine market prices, up from 47% in 2019. 47% depend on fellow farmers, while fewer than 10% use apps or websites to check market rates.
- Despite the growth of agri-tech platforms, most farmers still depend on word-of-mouth rather than digital sources for price information.
- Multiple intermediaries in the supply chain reduce farmers’ share in the final consumer price.
- 64% of farmers reported crop damage during the 2023-24 rabi season. Unseasonal rainfall was cited as the top reason (37%), followed by heatwaves (30%).
- As a result, 90% of farmers consider weather forecasts as the most important factor in crop-sowing/ harvesting decisions.
PYQ:
[2010] With reference to India, consider the following:
- Nationalisation of Banks
- Formation of Regional Rural Banks
- Adoption of village by Bank Branches
Which of the above can be considered as steps taken to achieve the “financial inclusion” in India?
(a) 1 and 2 only
(b) 2 and 3 only
(c) 3 only
(d) 1, 2 and 3
[2016] Pradhan Mantri Jan Dhan Yojana (PMJDY) is necessary for bringing unbanked to the institutional finance fold. Do you agree with this for financial inclusion of the poorer section of the Indian society? Give arguments to justify your opinion. |
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: SPHEREx Telescope
Why in the News?
NASA is set to launch its latest space telescope, SPHEREx (Spectro-Photometer for the History of the Universe, Epoch of Reionization and Ices Explorer) aboard a SpaceX Falcon 9 rocket from California.
What is the SPHEREx Telescope?
- SPHEREx is a new space telescope developed by NASA.
- It is designed to map the entire sky in infrared light and provide insights into the origins of the universe, galaxy formation, and the distribution of life-forming molecules.
- Its mission is expected to last 2 years, during which it will survey the sky 4 times.
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- Infrared Spectroscopy: Unlike traditional optical telescopes, SPHEREx will capture the universe in 102 infrared colors, which are invisible to the human eye.
- Wide-Sky Coverage: Unlike the James Webb Space Telescope (JWST), which focuses on narrow regions, SPHEREx will map the entire sky every 6 months.
- High Data Output: It will collect data on one billion galaxies, 100 million stars, and 10,000 asteroids, creating an unprecedented cosmic map.
- Study of Cosmic Inflation: SPHEREx will analyze the earliest moments after the Big Bang, helping scientists understand how the universe expanded rapidly in its infancy.
- Search for Life-Forming Molecules: The telescope will identify biogenic molecules like water, carbon dioxide, and methanol in the Milky Way galaxy, revealing where the building blocks of life exist.
How will SPHEREx Create the “Most Colourful” Map of the Cosmos?
- Spectroscopic Imaging: SPHEREx will divide light from celestial objects into 96 infrared bands, significantly more than previous sky-mapping telescopes.
- Mapping Galactic Evolution: By observing 450 million galaxies, SPHEREx will reveal how they evolved over cosmic history.
- Identifying Cosmic Ice: The telescope will detect frozen water and organic molecules in interstellar dust clouds, essential for understanding planetary formation.
- Unprecedented Infrared Insights: Unlike Hubble, which focuses on optical light, and JWST, which targets deep-space infrared observations, SPHEREx will capture broad infrared spectra across the entire sky, revealing hidden cosmic structures.
PYQ:
[2015] In the context of modern scientific research, consider the following statements about ‘IceCube’, a particle detector located at South Pole, which was recently in the news:
- It is the world’s largest neutrino detector, encompassing a cubic kilometre of ice.
- It is a powerful telescope to search for dark matter.
- It is buried deep in the ice.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
(a) 1 only
(b) 2 and 3 only
(c) 1 and 3 only
(d) 1, 2 and 3 |
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Veer Savarkar
Why in the News?
Prime Minister paid tribute to Veer Savarkar on his death anniversary (26th February), acknowledging his contributions to India’s freedom movement.
About Veer Savarkar: Life, Contributions, and Legacy
|
Details |
| Who was Veer Savarkar? |
• Born on May 28, 1883, in Bhagur, Maharashtra.
• Founded Abhinav Bharat Society (1904) for armed resistance.
• Led India House in London (1906) and the Free India Society.
• Arrested in 1910, sentenced to life imprisonment in Cellular Jail (Kala Pani, Andaman & Nicobar Islands).
• Became President of the Hindu Mahasabha (1937-1943).
• Died on February 26, 1966, after fasting till death. |
| His Contributions |
• Advocated armed revolution against British rule.
• Coined Hindutva (1923), defining Indian identity beyond religion.
• Opposed Partition, emphasizing Hindu political unity.
• Championed military nationalism over passive resistance.
• Writings and ideology influenced Indian nationalist movements. |
| Literary Works |
• The First War of Indian Independence (1909): Reinterpreted the 1857 Revolt as a nationalist struggle.
• Hindutva: Who is a Hindu? (1923): Laid the ideological foundation of Hindutva.
• My Transportation for Life (1950): Memoirs of his imprisonment in Cellular Jail.
• Six Glorious Epochs of Indian History: Advocated Hindu resistance against foreign invaders. |
| Controversies |
• Gandhi Assassination Case (1948): Arrested but acquitted due to lack of evidence.
• Mercy Petitions (1911-1924): Wrote clemency petitions for early release from prison, debated as tactical or compromising.
• Opposition to Quit India Movement (1942): Rejected Gandhi’s call, favored military strength over civil disobedience.
• Hindutva Ideology: Critics claim it fostered religious divisions, while supporters see it as reviving Hindu identity. |
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| PYQ Relevance:
Q) What is the significance of Indo-US defence deals over Indo-Russian defence deals? Discuss with reference to stability in the Indo-Pacific region. (UPSC CSE 2020) |
Mentor’s Comment: UPSC mains have always focused on “ Indo-US defence deals over Indo-Russian defence deals” (2020), and the “Russia and Ukraine war” (2022).
In February 2025, the U.S. blamed Ukraine, Germany, and other European countries for not doing enough to end the conflict and for continuing a war with Russia that it sees as unwinnable. However, the U.S. itself has already spent over $110 billion on the Ukraine war, including $65 billion on ammunition—more than what major Western countries combined have provided.
Today’s editorial highlights the double stance of the USA in international relations. This content would help in GS paper 2 (IR).
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Let’s learn!
Why in the News?
The Munich Security Conference in Germany and the recent United Nations General Assembly vote on Ukraine were filled with contradictions and hypocrisy.
What were the key contradictions during the Munich Security Conference and the UN General Assembly vote on Ukraine?
Munich Security Conference
- U.S. Criticism of European Democratic Practices vs. Its Own Actions: U.S. Vice-President J.D. Vance accused Europe of suppressing right-wing parties and curbing free speech. However, the U.S. previously sought to delegitimize its own right-wing movements including the 2021 Capitol riot and Trump’s 2020 election denial further exposed this contradiction.
- U.S. Demand for European Security Responsibility vs. Past Opposition: The U.S. urged Europe to increase defense spending and reduce reliance on NATO. Yet, since the Cold War’s end the U.S. has consistently opposed European efforts to establish independent security frameworks fearing a weakened NATO.
UN General Assembly vote on Ukraine:
- U.S. Opposition to European-Ukrainian Resolution vs. Its Previous Support: Despite previously leading international efforts to support Ukraine against Russia and now the U.S. voted with Russia against a European-Ukrainian draft resolution. This contradicts its long-standing position of backing Ukraine and opposing Russian aggression.
- Europe’s Victory Without U.S. Support: The European-Ukrainian resolution was adopted despite U.S. opposition, highlighting a growing divide between American and European approaches to the Ukraine conflict. However, without sustained U.S. support, Europe’s ability to continue aiding Ukraine effectively is uncertain, making the victory largely symbolic.
How has the U.S.’s stance on the Ukraine war shifted over time?
- Initial Strong Support for Ukraine (2022-2023): The U.S. led global efforts to support Ukraine, providing over $110 billion, including $65 billion for ammunition, and coordinated sanctions against Russia. Example: The U.S. played a key role in mobilizing NATO allies to send advanced weaponry, including Germany’s Leopard tanks.
- Undermining Peace Negotiations (2022): The U.S. discouraged early peace talks between Russia and Ukraine in Türkiye, preferring to prolong the conflict to weaken Russia strategically. Example: In March 2022, a European leader, reportedly at U.S. behest, sabotaged a nearly finalized peace agreement.
- Tensions with European Allies (2023-2024): The U.S. increasingly criticized Europe for not contributing enough financially and militarily while maintaining disproportionate U.S. involvement. Example: Despite urging Europe to take responsibility, the U.S. continued to dominate NATO’s budget (16%) and military commitments.
- Shifting Blame to Europe (2025): By February 2025, the U.S. accused Germany, Ukraine, and other European nations of pursuing an unwinnable war and not doing enough to seek a resolution.
- Voting Against European-Ukrainian Resolution (2025): In a dramatic reversal, the U.S. voted with Russia against a European-Ukrainian draft at the UN General Assembly, signaling a shift toward disengagement. This marked a break from the U.S.’s previous unconditional support and exposed widening trans-Atlantic rifts over Ukraine policy.
Why is the trans-Atlantic partnership between the U.S. and Europe still considered relevant?
- Shared Security Commitments Through NATO: The U.S. and Europe continue to rely on NATO for collective defence, especially in response to Russian aggression and emerging global threats. Example: After Russia’s invasion of Ukraine (2022), the U.S. increased its troop presence in Eastern Europe, while Finland and Sweden joined NATO, reinforcing trans-Atlantic security ties.
- Economic and Technological Interdependence: The U.S. and Europe maintain deep economic ties through trade, technology collaboration, and joint efforts on climate change and supply chain resilience. Example: The U.S.-EU Trade and Technology Council (TTC) fosters cooperation on critical areas like semiconductors and clean energy, reducing dependence on China.
What lessons should India learn from the USA’s constantly changing policies?
- Need for Policy Consistency and Strategic Autonomy: Frequent shifts in U.S. foreign policy highlight the importance of maintaining stable and long-term strategies to protect national interests.
- Example: The U.S.’s fluctuating stance on Ukraine and Afghanistan shows how unpredictable alliances can be. India should continue pursuing strategic autonomy through initiatives like “Act East” and partnerships with Russia and the Global South to avoid over-reliance on any one nation.
- Diversification of Economic and Defense Partnerships: Rapid policy changes in the U.S. underscore the need to diversify partnerships to reduce vulnerability to external shocks.
- Example: U.S. sanctions on Iran disrupted India’s oil imports. In response, India diversified its energy sources by strengthening ties with Russia and exploring renewable energy investments.
- Investing in Domestic Capabilities: India must strengthen its domestic manufacturing, technology, and defense industries to reduce dependence on unpredictable foreign partners.
- Example: The U.S.’s evolving position on export controls for advanced technologies emphasizes the need for India to accelerate initiatives like “Make in India” and semiconductor manufacturing to ensure technological sovereignty.
Way forward:
- Strengthen Strategic Autonomy: Prioritize independent foreign policy decisions while balancing ties with major powers. Enhance regional leadership through initiatives like “Neighborhood First” and “Act East” to reduce reliance on any single partner.
- Enhance Self-Reliance and Diversification: Invest in domestic capabilities through programs like “Make in India” and “Digital India”, while diversifying economic and defence partnerships to mitigate risks from external policy shifts.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Mains level: Internet Shutdown; Impact on Fundamental Rights;
Why in the News?
According to the report, there were 296 Internet shutdowns worldwide in 2024, and India accounted for 84 of them, making up 28% of the total.
What percentage of global Internet shutdowns due to communal violence occurred in India?
- High Proportion of Global Communal Violence Shutdowns: 56% of global Internet shutdowns due to communal violence occurred in India in 2024. Example: Out of 41 communal violence-related shutdowns worldwide, 23 were imposed in India, highlighting the frequent use of Internet curbs to control communal tensions.
- Regional Concentration of Shutdowns: Most shutdowns occurred in conflict-prone regions like Manipur (21 shutdowns), Haryana (12 shutdowns), and Jammu & Kashmir (12 shutdowns). Example: During ethnic clashes in Manipur, authorities repeatedly shut down the Internet to curb the spread of misinformation and unrest.
- Pattern of State-led Shutdowns: State governments are the primary enforcers of communal violence-related shutdowns. Example: Haryana imposed shutdowns following communal violence in Nuh district to prevent further escalation and maintain public order.
How have the primary reasons for Internet shutdowns in India evolved between 2016 and 2024?
- From National Security to Protest Control (2016–2024): Initially, Internet shutdowns were mainly enforced for national security and counter-terrorism, particularly in sensitive areas like Jammu & Kashmir. Example: A 213-day shutdown was imposed in 2019 after the abrogation of Article 370 to curb potential unrest.
- Increase in Shutdowns During Protests (2020–2024): Shutdowns have become a frequent measure to suppress protests and prevent misinformation from spreading. Example: Internet services were suspended at Delhi’s borders during the 2020–2021 Farmers’ Protests to limit protest coordination.
- Growing Use of Shutdowns for Communal Violence (2022–2024): There has been a rising trend of using shutdowns to contain communal violence and prevent further escalation. Example: In 2023, Haryana’s Nuh district faced an Internet shutdown following communal riots to restore public order.
- Emergence of Exam-Related Shutdowns (2022–2024): Internet shutdowns are increasingly being used to prevent cheating during competitive examinations, raising concerns over their necessity. Example: Jharkhand imposed a shutdown during the 2024 General Graduate Level Combined Competitive Examination to prevent malpractices.
- Targeted Shutdowns in Conflict Zones (Ongoing): Shutdowns continue to be heavily concentrated in conflict-prone regions like Jammu & Kashmir, Manipur, and parts of the Northeast due to ethnic and insurgency-related violence. Example: In 2024, 21 shutdowns were enforced in Manipur during episodes of ethnic violence to curb the spread of inflammatory content.
What are the different types of Internet shutdowns imposed by authorities?
- Complete Internet Blackout: Total suspension of all Internet services, including mobile data, broadband, and Wi-Fi. Example: The 213-day shutdown in Jammu & Kashmir (2019) after the abrogation of Article 370.
- Mobile Internet Shutdown: Suspension of mobile data services while keeping broadband and Wi-Fi operational. Example: Manipur experienced 21 mobile Internet shutdowns in 2024 due to ethnic violence.
- Targeted or Localized Shutdown: Internet suspension in specific geographic areas or for specific services like social media. Example: Haryana’s Nuh district faced a localized shutdown in 2023 following communal riots.
How do Internet shutdowns impact fundamental rights in India?
- Violation of Freedom of Speech and Expression (Article 19(1)(a)): Internet shutdowns restrict individuals from expressing opinions, accessing information, and engaging in public discussions.
Example: During the 2020–21 Farmers’ Protests, Internet services were suspended in Delhi’s border areas, limiting protestors’ ability to communicate and share updates.
- Obstruction of the Right to Practice Any Profession or Business (Article 19(1)(g)): Internet disruptions adversely affect businesses, digital transactions, and online services, hindering the right to earn a livelihood. Example: The 213-day Internet shutdown in Jammu & Kashmir (2019) caused significant economic losses, especially in the tourism and e-commerce sectors.
- Disruption of the Right to Education (Article 21A): Shutdowns impede access to online education, causing academic disruptions and limiting students’ learning opportunities. Example: In Manipur (2023), prolonged Internet suspensions during ethnic violence interrupted online classes and examinations.
- Denial of the Right to Access Information (Implicit under Article 19(1)(a)): Internet curbs block access to crucial information, particularly during emergencies, affecting public safety and awareness.
Example: In Haryana (2023), Internet services were suspended during communal riots, preventing access to emergency services and safety information.
- Violation of the Right to Life and Personal Liberty (Article 21): Shutdowns disrupt essential services like healthcare and emergency communication, posing a threat to life and personal liberty. Example: During the COVID-19 pandemic, Internet restrictions in Jammu & Kashmir limited access to telemedicine and critical health updates.
What is the judiciary’s stance on Internet shutdowns in India?
- Recognition of Internet Access as a Fundamental Right: The Supreme Court of India, in the Anuradha Bhasin v. Union of India (2020) case, ruled that access to the Internet is protected under Article 19(1)(a) (freedom of speech and expression) and Article 19(1)(g) (freedom to practice any profession or trade).
- The Court held that indefinite Internet shutdowns are unconstitutional and must be proportionate and temporary.
- Mandate for Procedural Safeguards and Review: The Court emphasized that any Internet suspension under Section 144 of the CrPC or the Temporary Suspension of Telecom Services (Public Emergency or Public Safety) Rules, 2017 must follow due process.
- The mandate for procedural safeguards and review was established in the Anuradha Bhasin v. Union of India (2020) judgment.
- Balancing Security and Fundamental Rights: While recognizing the state’s power to impose Internet shutdowns for public safety and national security, the judiciary has stressed that such measures must balance individual freedoms with legitimate state interests.
- In Faheema Shirin v. State of Kerala (2019), the Kerala High Court affirmed access to the Internet as part of the right to education under Article 21A.
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Way forward:
- Strengthen Legal Oversight and Transparency: Implement clear guidelines for Internet shutdowns with mandatory judicial review and public disclosure of orders to prevent arbitrary restrictions and uphold fundamental rights.
- Promote Proportional and Targeted Measures: Encourage the use of less restrictive alternatives, such as content moderation or geofencing, to address public safety concerns while minimizing disruption to essential services and civil liberties.
Mains PYQ:
Q ‘Communalism arises either due to power struggle or relative deprivation.’ Argue by giving suitable illustrations. (UPSC IAS/2018)
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Mains level: Education Policy; Issues related to language;
Why in the News?
The Central government and the Tamil Nadu government are disagreeing over the three-language rule in schools under the New Education Policy (NEP), 2020.
Why is the Union government withholding funds under the Samagra Shiksha Abhiyan from Tamil Nadu?
- Non-compliance with the three-language formula: The Union government has linked the release of funds under the Samagra Shiksha Abhiyan to the implementation of the three-language formula outlined in the National Education Policy (NEP) 2020. Tamil Nadu’s refusal to adopt this formula has led to a standoff.
- Policy disagreement: The Tamil Nadu government views the three-language policy as a tool for Hindi imposition and insists on continuing with its two-language policy (Tamil and English).
- Financial leverage: The Centre is using financial incentives to push for uniform adoption of the NEP guidelines across States, causing friction with Tamil Nadu.
When was the three-language policy first introduced, and what were its key mandates?
- The three-language policy was first introduced in the National Policy on Education (NPE), 1968 to promote multilingualism and foster national unity.
Key Mandates of the Three-Language Policy:
- First Language – Mother Tongue/Regional Language: Students must learn their mother tongue or the regional language of the state. Example: Kannada is the first language in Karnataka, while Tamil is the first language in Tamil Nadu.
- Second Language – Hindi or English: In Hindi-speaking states, students must learn English or another modern Indian language. In non-Hindi-speaking states, Hindi is taught as the second language. Example: Hindi is the second language in Kerala, while English is the second language in Uttar Pradesh.
- Third Language – Another Indian Language or English: In Hindi-speaking states, students must learn a non-Hindi Indian language or Sanskrit. In non-Hindi-speaking states, English is usually taught as the third language. Example: Sanskrit as a third language in Madhya Pradesh, while English is the third language in Tamil Nadu.
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What difficulties do government schools face in implementing additional language courses?
- Shortage of Qualified Language Teachers: Many government schools lack trained teachers for third-language instruction. Example: In rural Odisha, schools often struggle to find Hindi teachers, affecting the implementation of the three-language formula.
- Limited Resources and Infrastructure: Schools lack textbooks, teaching aids, and language labs, making it difficult to provide quality language education. Example: Government schools in Bihar face a shortage of English textbooks, leading to poor learning outcomes.
- Burden on Students and Poor Learning Outcomes: Many students struggle to grasp multiple languages simultaneously, especially those from economically weaker backgrounds. Example: In Tamil Nadu, students from rural areas find it difficult to learn Hindi as a third language due to limited exposure and practice opportunities.
What are the basic issues in Schools?
- Poor Learning Outcomes: ASER 2022 found 60% of Class V students unable to read a Class II-level text. Similarly, ASER 2023 revealed 25% of youth (14-18 years) cannot fluently read basic texts in their regional language, highlighting foundational literacy gaps.
- Inadequate Public Investment in Education: Despite the NEP 2020 target of 6% of GDP, actual spending on education remains at 4-4.5% of GDP. This underfunding restricts access to quality resources, affecting learning outcomes, especially in rural areas.
- Disparity in Funding Allocation: 85% of elementary education costs are borne by States, while the Centre contributes only 15%. This fiscal imbalance creates unequal resource distribution, impacting teacher availability and infrastructure quality in less-developed regions.
What are the constitutional provisions regarding the official languages of the Union and the States in India?
- Official Language of the Union (Article 343): Hindi in Devanagari script is the official language of the Union.
- English was to be used for official purposes for 15 years after the Constitution came into effect (until 1965), but the Official Languages Act, 1963 extended its use indefinitely alongside Hindi.
- Language of the States (Article 345): State legislatures can adopt one or more languages in use in the State or Hindi as the official language for State administration. Example: Tamil Nadu uses Tamil, Punjab uses Punjabi, and Maharashtra uses Marathi as their official languages.
- Promotion of Hindi (Article 351): It is the Union’s duty to promote the spread of Hindi to serve as a medium for all elements of India’s composite culture while drawing from Sanskrit and other Indian languages.
- Safeguard for Linguistic Minorities (Article 350A & 350B)
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- 350A: The State must provide primary education in the mother tongue of linguistic minority groups.
- 350B: Establishment of a Special Officer for Linguistic Minorities to investigate and report on their safeguards.
What steps can be taken to resolve the conflict between the Centre and the Tamil Nadu government? (Way forward)
- Promote Cooperative Federalism through Dialogue: Establish a joint consultative body to discuss language policies and ensure that both regional concerns and national goals are addressed. Example: Regular Centre-State meetings under the Inter-State Council could facilitate consensus on the language policy without coercion.
- Grant Flexibility in Implementing Language Policies: Allow States to adapt the three-language policy based on their linguistic diversity and educational capacity while ensuring basic proficiency in major languages. Example: Tamil Nadu could continue its two-language policy while introducing optional third-language courses without affecting funding under Samagra Shiksha Abhiyan.
Mains PYQ:
Q National Education Policy 2020 isin conformity with the Sustainable Development Goal-4 (2030). It intends to restructure and reorient education system in India. Critically examine the statement. (UPSC IAS/2020)
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Cali Fund
Why in the News?
A new international biodiversity fund, the ‘Cali Fund’, was launched at the 16th Conference of Parties (COP16) to the United Nations Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) in Rome.
What is the Cali Fund?
- The Cali Fund is an international biodiversity financing mechanism launched on February 25, 2025, at COP16 of the UN Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) in Rome.
- It collects funds from private companies that utilize Digital Sequence Information (DSI) from nature in their businesses.
- The fund supports biodiversity conservation, scientific research, and indigenous communities.
Key Features of the Cali Fund:
- Funding Source: Businesses using genetic data (DSI) from plants, animals, and microorganisms will contribute financially.
- Utilization of Funds:
- 50% allocated to indigenous and local biodiversity projects.
- Supports scientific research and developing nations’ biodiversity action plans.
- Global Management: Managed by UNDP and UNEP, with MPTFO handling finances.
- Alignment with Global Goals: Supports Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework (KMGBF) to reverse biodiversity loss by 2030.
- First-of-Its-Kind: Direct private sector contributions to a global UN biodiversity fund.
What is Digital Sequence Information (DSI)?
- DSI refers to genetic data extracted from plants, animals, and microorganisms.
- Used extensively in industries such as:
- Pharmaceuticals (medicine development).
- Cosmetics (natural ingredient research).
- Agriculture (crop improvement, pest resistance).
- Biotechnology (genetic engineering, bioinformatics).
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About the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD):
- The CBD, with 196 contracting parties, stands as the most comprehensive international agreement focused on nature conservation and the sustainable use of natural resources.
- It was opened for signing at the 1992 UN Conference on Environment and Development in Rio de Janeiro.
- The CBD has 3 main objectives:
- Conservation of biological diversity (including genetic, species, and habitat diversity).
- Sustainable use of biological diversity.
- Fair and equitable sharing of benefits arising from the use of genetic resources.
- It addresses biodiversity at all levels: ecosystems, species, and genetic resources.
- The Conference of the Parties (COP) is the CBD’s governing body, and it meets biennially to assess progress, set priorities, and develop action plans.
- The Secretariat of the CBD is located in Montreal, Canada.
- To further its goals, the CBD includes two binding protocols:
- The Cartagena Protocol (2000), which regulates the transboundary movement of living modified organisms (LMOs) and came into force in 2003.
- The Nagoya Protocol (2010), which provides a legal framework for the access to genetic resources and the fair sharing of benefits from their use.
PYQ:
[2014] With reference to ‘Global Environment Facility’, which of the following statements is/are correct?
(a) It serves as financial mechanism for ‘Convention on Biological Diversity’ and ‘United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change’
(b) It undertakes scientific research on environmental issues at global level
(c) It is an agency under OECD to facilitate the transfer of technology and funds to underdeveloped countries with specific aim to protect their environment.
(d) Both A and B |
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Gharial
Why in the News?
Madhya Pradesh CM released 10 gharials into the Chambal River at the National Chambal Gharial Sanctuary in Morena.
About Gharial
- The gharial (Gavialis gangeticus) is a unique species of crocodilian, characterized by its long, slender snout, which is perfectly adapted for catching fish.
- The species derives its name from the “ghara”, a bulbous growth found on the snouts of adult males, which aids in vocalization and mating displays.
- It is a fish-eating crocodile native to the Indian subcontinent.
- They are a crucial indicator of clean river water.
Conservation Status:
- Recognizing the rapid decline in gharial populations, India launched captive breeding and release programs in the late 1970s.
- Between 1975 and 1982, the country established 16 captive breeding centers and 5 protected sanctuaries to ensure the survival of the species.
- Gharials are ‘Critically Endangered’ in the IUCN Red List of Species.
- The species is also listed under Schedule I of the Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972.
- Today, gharials primarily survive in 5 major refuges:
- National Chambal Sanctuary (NCS) – The largest stronghold of gharials.
- Katerniaghat Wildlife Sanctuary in Uttar Pradesh.
- Chitwan National Park in Nepal.
- Son River Sanctuary in Madhya Pradesh.
- Satkosia Gorge Sanctuary in Odisha.
PYQ:
[2013] Consider the following fauna of India:
1. Gharial
2. Leatherback turtle
3. Swamp deer
Which of the above is/are endangered?
(a) 1 and 2 only
(b) 3 only
(c) 1, 2 and 3
(d) None |
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Black Plastic
Why in the News?
A recent study suggested that black plastic contains harmful flame retardants, which may leach into food at hazardous levels.
What is Black Plastic?
- Black plastic is often made from recycled electronic waste like old computers, TVs, and appliances.
- These electronics contain flame retardants (such as bromine-based compounds), heavy metals (lead, cadmium, mercury), and other hazardous chemicals.
- Flame retardants are added to prevent fire hazards, but they can persist in recycled plastics.
- Many of these chemicals are now banned in several countries due to their toxicity.
- However, legacy plastics containing these substances continue to enter the recycling stream, leading to contamination of household products.
Threats Posed by Black Plastic:
- Contains Toxic Chemicals: Made from recycled e-waste, it may have flame retardants, heavy metals, and antimony.
- Food Contamination: Heat and acidic foods can leach harmful chemicals into meals.
- Environmental Impact: Difficult to recycle, it pollutes landfills and groundwater.
- Health Risks: Linked to hormonal issues, neurological damage, and cancer.
PYQ:
[2019] Why is there a great concern about the ‘microbeads’ that are released into environment?
(a) They are considered harmful to marine ecosystems.
(b) They are considered to cause skin cancer in children.
(c) They are small enough to be absorbed by crop plants in irrigated fields.
(d) They are often found to be used as food adulterants. |
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Quantum Gravity
Why in the News?
A new proposal published on October 29, 2024, suggests an experiment that could provide direct evidence for quantum gravity, unifying general relativity and quantum mechanics. A new experiment proposes testing weak gravitational fields at the quantum level, a historic breakthrough in physics if successful.
What is Quantum Gravity?
- Quantum Gravity is a theoretical framework that aims to unify general relativity (which explains gravity at large scales) and quantum mechanics (which governs subatomic particles).
- Since gravity behaves differently from the other fundamental forces in quantum mechanics, physicists have been searching for a theory that integrates gravity into the quantum world.
- General relativity treats gravity as the curvature of spacetime, while quantum mechanics describes forces through particle interactions.
- Gravity has never been directly observed in quantum form, unlike the other fundamental forces.
- Theories like String Theory and Loop Quantum Gravity attempt to explain quantum gravity but lack experimental validation.
Significance of the Experiment
- First Realistic Test for Quantum Gravity: Most quantum gravity theories rely on extreme conditions (e.g., black holes), making them impossible to test. This experiment provides a lab-based alternative.
- Testing Gravity at the Quantum Level: If a small mass in quantum superposition is influenced by gravity, it could prove gravity itself is quantum in nature.
- Weak Gravity Instead of Strong Gravity: Unlike previous studies focused on black holes, this experiment explores weak gravitational interactions, making it more feasible.
- Towards a Unified Theory of Physics: Proving quantum gravity could merge general relativity and quantum mechanics, solving a major gap in modern physics.
- Challenging Existing Theories: If results differ from both classical and quantum predictions, it could suggest a new force or a modified gravity theory.
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PYQ Relevance:
Q) Data security has assumed significant importance in the digitized world due to rising cyber-crimes. The Justice B. N. Srikrishna Committee Report addresses issues related to data security. What, in your view, are the strengths and weaknesses of the Report relating to protection of personal data in cyber space? (UPSC CSE 2018) |
Mentor’s Comment: UPSC mains have always focused on “ Data security” (2018), and the Impact of digital technology (2021).
Surveillance capitalism is an economic system where tech companies collect, analyze, and sell personal data to predict and influence behaviour. This system, described by Shoshana Zuboff in The Age of Surveillance Capitalism (2018), treats human experiences as a resource for profit, similar to how colonialism and industrial capitalism exploited natural and human resources.
Today’s editorial highlights current issues related to surveillance capitalism and its impact. This topic is relevant for GS Paper 2 and 3 in the UPSC Mains.
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Let’s learn!
Why in the News?
Recently, surveillance capitalism has depended on turning personal data into a product. It affects people’s privacy and freedom while being closely linked to government surveillance.
What is Surveillance Capitalism?
- Surveillance capitalism is an economic system where technology companies collect, analyze, and monetize personal data to predict and influence human behaviour.
- This data is often gathered through digital platforms like social media, search engines, and smart devices, often without users’ full awareness.
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How does surveillance capitalism rely on the commodification of personal data?
- Collection of Personal Data as Raw Material: Google Search tracks every query a user makes, including location and device information. This data is processed to understand user preferences and behaviour patterns.
- Behavioural Prediction for Targeted Advertising: Companies monetize behavioural data by selling it to advertisers who target users with precision, maximizing ad effectiveness.
- Meta (Facebook) monitors user activity across its platforms to deliver highly personalized ads. Users discussing fitness products may soon see ads for gym memberships.
- Continuous Data Harvesting Across Devices: Data is continuously extracted from smart devices, even during routine interactions, deepening the pool of user insights.
- Amazon’s Alexa collects voice commands and ambient sounds to refine product recommendations and improve its machine-learning models.
- Algorithmic Manipulation to Influence Behaviour: Algorithms shape user behaviour by curating content that fosters prolonged engagement, increasing ad revenue.
- YouTube’s recommendation algorithm analyses watch history to suggest videos that keep users engaged, often promoting content that aligns with their interests or biases.
What are the strong connections between data commodification and state surveillance?
- Mass Data Collection Programs: Governments collaborate with private tech companies to access vast amounts of personal data for surveillance purposes. Example: The PRISM program by the U.S. National Security Agency (NSA) collected user data from major tech companies like Google, Facebook, and Microsoft to monitor global communications.
- Legal Mandates for Data Sharing: Many countries enforce laws requiring digital platforms to share user data with state agencies for national security and law enforcement. Example: India’s Information Technology (Intermediary Guidelines and Digital Media Ethics Code) Rules, 2021 require platforms to trace the origin of messages, facilitating state surveillance.
- Surveillance Technologies Integration: States use advanced technologies like facial recognition and AI-driven monitoring to track citizens’ movements and online activities. Example: China’s Social Credit System uses surveillance cameras and digital monitoring to track citizens’ behavior, affecting access to services based on their social scores.
What are the negative impacts of commodifying personal data?
- Privacy Erosion: When personal data is commodified, individuals lose control over their private information, leading to widespread privacy violations. Example: Social media platforms like Facebook have been criticized for selling user data to third parties, such as Cambridge Analytica which used it for targeted political advertising without users’ explicit consent.
- Exploitation and Manipulation: Personal data is often used to influence behaviour through targeted advertising or algorithmic content curation, exploiting vulnerabilities. Example: Companies like Google and Amazon use personal data to create highly targeted ads.
- Increased Risk of Data Breaches: The collection and trade of personal data raise the likelihood of data breaches, leading to identity theft, financial loss, and other harms. Example: The Equifax data breach in 2017 exposed the personal information of 147 million people.
- Inequality and Discrimination: Commodified data can reinforce social and economic inequalities by enabling discriminatory practices, such as price discrimination or exclusion from services. Example: Insurance companies may use personal data to charge higher premiums to individuals based on their health or lifestyle, disproportionately affecting vulnerable groups.
- Loss of Autonomy and Trust: The exploitation of personal data weakens public trust in institutions and reduces individuals’ sense of control over their own information. Example: The revelation that apps like TikTok collect and share user data with governments or third parties.
What steps has the Indian government taken?
- Data Protection Legislation: The Indian government enacted the Digital Personal Data Protection Act (DPDPA), 2023, which regulates the collection, processing, and storage of personal data. It mandates user consent, imposes penalties for data breaches, and establishes a Data Protection Board to address grievances.
- Strengthening Cybersecurity: Initiatives like the National Cyber Security Policy (2013) and the establishment of CERT-In (Indian Computer Emergency Response Team) aim to protect critical information infrastructure, prevent cyberattacks, and enhance data security.
- Regulating Big Tech: The government has introduced guidelines like the Information Technology (Intermediary Guidelines and Digital Media Ethics Code) Rules, 2021, which require platforms to ensure transparency, allow user grievance redressal, and hold intermediaries accountable for data misuse.
What steps have been taken at the global level?
- General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR), European Union (2018): The GDPR sets a global benchmark for data privacy by enforcing strict guidelines on data collection, processing, and storage. It grants individuals the right to access, correct, and delete their personal data and imposes hefty penalties for non-compliance.
- Global Data Protection Frameworks: Initiatives like the OECD Privacy Guidelines and the UN’s Internet Governance Forum promote international cooperation on data privacy, emphasizing transparency, user consent, and cross-border data flow regulations.
- The USA’s Sectoral Approach: The California Consumer Privacy Act (CCPA) and similar state-level laws provide data protection rights to consumers, including the ability to opt out of data sales. The USA also advocates for a federal privacy law to harmonize regulations across industries.
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Way forward:
- Stronger Regulatory Frameworks: Implement comprehensive and adaptive data protection laws with clear accountability for data handlers, regular audits, and stringent penalties to safeguard user privacy and prevent misuse.
- User Empowerment and Transparency: Promote data literacy programs and ensure platforms provide clear, accessible consent mechanisms, allowing users greater control over their personal information and how it is shared.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Mains level: Issues related to Pharma Industries; India’s hegemony;
Why in the News?
The pharmacy of the Global South is facing a reputation crisis after cough syrups made by Indian pharmaceutical companies were found to contain harmful levels of diethylene glycol and/or ethylene glycol.
Why is the pharmacy of the Global South facing a reputation crisis?
- Quality Control Failures and Contaminated Products:
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- Gambia (2022): Cough syrups made in India containing diethylene glycol and ethylene glycol killed 66 children.
- Uzbekistan (2022): Similar contamination led to the deaths of 65 children.
- U.S. (2023): India-made eye drops contaminated with drug-resistant bacteria caused 3 deaths and 8 cases of blindness.
- Illegal Manufacturing and Unapproved Drugs: Unauthorized drug production and export are damaging India’s credibility. Example: Aveo Pharmaceuticals (Maharashtra) illegally exported unapproved opioid combinations to West Africa, exposed by a BBC investigation in 2023.
- Regulatory Lapses and Weak Oversight: Inconsistent enforcement by regulatory authorities enables violations. Example: State drug authorities in India have issued licenses for unapproved Fixed Dose Combinations (FDCs) without clearance from the Central Drugs Standard Control Organization (CDSCO).
- Global Scrutiny and Trade Barriers: Increased surveillance by international health bodies and trade restrictions. Example: The WHO’s alert on toxic cough syrups led to enhanced inspections of Indian pharmaceutical exports, impacting trade with African and Southeast Asian nations.
How does this impact India’s hegemony?
- Erosion of Soft Power and Global Reputation: India’s image as the “Pharmacy of the Global South” is under threat due to quality concerns and regulatory lapses. Example: The WHO alerts on contaminated cough syrups in Gambia and Uzbekistan have damaged India’s credibility as a reliable supplier of affordable medicines.
- Reduced Diplomatic Influence in Developing Countries: Many nations in Africa and Southeast Asia, which depend on Indian pharmaceuticals, may seek alternative suppliers, weakening India’s influence in these regions. Example: Countries like Nigeria and Kenya exploring Chinese and Brazilian pharmaceutical alternatives.
- Economic and Trade Consequences: Heightened global scrutiny could lead to export restrictions and trade losses, affecting India’s dominance in the generic drug market. Example: In 2023, the U.S. imposed tighter checks on Indian pharmaceutical imports following incidents of contaminated eye drops, impacting Indian drug exports.
What is the extent of India’s pharmaceutical exports?
- Total Export Value: India’s pharmaceutical exports were valued at USD 27.85 billion, contributing substantially to the nation’s economy.
- Global Market Share: India stands as the world’s third-largest producer of pharmaceuticals by volume, supplying approximately 20% of global generic drugs, with North America being a major recipient.
- Key Export Destinations: The United States remains the largest importer of Indian pharmaceutical products, accounting for 17.90% of India’s total merchandise exports in this sector.
- India supplies about 26% of Africa’s generic pharmaceutical market, highlighting its role as a key provider of affordable medicines on the continent.
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What steps has the Indian government taken in this situation?
- Strengthening Regulatory Oversight: The Central Drugs Standard Control Organization (CDSCO) has intensified inspections of pharmaceutical manufacturing units to ensure compliance with Good Manufacturing Practices (GMP). Example: Following the Gambia and Uzbekistan incidents, the government ordered inspections of 76 cough syrup manufacturers across 20 states, leading to the suspension of several licenses.
- Policy Reforms and Legal Action: The government introduced a mandatory quality certification for drug exports to certain countries to prevent the export of substandard medicines. Example: After the Aveo Pharmaceuticals case, the Maharashtra government revoked the company’s manufacturing license and seized 13 million illegal medicines.
- International Collaboration and Transparency: The Indian government has increased cooperation with the World Health Organization (WHO) to address quality concerns and strengthen pharmacovigilance. Example: India joined hands with African health regulators to enhance quality assurance for pharmaceuticals exported to African countries.
Way forward:
- Strengthen Regulatory Oversight: Implement stricter quality controls, regular audits, and a centralized tracking system to ensure compliance with global standards.
- Enhance Global Collaboration: Partner with international health bodies and key importing nations to improve quality assurance and rebuild trust in Indian pharmaceuticals.
Mains PYQ:
Q Why is there so much activity in the field of biotechnology in our country? How has this activity benefitted the field of biopharma? (UPSC IAS/2018)
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Mains level: Challenges to RTI;
Why in the News?
The RTI Act allowed people to question the government, but the government soon tried to weaken it.
Why is the RTI now being viewed as the ‘right to deny information’?
- Judicial Interpretations Diluting the Scope of RTI: Key court judgments, like Girish Ramchandra Deshpande vs. CIC (2012), have expanded the definition of “personal information” under Section 8(1)(j) of the RTI Act. This allows authorities to deny information about public servants’ misconduct, assets, and disciplinary records.
- Delayed Appointments and Case Backlogs: Government delays in appointing Information Commissioners have led to massive backlogs, reducing the effectiveness of the RTI. Information is often provided after significant delays, turning it into a “right to history.”
- Narrow Interpretation of Public Interest: The Supreme Court’s ruling in CBSE vs. Aditya Bandopadhyay (2011) warned against the “misuse” of RTI for seeking all types of information, limiting disclosures that could allegedly disrupt administrative efficiency.
- Example: Information requests related to public policy decisions are frequently denied on vague grounds of protecting “national integration” or preventing “administrative burden.”
What have been the key achievements of the RTI since its inception?
- Increased Transparency and Accountability: The RTI Act has empowered citizens to hold public authorities accountable by providing access to government records and decisions. Example: In 2007, RTI applications exposed corruption in the National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme (NREGA), leading to better monitoring and payment transparency.
- Exposing Corruption and Misuse of Power: RTI has played a crucial role in uncovering major scams and irregularities, prompting legal and policy reforms. Example: The 2G spectrum scam (2008) involving massive financial irregularities in telecom licensing was brought to light through RTI inquiries, leading to the cancellation of 122 telecom licenses by the Supreme Court.
- Empowering Marginalized Communities: Rural and marginalized groups have used RTI to access entitlements like ration cards, pensions, and housing schemes, ensuring their socio-economic rights. Example: In Rajasthan, villagers used RTI to reveal discrepancies in public distribution system (PDS) records, ensuring access to their rightful food supplies.
What are the limitations of RTI?
- Exemptions under Section 8: Certain categories of information are exempt from disclosure, such as matters related to national security, sovereignty, and personal privacy. Example: Information related to defense strategies or confidential Cabinet discussions cannot be accessed through RTI.
- Delayed or Incomplete Responses: Bureaucratic delays and lack of accountability often lead to incomplete or delayed information, undermining the RTI’s effectiveness. Example: In 2021, RTI applications regarding COVID-19 vaccine procurement faced significant delays, limiting public scrutiny during a critical period.
- Threats and Intimidation of RTI Activists: Whistleblowers and activists who use RTI to expose corruption face harassment, threats, and even violence. Example: Amit Jethwa, an RTI activist from Gujarat, was murdered in 2010 after exposing illegal mining near the Gir Forest.
Does India have an alternative to the RTI?
- Public Services Delivery Laws (Right to Public Services Act): Various states in India have enacted Public Services Delivery Laws to ensure the timely delivery of public services and redress grievances.
- Example: Madhya Pradesh was the first state to implement the Right to Public Services Act (2010), which mandates timely delivery of services like issuing ration cards and driving licenses.
- Whistleblower Protection Act (2014): This law protects individuals who expose corruption and wrongdoing in government institutions. It allows whistleblowers to report issues while keeping their identity confidential.
- Example: An employee of a public sector bank can report irregularities without fear of retaliation under this Act. However, delays in operationalizing the law limit its effectiveness.
- Lokpal and Lokayuktas Act (2013): This law establishes an independent body (Lokpal) at the central level and Lokayuktas at the state level to investigate corruption among public officials.
- Example: In 2019, the Lokpal was appointed to investigate allegations of corruption against high-level public servants, including the Prime Minister (with conditions).
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Way forward:
- Strengthen Institutional Framework: Ensure timely appointment of Information Commissioners, enforce penalties for delayed/incomplete responses, and streamline processes to reduce case backlogs.
- Enhance Legal Safeguards: Amend the Whistleblower Protection Act for better security of RTI activists and clarify exemptions under Section 8 to prevent misuse while balancing public interest.
Mains PYQ:
Q “Recent amendment to the Right to Information Act will have a profound impact on the autonomy and independence of the Information Commission”. Discuss. (UPSC IAS/2020)
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Battle of Karnal
Why in the News?
On February 24, 1739, the Battle of Karnal marked a turning point in the history of Mughal empire.
About Battle of Karnal
- The Battle of Karnal on February 24, 1739, saw Nadir Shah’s Persian army defeat Mughal Emperor Muhammad Shah ‘Rangila’ in under three hours.
- Despite having 300,000 soldiers, the Mughal army was crushed by Nadir Shah’s 55,000 well-trained troops using modern tactics and superior firearms.
- Following the victory, Delhi was sacked, 30,000 civilians massacred, and the Mughal treasury looted, including the Koh-i-Noor diamond and the Peacock Throne.
Impact on Mughal Decline
- Economic Collapse: The Mughal treasury was emptied, crippling military and administrative strength.
- Weakening Central Power: Governors of Bengal, Awadh, and Hyderabad declared independence.
- Military Decline: The Mughal army’s outdated tactics were exposed; future invasions (e.g., Ahmad Shah Abdali, 1748-1761) followed.
- Rise of Regional Powers: The Marathas expanded, eventually capturing Delhi (1771); the Sikhs grew in Punjab.
- British Expansion: The East India Company took advantage, leading to British rule after 1857.
PYQ:
[2019] With reference to Mughal India, what is/are the difference/differences between Jagirdars and Zamindar?
1. Jagirdars were holders of land assignments in lieu of judicial and police duties, whereas Zamindars were holders of revenue rights without obligation to perform any duty other than revenue collection.
2. Land assignments to Jagirdars were hereditary and revenue rights of Zamindars were not hereditary.
Select the correct answer using the codes given below:
(a) 1 only
(b) 2 only
(c) Both 1 and 2
(d) Neither 1 nor 2 |
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