From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: About NATO
Mains level: Security Issues with European Countries and US Support
Why in the news?
When Donald Trump suggested during the 2016 presidential campaign that he might not honor the U.S. commitment to defend NATO allies if attacked, it alarmed the trans-Atlantic alliance.
NATO country member’s flags flutter at the bloc’s headquarters in Brussels
NATO’s Structure and Membership: NATO, established in 1949, comprises 31 member countries, including the United States, Canada, and various European nations. The alliance was formed to ensure collective defence against potential threats, particularly from the Soviet Union during the Cold War.
The flags of these member countries flutter at NATO’s headquarters in Brussels, symbolising unity and cooperation.
Evolving Role of European Nations: In light of recent geopolitical challenges, particularly Russia’s invasion of Ukraine, European leaders recognize the need to take on greater responsibility for their own defense.
This shift is partly a response to the U.S. focus on other global threats, such as China, and the changing dynamics within NATO
Security issues with European Countries and US support:
European Acknowledgement: European leaders recognize the need to evolve NATO to meet 21st-century challenges and are prepared to take on more responsibility for their defense.
US Military Support: Mr Trump’s presidency highlighted that US military support is not guaranteed, prompting Europe to reconsider its security strategies.
Threats from Russia and China: Russia’s invasion of Ukraine and the US’s focus on China’s expansion in the Asia-Pacific, as well as Iran and North Korea, underscore the need for Europe to enhance its own security measures.
NATO’s Evolution: European nations must increase their defense spending and capabilities, including troop numbers, equipment upgrades, and countering technological threats.
A wake-up call for all:
Trump’s “America First” Rhetoric: Trump’s suggestion that the US might not honour its NATO commitments triggered the alarm and a reevaluation of NATO’s future.
Increased European Defense Spending: European NATO members have significantly increased their defense spending commitments, with 23 out of 31 non-US members meeting or exceeding the 2% GDP target, up from just three members ten years ago.
EU Defense Industry Boost: The EU is planning to enhance its defense industry, with calls for more independence in airspace defence and relocating production to Europe, especially in response to the threat posed by Russia’s actions in Ukraine.
Conclusion: European NATO members should continue to enhance their defense spending, focusing on upgrading military equipment, increasing troop numbers, and improving technological capabilities to counter both conventional and emerging threats such as cyber warfare and foreign interference.
Mains PYQ:
Q The new tri-nation partnership AUKUS is aimed at countering China’s ambitions in the Indo-Pacific region. Is it going to supersede the existing partnerships in the region? Discuss the strength and impact of AUKUS in the present scenario. (UPSC IAS/2021)
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Collegium System
Why in the News?
The Union government has said that 219 proposals for the appointment of High Court judges by the Collegium are in various stages of processing.
What is Collegium System?
The collegium system is the method used for the appointment and transfer of judges in the Supreme Court and High Courts of India.
It is the Indian Supreme Court’s invention.
The term ‘Collegium’ does not find mention in the Constitution.
Constitutional Provisions:
Article 124: The President appoints the Chief Justice and other judges of the Supreme Court after consultations with judges of the Supreme Court and High Courts as deemed necessary.
Article 217: The President appoints High Court judges after consultations with the Chief Justice of India, the Governor of the state, and the Chief Justice of the High Court concerned
Composition:
Supreme Court Collegium:
A five-member body.
Headed by the Chief Justice of India (CJI).
Includes the four other senior most judges of the Supreme Court at that time.
High Court Collegium:
Led by the Chief Justice of the respective High Court.
Includes the two senior most judges of that High Court.
Recommendations for appointments by a High Court collegium are sent to the government only after approval by the CJI and the Supreme Court collegium.
Evolution: Three Judges Cases
First Judges Case (1981) ruled that the “consultation” with the CJI in the matter of appointments must be full and effective.
The Supreme Court, in a majority decision, held that the opinion of the Chief Justice of India is not binding on the executive in the matter of appointments and transfers of judges. The court ruled that the executive has primacy in judicial appointments.
Second Judges Case (1993) introduced the Collegium system, holding that “consultation” really meant “concurrence”.
The Supreme Court, by a majority of 7:2, overruled the First Judges Case and held that the CJI’s opinion regarding judicial appointments and transfers should be given primacy.
The court established that the CJI should consult with the two senior-most judges of the Supreme Court before making recommendations for appointments and transfers, thereby creating a collegium system.
Third Judges Case (1998): On a Presidential Reference for its opinion, the Supreme Court, in the Third Judges Case (1998) expanded the Collegium to a five-member body, comprising the CJI and four of his senior-most colleagues.
The procedure followed by the Collegium:
Appointment of CJI
The President of India appoints the CJI and the other SC judges.
As far as the CJI is concerned, the outgoing CJI recommends his successor.
In practice, it has been strictly by seniority ever since the supersession controversy of the 1970s.
The Union Law Minister forwards the recommendation to the PM who, in turn, advises the President.
Other SC Judges:
For other judges of the top court, the proposal is initiated by the CJI.
The CJI consults the rest of the Collegium members, as well as the senior-most judge of the court hailing from the High Court to which the recommended person belongs.
The consultees must record their opinions in writing and it should form part of the file.
The Collegium sends the recommendation to the Law Minister, who forwards it to the Prime Minister to advise the President.
For High Courts:
The CJs of High Courts are appointed as per the policy of having Chief Justices from outside the respective States. The Collegium takes the call on the elevation.
High Court judges are recommended by a Collegium comprising the CJI and two senior-most judges.
The proposal, however, is initiated by the Chief Justice of the High Court concerned in consultation with two senior-most colleagues.
The recommendation is sent to the Chief Minister, who advises the Governor to send the proposal to the Union Law Minister.
Qualifications for Appointment as a Supreme Court Judge:
According to Article 124(3) of the Constitution, a person can be appointed as a judge of the Supreme Court if he or she:
Is a citizen of India.
Has served as a judge of a High Court for at least five years or in two such courts in succession.
Alternatively, has been an advocate of a High Court for at least ten years or in two or more such courts in succession.
Is a distinguished jurist in the opinion of the President.
Qualifications for Appointment as a High Court Judge:
The person must have held a judicial office for at least 10 years in India, or
Must have been a practising advocate in a High Court for at least 10 years.
The person must be enrolled under the Bar Council of India.
PYQ:
[2012] What is the provision to safeguard the autonomy of the Supreme Court of India?
While appointing the Supreme Court Judges, the President of India has to consult the Chief Justice of India.
The Supreme Court Judges can be removed by the Chief Justice of India only.
The salaries of the Judges are charged on the Consolidated Fund of India to which the legislature does not have to vote.
All appointments of officers and staffs of the Supreme Court of India are made by the Government only after consulting the Chief Justice of India.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Paris Olympics
Why in the News?
The Paris Olympics has began and will run from July 26 to August 11, 2024.
Some lesser known facts about Olympics:
The Olympic Games originated in ancient Greece in 776 BC in Olympia.
Held every 4 years, they featured athletic competitions among representatives of various city-states.
The modern Olympics were revived byBaron Pierre de Coubertin of France.
The first modern Olympic Games were held in Athens, Greece, in 1896.
The Olympic Rings represent the union of the 5 inhabited continents (Africa, Americas, Asia, Europe, and Oceania).
The Winter Olympics were introduced in 1924 in Chamonix, France and it features sports practiced on snow and ice, like skiing, ice skating, and ice hockey.
The Olympic Torch Relay was introduced in the 1936Berlin Games.
The number of participating countries has grown from 14 in the 1896 Games to over 200 in recent editions.
Women were first allowed to compete in the 1900 Paris Olympics.
The Paralympics, for athletes with disabilities, were first held in Rome in 1960.
About Paris Olympics
The Paris Olympics, officially known as the Games of the XXXIII Olympiad, will be held in Paris, France.
This event, commonly referred to as the 2024 Summer Olympics, is an international multi-sport competition featuring athletes from around the world.
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Charaideo Moidam, UNESCO World Heritages
Why in the News?
The Charaideo Moidams, a unique 700-year-old mound-burial system of the Ahom dynasty from Assam, has been added to the UNESCO World Heritage List.
About Charaideo Moidams
The Charaideo moidams represents the late medieval(13th-19th century CE) mound burial tradition of the Tai Ahom community in Assam.
Charaideo, more than 400 km east of Guwahati, was the first capital of the Ahom dynasty founded by Chao Lung Sukaphaa in 1253.
The Ahoms preferred to place the deceased family members at Charaideo where the first king Sukapha was laid to rest.
The historical chronicles inform that wives, attendants, pet animals and huge quantity of valuables were buried with the departed kings.
After 18th century, the Ahom rulers adopted the Hindumethod of cremation and began entombing the cremated bones and ashes in a Maidam at Charaideo.
Out of 386 Maidams explored so far, 90 royal burials at Charaideo are the best preserved, representative of and the most complete examples of mound burial tradition of the Ahoms.
Architecture details:
Architecturally it comprises a massive underground vault with one or more chambers having domical superstructure.
It is covered by a heap of earthen mound and externally it appears a hemispherical mound.
At the top of the mound, a small open pavilion chow-chali is provided.
An octagonal dwarf wall encloses whole maidam.
Significance of this addition:
Moidams has become the 43rd property from India to be included in the UNESCO List.
India now stands at the 6th position globally for the most number of World Heritage Properties.
The Moidams are the first site from the North East to be recognized as a World Heritage Site in the cultural category.
Assam has 2 other World Heritage Sites in the natural category: Kaziranga National Park and Manas National Park, both upgraded to tiger reserves.
Who were the Ahoms?
The Ahom, also known as the Tai-Ahom, are an ethnic group from Assam and Arunachal Pradesh in India.
This ethnic group is made up of interbred descendants of the Tai people, who first came to Assam’s Brahmaputra valley in 1228, and indigenous people who later joined them.
The current Ahom people and culture are a mix of the ancient Tai people and culture, as well as indigenous Tibeto-Burman people and cultures that they assimilated in Assam.
Sukaphaa, the Tai group’s leader, and his 9000 supporters founded the Ahom empire (1228–1826 CE), which ruled over part of modern-day Assam’s Brahmaputra Valley until 1826.
It retained sovereignty for 600 years until annexed by British India in 1826 (Treaty of Yandaboo).
Lachit Borphukan (1622-1672) is the most celebrated ruler of Ahom Dynasty.
Back2Basics:UNESCOWorld Heritage Sites
Aspect
Details
Definition
Sites of outstanding cultural or natural value to humanity, are protected under the UNESCO Convention of 1972.
Classification
Cultural Heritage Sites: Historic buildings, archaeological sites, monumental sculptures/paintings.
Explained | Polity | Mains Paper 2: Indian Constitution - historical underpinnings, evolution, features, amendments, significant provisions and basic structure
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Mines and Minerals (Development and Regulation) Act of 1957 (MMDR Act);
Mains level: Design of power between Union and state;
Why in the News?
The Supreme Court delivered a significant 8:1 judgment affirming that State Legislatures have the power to tax mining lands and quarries, independent of the Parliament’s Mines and Minerals (Development and Regulation) Act of 1957 (MMDR Act).
About the verdict given by SC
Judgment Overview: The majority opinion, authored by Chief Justice D.Y. Chandrachud, stated that states derive their taxing authority from Article 246 and Entry 49 of the State List, which pertains to taxation on lands and buildings.
Distinction Between Tax and Royalty: The Court clarified that royalty paid for mining leases is not considered a tax.
Royalty is viewed as a contractual obligation between the mining lessee and the lessor, thus not subject to the same regulatory framework as taxes.
Parliamentary Limitations: The judgment emphasised that the MMDR Act cannot impose limitations on state taxation powers regarding mines and quarries. The Court rejected the argument that Entry 50 of the State List allowed Parliament to impose restrictions on state taxes related to mineral rights.
Dissenting Opinion: Justice B.V. Nagarathna provided a dissenting opinion, cautioning that allowing states to tax under Entry 49 could lead to double taxation and undermine the specific provisions of Entry 50.
About the Mines and Minerals (Development and Regulation) Act of 1957
The MMDR Act was enacted to regulate the mining sector in India, ensuring the development and conservation of minerals while balancing the interests of the state and the public.
The Act provides a comprehensive framework for the licensing and regulation of mines, including provisions for the fixation of royalties on mineral extraction.
The Act has been a point of contention regarding the extent of state powers to impose taxes on mineral rights, with arguments that it limits state legislative competence in this area.
The Supreme Court’s recent ruling clarifies that the MMDR Act does not restrict state powers to tax mineral rights, thus resolving conflicts arising from previous interpretations of the Act.
On the division of the power
Constitutional Framework: The Constitution of India delineates the distribution of powers between the Centre and the States through the Seventh Schedule, which includes the State List and the Union List.
Entry 49 and Entry 50: Entry 49 allows states to levy taxes on lands and buildings, while Entry 50 pertains specifically to taxes on mineral rights, subject to limitations imposed by Parliament.
Judicial Clarity: The Supreme Court’s judgment clarifies that states can exercise their taxing powers under both Entries 49 and 50 without interference from the MMDR Act, reinforcing the states’ authority over local resources.
Conclusion: The Supreme Court’s ruling affirms that states can tax mining lands independently of the MMDR Act, highlighting their authority under Article 246 and Entry 49, despite dissenting concerns about double taxation.
Mains PYQ:
Q Though the federal principle is dominant in our Constitution and that priniciple is one of its basic features, but it is equally true that federalism under the Indian Constitution leans in favour of a strong Centre, a feature that militates against the concept of strong federalism. 15M
Mains level: Factors Contribute to the Persistence of Illegal Coal Mining;
Why in the News?
On July 13, three workers died of asphyxiation inside an illegal coal mine in Gujarat’s Surendranagar district.
How Prevalent is Illegal Coal Mining in India?
Illegal coal mining has led to multiple fatalities, including recent incidents in Gujarat, Jharkhand, and West Bengal, highlighting its prevalence and dangers.
There are 10 workers who have died in illegal mining incidents in Gujarat alone this year, showcasing the ongoing risks associated with this activity.
Illegal mining is often conducted in abandoned mines or shallow coal seams, particularly in remote areas, where monitoring and enforcement of regulations are weak.
What are the Legal Frameworks Governing Coal Mining in India?
Coal Mines (Nationalisation) Act, 1973: This act nationalized coal mining in India, regulating who can mine coal and under what conditions.
Mines and Minerals (Development and Regulation) Act, 1957 (MMDR Act): This central legislation governs the mining sector, detailing processes for acquiring mining licenses and regulating mining activities. It empowers state governments to frame rules to prevent illegal mining.
While the MMDR Act provides a framework, the enforcement and regulation of illegal mining fall under state jurisdiction.
Why is the Responsibility for Addressing Illegal Mining Placed on State Governments?
Law and Order Issue: Illegal mining is categorized as a law and order problem, which is a subject under the State List of the Constitution, making it the responsibility of state governments to address.
Limited Central Authority: The Union government often shifts the responsibility to state authorities, citing the decentralized nature of governance in matters of local enforcement and regulation.
What Factors Contribute to the Persistence of Illegal Coal Mining?
High Demand for Coal: With coal accounting for 55% of India’s energy needs, the high demand often exceeds legal supply leading to illegal mining activities.
Poverty and Unemployment: Many coal-rich areas are home to impoverished populations who resort to illegal mining as a source of livelihood due to limited job opportunities.
Weak Regulatory Enforcement: Inadequate monitoring and enforcement of mining regulations in remote areas allow illegal mining operations to flourish.
Political Patronage: Allegations of political leaders’ involvement in illegal mining operations complicate efforts to curb these activities, as seen in various states.
What Safety Risks Do Workers Face?
Lack of Safety Equipment: Workers often operate without helmets, masks, or other protective gear, significantly increasing their risk of injury or death.
Hazardous Working Conditions: Illegal mines are typically unregulated, lacking proper structural support, making them vulnerable to cave-ins, landslides, and explosions.
Toxic Gas Exposure: Miners are at risk of asphyxiation from inhaling toxic gases like carbon monoxide, as evidenced by recent fatalities in Gujarat.
Continuous exposure to coal dust and hazardous substances can lead to respiratory issues and chronic health conditions, further endangering workers’ health.
Conclusion: Need to implement advanced surveillance technologies, such as drones and satellite imaging, to monitor and detect illegal mining activities in real-time. This can improve the efficiency of enforcement agencies in identifying and responding to illegal operations swiftly.
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Constitutional provisions related to Municipality ;
Mains level: Functions and challenges of Municipality,
Why in the News?
The Karnataka government has introduced a bill in the state assembly that aims to restructure the Bruhat Bengaluru Mahanagara Palike (BBMP) by dividing it into multiple smaller municipal corporations. This proposal is known as the Greater Bengaluru Governance Bill, 2024.
What is the Greater Bengaluru Governance Bill?
The Bill aims to restructure the Bruhat Bengaluru Mahanagara Palike (BBMP) into smaller administrative units to improve governance in Bengaluru.
Drafted by the BBMP Restructuring Committee, the Bill has undergone multiple revisions since its inception in 2014, with the latest modifications presented in June 2024.
The Bill was tabled in the Karnataka Assembly on July 23, 2024, and is set for discussion among lawmakers, with a sub-committee likely to scrutinize it before further consideration.
Key Highlights of the Draft Bill
City Corporations: The Bill proposes that the number of city corporations in the Greater Bengaluru Area shall not exceed ten, with indications that it may be split into five units based on specified criteria.
Governance Structure: A three-tier governance structure will be established, comprising the Greater Bengaluru Authority (GBA) at the top, city corporations in the middle, and ward committees at the bottom.
Composition of GBA: The GBA will be headed by the Chief Minister and include 21 members, including key ministers and heads of various urban development organizations.
Criteria for Corporations: City corporations must have a population of at least 10 lakh, a density of over 5,000 people per sq km, and a minimum revenue generation of ₹300 crore annually.
Ward Distribution: Each city corporation will consist of between 50 to 200 wards, with the current BBMP having 198 wards.
Present Criticism
The BJP has criticized the Bill as “unscientific,” claiming it threatens the cultural identity of Bengaluru and could lead to administrative chaos.
BJP leaders have expressed fears that the proposed restructuring could diminish the prominence of the Kannada language in Bengaluru.
Critics point to the unsuccessful trifurcation of the Municipal Corporation of Delhi in 2012, which was reversed in 2022, as a cautionary tale against such restructuring efforts.
Concerns have been raised that the Bill may exacerbate economic disparities among the proposed city corporations, with wealthier areas receiving more resources while poorer areas remain underdeveloped.
Way forward:
Comprehensive Stakeholder Consultation: Before finalizing the Bill, the government should conduct extensive consultations with all stakeholders, including local residents, urban planners, civic organizations, and opposition parties. This will ensure that diverse perspectives are considered, addressing concerns about cultural identity, economic disparities, and administrative efficiency.
Clear Definition and Criteria: The Bill should include clear definitions of “local areas” and the criteria for determining the boundaries of the proposed city corporations.
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: About Tribal Autonomous Councils;
Mains level: Controversy over the 125th Amendment Bill;
Why in the News?
The Union government will set up a committee led by MoS Home Nityanand Rai to address concerns and expedite the 125th Constitutional Amendment Bill, which aims to empower tribal autonomous councils in northeastern states.
What is the Controversy over the 125th Amendment Bill?
The Constitution (125th Amendment) Bill, 2019 aims to grant more financial, executive, and administrative powers to tribal autonomous councils under the Sixth Schedule of the Constitution.
The Bill has faced delays due to unresolved issues between the Union government and the tribal councils, prompting the formation of a committee to address these concerns.
Tribal leaders argue that the Bill is essential for streamlining administrative systems, ensuring proper resource flow, and enhancing the capacity of councils to implement policies beneficial to their communities.
The Bill has been pending since its introduction in the Rajya Sabha in February 2019 and has faced scrutiny from the Departmental-Related Standing Committee on Home Affairs, which flagged multiple issues.
What are Tribal Autonomous Councils?
Tribal autonomous councils are local governance bodies established under the Sixth Schedule of the Constitution to provide autonomy and protect the rights of tribal populations in certain northeastern states of India.
As of now, there are 10 autonomous councils across Assam, Meghalaya, Mizoram, and Tripura, which have the authority to legislate on matters related to land, public health, and agriculture.
These councils are intended to empower tribal communities by allowing them to manage their resources and governance independently from state governments.
About the North Eastern Council (NEC) and Its Structural Mandate
The North Eastern Council (NEC) was established in 1972 as a statutory body to promote the economic and social development of the northeastern states of India.
The NEC’s primary mandate includes coordinating the planning and implementation of development programs, facilitating inter-state cooperation, and addressing issues specific to the northeastern region.
The NEC comprises the Chief Ministers of the northeastern states, along with a nominated representative from the central government, ensuring representation from both state and central authorities.
The Council focuses on various sectors, including infrastructure development, education, health, and cultural preservation, aiming to enhance the overall development of the northeastern states.
Conclusion: The Union government should initiate a transparent and inclusive consultation process involving all stakeholders, including tribal leaders, local communities, and state governments. This process should aim to address the concerns raised by tribal councils and ensure that their voices are heard in the legislative process.
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Cassini-Huygens Mission, Titan
Why in the News?
US space agency NASA’s Cassini-Huygens spacecraft launched in October 1997.
Using Cassini’s radar data, scientists from Cornell University have discovered new information about the liquid ocean on Titan, Saturn’s largest moon.
Observations made about Titan
Titan is composed ofhydrocarbons – organic chemicals consisting of carbon and hydrogen.
The astronomers have reportedly located calm seas of methane with a slow tidal current.
About Cassini-Huygens Mission
The Cassini-Huygens mission was a collaborative project between NASA, the European Space Agency (ESA), and the Italian Space Agency (ASI) to explore Saturn and its moons.
The spacecraft was named after astronomers Giovanni Cassini and Christian Huygens.
The mission consisted of the Cassini orbiter and the Huygens probe.
It was launched on October 15, 1997.
It ended its mission on September 15, 2017 by plunging into Saturn’s atmosphere.
Key Achievements:
Saturn Exploration:
Detailed study of Saturn’s atmosphere, rings, and magnetosphere.
Discovered new rings and observed the complex structure of the existing ones.
Moons of Saturn:
Titan Exploration: Huygens probe successfully landed on Titan, Saturn’s largest moon, on January 14, 2005, providing the first direct exploration of Titan’s surface and atmosphere.
Enceladus Discoveries: Found water-ice plumes erupting from Enceladus, indicating a subsurface ocean that could potentially harbor life.
Other Moons: Provided detailed images and data on other moons like Lapetus, Rhea, Dione, and Tethys.
Technological Milestones:
Demonstrated the success of long-duration missions in deep space.
Advanced the understanding of spacecraft navigation and operation in complex planetary environments.
PYQ:
[2014] Which of the following pairs is/are correctly matched?
Spacecraft
Purpose
1.
Cassini-Huygens
Orbiting the Venus and transmitting data to the Earth
2.
Messenger
Mapping and investigating the Mercury
3.
Voyager 1 and 2
Exploring the outer solar system
Select the correct answer using the code given below:
(a) 1 only
(b) 2 and 3 only
(c) 1 and 3 only
(d) 1, 2 and 3
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Hema Commission Report on Women Safety
Why in the News?
A single bench of the Kerala High Court has stayed the release of the Justice Hema Commission report.
The report investigated women’s working conditions in the Malayalam film industry.
About the Assault that Exposed the Deep Gender Divide
On February 17, 2017, a leading Malayalam film actress was abducted and sexually assaulted in her car while traveling from Thrissur to Kochi.
The incident caused shock and outrage across Kerala as disturbing details emerged, including a video purportedly intended for blackmail.
Six of the ten accused were arrested quickly, and popular actor Dileep was named an accused and remanded to judicial custody in July. He is currently out on bail, with the trial ongoing since 2020.
Formation of the Women in Cinema Collective (WCC)
The incident highlighted the discriminatory treatment faced by women in the film industry.
The Women in Cinema Collective (WCC) was formed in response, submitting a petition to the Chief Minister demanding an inquiry into gender issues in the industry.
The Hema Commission
In July 2017, five months after the incident, the state government formed a 3-member committee headed by retired Kerala High Court judge, Justice K Hema.
The committee’s objective was to investigate issues of sexual harassment and gender inequality in the Malayalam film industry.
In December 2019, a 300-page report was submitted to the CM Pinarayi Vijayan, including documents, audio, and video evidence.
Findings and Recommendations
The commission consulted multiple women professionals in the industry, recording detailed accounts of sexual harassment, wages earned, and possible blacklisting.
The report highlighted the existence of a casting couch, and the presence of alcohol and drugs on film sets.
The commission recommended forming a tribunal to investigate these allegations.
Other recommendations included making job contracts mandatory, ensuring wage parity across genders for the same job, banning drugs and liquor on shooting locations, and ensuring safe working conditions for women.
PYQ:
[2010] Two of the schemes launched by the Government of India for Women’s development are Swadhar and Swayam Siddha. As regards the difference between them, consider the following statements:
Swayam Siddha is meant for those in difficult circumstances such as women survivors of natural disasters or terrorism, women prisoners released from jails, mentally challenged women etc., whereas Swadhar is meant for holistic empowerment of women through Self Help Groups.
Swayam Siddha is implemented through Local Self-Government bodies or reputed Voluntary Organizations whereas Swadhar is implemented through the ICDS units set up in the states.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
(a) 1 only
(b) 2 only
(c) Both 1 and 2
(d) Neither 1 nor 2
[2014] We are witnessing increasing instances of sexual violence against women in the country. Despite existing legal provisions against it, the number of such incidences is on the rise. Suggest some innovative measures to tackle this menace.
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Niger, Niger Benin Export Pipeline
Why in the News?
The China-backed Niger-Benin Export Pipeline that would make Niger an oil-exporting country is being threatened by an internal security crisis and a diplomatic dispute with neighboring Benin.
These issues arose after last year’s coup that toppled Niger’s democratic government.
About Niger
Niger, located in West Africa, is a landlocked country known for its vast desert landscapes and significant cultural heritage.
The northern region of Niger is dominated by the Sahara Desert, comprising more than half of the country.
The central part of Niger is characterized by the Sahel, a semi-arid transition zone between the Sahara
The Aïr Mountains, located in the northern central part are a significant mountain range with the highest peak, Mont Idoukal-n-Taghès (2,022 m).
The Niger River is the country’s primary water source.
Lake Chad is a significant body of water shared with Nigeria, Chad, and Cameroon. Its size keep on fluctuating.
About Niger Benin Export Pipeline
The 1,930-kilometer pipeline runs from Niger’s Chinese-built Agadem oil field to the port of Cotonou in Benin.
It was designed to help Niger achieve an almost 5x increase in oil production through a $400 million deal with China’s state-run national petroleum company.
The pipeline faces significant challenges, including a recent diplomatic disagreement with Benin.
These issues threaten to strain Niger’s economy, heavily reliant on external support now withheld after a coup.
PYQ:
[2018] Which of the following has/have shrunk immensely/dried up in the recent past due to human activities?
Aral Sea
Black Sea
Lake Baikal
Select the correct answer using the code given below:
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Comparison of Indian Constitution
Why in the News?
On July 14, K. P. Sharma Oli was sworn in as Nepal’s Prime Minister for the fourth time, leading a new coalition government.
Since the abolition of the monarchy in 2008, Nepal has had 14 governments despite a new constitution in 2015 promising progress.
Evolution of Nepal’s Constitution
1948: The Government of Nepal Act was the first attempt at creating a constitution.
1951: The Interim Government of Nepal Act aimed to establish democracy but was replaced in 1959.
1959: Introduced a multi-party system, but the Panchayat Constitution of 1962 established a party-less system under King Mahendra.
1990: A constitutional monarchy restored the multi-party system.
2007: An Interim Constitution was adopted after continued political upheavals.
2015: The current constitution established Nepal as a federal democratic republic.
Comparing the Indian Constitution and Nepal’s Constitution:
India
Nepal
Historical Background
Adopted on November 26, 1949, and came into effect on January 26, 1950.
Framed by the Constituent Assembly elected in 1946.
Current constitution promulgated on September 20, 2015.
Many attempts since 1948, 1951, 1959, 1962, 1990, and 2007.
Form of Government
Quasi-federal nature of the Indian constitution is described as a “Union of States” in Article 1. Other factors also talk about the quasi-federal like Emergency power and independent judiciary. etc
Parliamentary system with the President as the ceremonial head and the Prime Minister as the head of government.
Federal democratic republic.
Parliamentary system with the President as the ceremonial head and the Prime Minister as the executive head.
Structure of Government
Bicameral legislature: Lok Sabha (House of the People) and Rajya Sabha (Council of States).
Three levels of government: central, state, and local.
Bicameral legislature: House of Representatives and National Assembly.
Three levels of government: federal, provincial, and local.
Federal Structure
More centralized federal structure. The central government has significant authority over states.
Flexible to allow greater central control when necessary.
More decentralized federal structure. Greater autonomy to provinces.
Includes seven provinces, each with its own government and legislature.
Elections and Representation
First-past-the-post (FPTP) system for Lok Sabha elections. Representation through single-member constituencies and multi-party systems.
Mixed electoral system with both FPTP and proportional representation (PR). Ensures broader representation but leads to the proliferation of smaller parties.
Judiciary
The Supreme Court of India is the highest judicial authority.
Ensures protection of fundamental rights and upholds the rule of law.
The Supreme Court of Nepal is the highest judicial body.
Interprets the Constitution and protects citizens’ rights. Aims to uphold the rule of law and safeguard fundamental rights.
Fundamental Rights and Duties
Comprehensive list of Fundamental Rights in Part III, including equality, freedom, religion, and constitutional remedies. Fundamental Duties in Part IV-A.
Extensive fundamental rights, covering civil, political, and socio-economic rights. Emphasizes affirmative action for marginalized groups.
Secularism and Religion
A secular state with no official religion which mentioned in the Preamble of the Constitution.
The secular state was declared in the 2015 Constitution.
Protects religious freedom and promotes harmony among religious communities.
PYQ:
[2023] Compare and contrast the British and Indian approaches to Parliamentary sovereignty.
[2022] Critically examine the procedures through which the Presidents of India and France are elected.
[2021] Analyze the distinguishing features of the notion of Right to Equality in the Constitutions of the USA and India.
[2021] Analyse the distinguishing features of the notion of Right to Equality in the Constitutions of the USA and India.
[2020] The judicial systems in India and the UK seem to be converging as well as diverging in recent times. Highlight the key points of convergence and divergence between the two nations in terms of their judicial practices.
[2019] What can France learn from the Indian Constitution’s approach to secularism?
[2018] India and the USA are two large democracies. Examine the basic tenets on which the two political systems are based.
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: About GM Mustard Crop
Mains level: Significance of GM crops
Why in the news?
A two-judge Bench of the Supreme Court delivered a split verdict on Tuesday, July 23, regarding the “environmental release” of Genetically Modified (GM) mustard.
About GM Mustard Crop
Development and Approval Process: On September 15, 2015, the Centre for Genetic Manipulation of Crop Plants (CGMCP) at Delhi University sought approval from the Genetic Engineering Appraisal Committee (GEAC) for the environmental release of GM mustard DMH-11.
Biosafety Dossier: The CGMCP submitted a biosafety dossier to the GEAC, which created a sub-committee to examine its contents. After revisions, the sub-committee submitted its report, inviting comments in September 2016.
GEAC Recommendations: On May 11, 2017, the GEAC recommended the environmental release of GM mustard, allowing field tests to assess the crop’s effects. However, the Ministry of Environment sent the proposal back for re-examination in March 2018 after receiving several representations.
Deferred Tests: The GEAC directed the CGMCP to examine the effects of GM mustard on honey bees and soil microbial diversity, but these tests were deferred through 2020-21.
The GEAC-appointed expert committee found that honeybees do not discriminate between other GM crops such as genetically engineered canola.
What is the case before the Supreme Court?
Background of the Case: The case arose from challenges by environmentalist Aruna Rodrigues and the organization Gene Campaign against the GEAC’s approval for the environmental release of GM mustard, arguing that the decision violated the precautionary principle and lacked proper scientific scrutiny.
Split Verdict: The Supreme Court delivered a split verdict regarding the approval for the environmental release of genetically modified (GM) mustard, specifically the hybrid DMH-11. Justices B.V. Nagarathna and Sanjay Karol had differing opinions on the legality of the Genetic Engineering Appraisal Committee’s (GEAC) decision-making process.
Justice Nagarathna’s Opinion: Justice Nagarathna held that the GEAC’s approval was flawed and did not follow the necessary procedures, particularly failing to conduct promised field tests. She emphasized that the approval violated public trust and the precautionary principle, which is essential for protecting the environment and public health.
Justice Karol’s Opinion: In contrast, Justice Karol argued that the GEAC’s decision was valid and aligned with the development of scientific temper. He stated that field trials are necessary to assess the environmental safety of GM mustard and that the decision-making process was independent and reasoned.
Unanimous Directives: Despite the split decision, both judges agreed on the need for the Union government to formulate a national policy regarding GM crops. This policy should involve consultations with various stakeholders, including experts, farmers, and state governments.
Case referred to larger bench: The case will be referred to a larger bench for further adjudication due to the differing opinions. The Supreme Court directed that the Ministry of Environment, Forest, and Climate Change (MoEF&CC) should conduct a national consultation within four months to develop this policy.
Concerns Raised: Justice Nagarathna pointed out that the GEAC did not consider the long-term effects of GM mustard on health and the environment, while Justice Karol noted the importance of conducting field trials under strict safeguards to monitor the crop’s impact.
Conclusion: The Union government should formulate a detailed and inclusive national policy on genetically modified crops. This policy should be based on extensive consultations with experts, farmer representatives, state governments, and other stakeholders to ensure a balanced approach that considers scientific, environmental, and public health perspectives.
Mains PYQ:
Q What are the present challenges before crop diversification? How do emerging technologies provide an opportunity for crop diversification? (2021)
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Government initiatives related to Employment
Mains level: Significance of recent initiatives in the Budget (2024-2025)
Why in the news?
The 2024-25 Budget is a progressive proposal featuring several commendable initiatives aimed at boosting India’s economic growth and advancing social progress.
Prioritized areas in the recent Budget 2024-25
Job Creation and Skilling: The budget allocates ₹1.48 lakh crore towards job creation, employment, and skilling, emphasizing the importance of developing a skilled workforce to support India’s service sector. This shift from a focus on manufacturing to skilling reflects a strategic move towards building a service-oriented economy.
Energy Transformation: There is significant investments are directed towards energy transformation initiatives, including solar panel manufacturing and nuclear energy development. The budget allocates ₹89,287 crore to crucial sectors, indicating a commitment to sustainable energy solutions.
Healthcare Initiatives: The budget includes measures to enhance healthcare access, such as customs duty exemptions on life-saving cancer medications and components for advanced medical equipment.
Technology and Innovation: A framework with nine priorities is introduced to leverage advanced technology and foster collaboration between the government and private sector, promoting growth and innovation across various sectors.
For example: The budget allocates ₹1 lakh crore specifically for research and innovation, accompanied by a 50-year interest-free loan.
What does the budget say on Accessibility and Affordability?
Customs Duty Exemptions on drugs: The budget exempts customs duties on three essential cancer medications, making them more affordable and accessible to patients. This move addresses the high costs associated with cancer treatments, which often pose significant barriers to access.
Support for Medical Equipment: Customs duties are also waived for components of X-ray tubes and digital detectors, which are crucial for advanced medical technologies.
Alignment with Domestic Capacity: The budget emphasizes aligning customs duties with domestic capacity under the phased manufacturing program, fostering a conducive environment for startups and encouraging local manufacturing.
On Prioritizing Inclusivity and Fiscal Prudence
Women’s Workforce Participation: The budget focuses on boosting women’s participation in the economy through targeted initiatives such as hostels, creches, and skilling programs.
According to a report by McKinsey, India can increase its 2025 GDP, estimated at $4.83 trillion, by 16%-60% simply by enabling women to participate in the economy on par with men
Research and Development: With India spending only 0.7% of its GDP on research, the budget encourages private sector collaboration with the government to increase investments in R&D. This collaboration is vital for fostering innovation and ensuring sustainable economic growth.
Public-Private Partnerships: The budget promotes public-private partnerships to enhance healthcare delivery and infrastructure, reflecting a commitment to inclusivity and collaboration in achieving economic and social goals.
Conclusion: The government should expand the scope of skilling programs to cover a wider range of sectors and skill levels while ensuring the workforce is equipped to meet the evolving demands of the service-oriented economy.
Explained | Polity | Mains Paper 2: Indian Constitution - historical underpinnings, evolution, features, amendments, significant provisions and basic structure
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Comparision between President and Governor
Mains level: Immunity Under Article 361
Why in the news?
The Supreme Court has agreed to examine if the immunity granted to the President and Governors under Article 361 violates fundamental rights and constitutional principles.
What is the case?
The Supreme Court is examining a petition filed by a contractual woman employee of the West Bengal Raj Bhavan, who has accused Governor C.V. Ananda Bose of sexual harassment and molestation.
The petitioner argues that the “absolute immunity” granted to the Governor under Article 361 of the Constitution undermines her fundamental rights and the fairness of the legal process.
Immunity Under Article 361:
Article 361 provides immunity to the President and Governors from being answerable to any court for acts performed in their official capacity.
Specifically, clause (2) of Article 361 states that no criminal proceedings can be initiated or continued against the President or a Governor during their term of office. The petitioner contends that this immunity should not apply to illegal acts that violate fundamental rights.
The petitioner argues that the Governor’s immunity caused negligent handling of her complaint by police, delaying justice and hindering investigations.
The Supreme Court will determine if Article 361(2) immunity is absolute or can be challenged in serious cases like sexual harassment.
Does Article 361 Grant Absolution to the Governor against Criminal Charges?
Scope of Article 361: Article 361 does grant significant immunity to Governors, shielding them from criminal proceedings during their term. However, the immunity is not absolute.
The first provision allows for the conduct of the President to be reviewed by designated bodies for impeachment, while the second provision allows for civil suits against the government.
Judicial Precedents: Previous court rulings have indicated that while Governors enjoy immunity under Article 361, this does not prevent judicial scrutiny of their actions, especially if those actions infringe upon fundamental rights.
For example, in the case of Rameshwar Prasad vs. Union of India, the Supreme Court stated that civil immunity does not preclude challenges based on malafide actions.
Potential for Legal Challenge: The current case may set a precedent for how Article 361 is interpreted regarding criminal acts committed by Governors.
If the court finds that immunity does not apply to acts that violate fundamental rights, it could pave the way for accountability and legal recourse for victims of misconduct by constitutional authorities.
Conclusion: The Supreme Court’s interpretation of Article 361 could redefine the immunity of Governors, potentially allowing criminal proceedings for actions violating fundamental rights, thereby ensuring accountability and justice for victims.
Mains PYQ:
Q Discuss the essential conditions for the exercise of the legislative powers by the Governor. Discuss the legality of the re-promulgation of ordinances by the Governor without placing them before the Legislature. (UPSC IAS/2022)
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: About PMJAY
Mains level: Challenges to the Inclusivity of PMJAY
Why in the news?
With the worst of the COVID-19 pandemic behind us (though the World Health Organization warns the virus still lingers), the Union Budget shifted focus to economic growth levers like infrastructure and employment.
It was also hoped that recognizing population health as crucial for economic growth would lead to continued investment in strengthening health systems.
A budget estimate refers to the initial allocation of funds designated for various programs, departments, or projects within a fiscal year. It represents the government’s expectations regarding how much money will be required to meet planned expenditures.
In contrast, revised estimates come into play later in the fiscal year. After assessing the actual expenditures and needs after the first six months, the government may adjust the initial budget estimates based on how much of the allocated funds have been utilised and what additional resources may be necessary.
Comparisons with Previous Years
Budgetary Estimates: The comparison of the Budget Estimates (BE) for health between 2023-24 and 2025-25, reveals minimal increases:
Overall Health Ministry Budget: 1.98% increase
National Health Mission (NHM): 1.16% increase
PMJAY: 1.4% increase
Overall Health Ministry budget: The present allocation made in the current Budget is deemed to be inadequate for expanding health coverage services and enhancing the impact of flagship health programs, particularly in light of rising non-communicable diseases and the goal of universal health coverage by 2030.
Misleading Comparisons: When we compare the Budget estimates with the previous Revised estimates (RE) the budgetary increase of nearly 12% is misleading, as the RE reflects actual spending rather than the program’s needs.
Missed Opportunities
Health Workforce Development: While the budget mentioned an increase in new medical colleges, it failed to address the critical need for a multi-layered, multi-skilled health workforce.
Drug Pricing Mechanisms: Although customs duties were waived on three anti-cancer drugs. However, the budget missed the chance to implement price controls and pooled procurement strategies that could have lowered drug costs across both public and private healthcare sectors. Establishing such mechanisms could enhance the affordability and accessibility of essential medications.
Climate-Resilient Agriculture: While the budget committed to climate-resilient agriculture, which is crucial for food security, it did not sufficiently link these efforts to health outcomes, such as nutrition and public health, which are critical in the context of rising health challenges.
Limited Coverage of Middle Class: PMJAY primarily targets the bottom 40% of the population based on economic status, leaving the middle class without coverage.
Focus on Secondary and Tertiary Care: The program emphasizes secondary and tertiary healthcare, often neglecting primary care services. This approach limits comprehensive health coverage and fails to address preventive healthcare needs, which are crucial for achieving UHC.
Awareness and Accessibility Issues: There is a significant disparity in awareness and accessibility of PMJAY across states.
For example, awareness is notably higher in Tamil Nadu (80%) compared to Bihar (20%).
Way forward:
Targeted Funding for Flagship Programs: Need to allocate a more substantial increase in the budget for the National Health Mission (NHM) and Pradhan Mantri Jan Arogya Yojana (PMJAY) to the eradication of non-communicable diseases, tuberculosis elimination by 2025.
Strengthen Primary Healthcare: Govt. should ensure adequate funding for primary healthcare services, which form the foundation for preventive and community health initiatives.
Mains PYQ:
Q The public health system has limitations in providing universal health coverage. Do you think that the private sector can help in bridging the gap? What other viable alternatives do you suggest? (2015)
The Indian Council of Medical Research (ICMR) Regional Medical Research Centre for North East has developed the “world’s cheapest CRISPR Cas-based TB testing system”.
Back2Basics: CRISPR-Cas9 Technology
CRISPR-Cas9 stands for Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeats and CRISPR-associated protein 9.
It is a technology that allows geneticists and researchers to edit parts of the genome by altering sections of the DNA sequence.
Emmanuelle Charpentier and Jennifer Doudna’s work on CRISPR-Cas9 as a ‘molecular scissor’ earned them the 2020 Nobel Prize in chemistry.
The system consists of two key components:
Cas9: This is the enzyme that acts like a pair of molecular scissors. It is responsible for cutting the DNA strand at a specific location, allowing for the removal, addition, or alteration of DNA at that site.
Guide RNA (gRNA): This is a piece of RNA that is designed to find and bind to a specific sequence of DNA that matches its code. The gRNA guides the Cas9 enzyme to the exact spot in the genome where an edit is desired.
Mechanism:
The process begins with the design of a gRNA that matches the DNA sequence where an edit is needed.
Once inside the cell, the Cas9 enzyme and the gRNA form a complex that can identify and bind to the target DNA sequence.
The Cas9 then cuts the DNA at this location.
After the DNA is cut, the cell’s natural repair mechanisms can be harnessed to add or remove genetic material, or to make specific changes to the DNA.
Applications: Used for gene editing to correct genetic disorders, develop targeted cancer therapies, enhance diagnostics for infectious diseases, and create personalized medicine approaches.
About theNew TB Detection System
The system can detect TB bacteria using DNA from a patient’s saliva at a very low cost.
Specific DNA sequences unique to Mycobacterium tuberculosis (the bacteria causing TB) are identified.
It can identify the bacteria in preliminary stages and test over 1,500 samples simultaneously within approximately two hours.
The technology is simple enough to be used in primary health centres in villages.
TB Situation in India:
TB kills an estimated 480,000 Indiansannually, or over 1,400 patients every day.
India has more than amillion ‘missing’ TB cases each year, which remain undiagnosed or inadequately diagnosed and treated in the private sector.
National Goals for Elimination of TB:
Pradhan Mantri TB Mukt Bharat Abhiyan (2022): It is stipulated to meet the goal of ending the TB epidemic by 2025 from the country, five years ahead of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDG) for 2030.
Nikshay Poshan Yojana (2018): Launched in 2018, this scheme provides nutritional support to TB patients. Under this scheme, TB patients receive a direct benefit transfer (DBT) of Rs. 500 per month to purchase food.
PYQ:
[2019] What is Cas9 Protein that is often mentioned in news?
(a) A molecular scissors used in targeted gene editing
(b) A biosensor used in the accurate detection of pathogens in patients
(c) A gene that makes plants pest-resistant
(d) A herbicidal substance synthesized in genetically modified crops
[2014] Can overuse and free availability of antibiotics without Doctor’s prescription, be contributors to the emergence of drug-resistant diseases in India? What are the available mechanisms for monitoring and control? Critically discuss the various issues involved.
The Gandhi Sagar sanctuary in Madhya Pradesh is the preferred location for the next batch of cheetah’s relocation plan.
However, Banni in the Rann of Kutch, Gujarat is also being prepared to house some of them.
Cheetah Reintroduction in India:
In India, cheetahs disappeared in the early 1950s due to hunting and the loss of their habitat.
The ‘Action Plan for Reintroduction of Cheetah in India /Project Cheetah (2022)’ aims to bring cheetahs from African countries to various national parks.
It is spearheaded by the National Tiger Conservation Authority (NTCA).
Recently, cheetahs from Namibia were reintroduced in Kuno National Park, Madhya Pradesh.
Cheetah are listed as VULNERABLE by the IUCN; Schedule II of the Wild Life (Protection) Act, 1972.
Kuno NP and Gandhi Sagar has an ideal habitat parallel to Maasai Mara (a National Park) in Kenya, suitable for cheetahs.
About Gandhi Sagar Wildlife Sanctuary
It is located in western Madhya Pradesh and covers an area of 368.62 sq km.
It is a flat rocky plateau characterized by shallow topsoil and exposed sheetrock.
It is divided by the Chambal River, with the Gandhi Sagar dam and reservoir within its boundaries.
Flora and Fauna:
Flora: The sanctuary features a savannah ecosystem with open grasslands interspersed with dry deciduous trees. Riverine valleys within the sanctuary support evergreen vegetation.
Fauna: The sanctuary is home to a diverse range of wildlife, including species like leopards, sloth bears, striped hyenas, grey wolves, golden jackals, jungle cats, Indian foxes, and marsh crocodiles.
About Banni Grasslands:
The Banni Grassland is located in the Kutch district of Gujarat, covering around 3,847 square km.
The climate is arid and semi-arid, with extremely hot summers (temperatures above 45°C) and mild winters (12°C to 25°C), receiving 300-400 mm of annual rainfall mainly during the monsoon.
Flora: Grasses such as Dichanthium, Sporobolus, and Cenchrus species, with salt-tolerant plants, shrubs, and trees like Acacia and the invasive Prosopis juliflora.
Fauna: Indian wolf, hyena, chinkara, Great Indian Bustard, flamingos, and various raptors, reptiles, and invertebrates.
It is inhabited by pastoral communities like the Maldharis, who rely on livestock grazing (cattle, buffalo, and sheep) for their livelihood.
Agriculture is limited due to arid conditions, with some areas used for salt production.
PYQ:
[2024] Consider the following statements:
1. Lions do not have a particular breeding season.
2. Unlike most other big cats, cheetahs do not roar.
3. Unlike male lions, male leopards do not proclaim their territory by scent marking.
Which of the statements given above are correct?
(a) 1 and 2 only
(b) 2 and 3 only
(c) 1 and 3 only
(d) 1, 2 and 3
[2012] Consider the following: (2012)
Black-necked crane
Cheetah
Flying squirrel
Snow leopard
Which of the above are naturally found in India?
(a) 1, 2 and 3 only
(b) 1, 3 and 4 only
(c) 2 and 4 only
(d) 1, 2, 3 and 4
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Typhoon Gaemi
Why in the News?
After making landfall in the Philippines, Typhoon Gaemi is heading towards Taiwan.
What is a Typhoon?
A typhoon is a mature tropical cyclone that forms in the Northwest Pacific Ocean, primarily between 100°E and 180°E.
It is characterised by strong winds, and heavy rain, and can cause significant damage due to high wind speeds, storm surges, and flooding.
Factors causing its formation:
It needs sustained ocean temperatures of 26.5°C or higher.
High moisture content in the mid-troposphere.
Presence of the Coriolis force to initiate rotation.
Minimal vertical wind shear to allow for storm growth.
Atmospheric instability to promote rising motion and thunderstorm activity.
An initial low-pressure area or tropical wave to trigger development.
Formation Regions: Northwest Pacific Ocean in areas east of the Philippines, southeast of Japan, and near Taiwan; South China Sea and in Western North Pacific near the Mariana Islands and Guam.
Note: Typhoons do not form in the South Atlantic Ocean and the southeastern Pacific Ocean because of cooler sea surface temperatures and higher wind shear in those regions.
PYQ:
[2015] In the South Atlantic and South-Eastern Pacific regions in tropical latitudes, cyclone does not originate. What is the reason?
(a) Sea surface temperatures are low
(b) Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone seldom occurs
(c) Coriolis force is too weak
(d) Absence of land in those regions
Prelims Only | Polity | Mains Paper 2: Indian Constitution - historical underpinnings, evolution, features, amendments, significant provisions and basic structure
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Article 21, Article 19(1)(e), Right to Shelter
Why in the News?
The Supreme Court emphasised the need to balance railway infrastructure development in Haldwani, Uttarakhand, with the fundamental right to shelter nearly 50,000 people accused of illegally encroaching on railway land.
What was the Case?
The hearing was based on an application filed by the Railways seeking to modify a January 2023 Supreme Court order.
The order had stayed a Uttarakhand HC direction to evict the families within a week, even using paramilitary forces.
The application pointed out that the Ghaula River flood has disrupted railway operations in the region and that more land was urgently needed to lay new tracks.
What is the Right to Shelter?
The right to shelter is derived from the Right to Life under Article 21 of the Constitution of India, which guarantees the protection of life and personal liberty.
Article 19(1)(e) provides the Right to reside and settlein any part of the territory of India.
Judicial pronouncements related to it:
Olga Tellis v. Bombay Municipal Corporation(1985): The Supreme Court recognized the right to livelihood as a part of the right to life under Article 21.
Chameli Singh v. State of Uttar Pradesh(1996): The Supreme Court declared that the right to shelter is a fundamental right under Article 21. It includes adequate living space, safe and decent structures, clean surroundings, light, air, water, electricity, and sanitation.
Ahmedabad Municipal Corporation v. Nawab Khan Gulab Khan(1997): The Supreme Court directed the state to construct affordable houses for the poor, reiterating the state’s duty to provide shelter and make the right to life meaningful.
Various Legislations supporting the Right to Shelter:
The Scheduled Tribes and Other Traditional Forest Dwellers (Recognition of Forest Rights) Act, 2006
The Right to Fair Compensation and Transparency in Land Acquisition, Rehabilitation and Resettlement Act, 2013
The Slum Areas (Improvement and Clearance) Act, 1956
PYQ:
[2021] Consider the following statements :
‘Right to the City’ is an agreed human right and the UN-Habitat monitors the commitments made by each country in this regard.
‘Right to the City’ gives every occupant of the city the right to reclaim public spaces and public participation in the city.
‘Right to the City’ means that the State cannot deny any public service or facility to the unauthorized colonies in the city.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
