Historical and Archaeological Findings in News

UP’s Salkhan Fossil Park makes it to UNESCO tentative list

Prelims Only | Art and Culture | Mains Paper 1: Arts & Culture

Why in the News?

Salkhan Fossil Park, also known as Sonbhadra Fossils Park, has been recently added to UNESCO’s Tentative List for World Heritage Sites.

About Salkhan Fossil Park:

Location: It is located in Salkhan village, Sonbhadra district, Uttar Pradesh.
Fossil Significance: It is renowned for its stromatolite fossils, ancient layered structures formed by cyanobacteria through photosynthesis.
Age of Fossils: These fossils are estimated to be up to 1.4 billion years old, dating to the Mesoproterozoic era.
Scientific Value: Preserved in Bhander limestone of the Vindhyan Supergroup, the site is one of the world’s richest Proterozoic rock collections.
Significance:
- Evolutionary Insights: The fossils offer key evidence of early microbial life and events like the Great Oxidation Event, helping us understand Earth’s early biosphere.
- Ecological Context: It lies within the Kaimoor Wildlife Sanctuary, enhancing its ecological and conservation value.

Back2Basics: UNESCO’s Tentative List

Definition: It is a country’s inventory of sites proposed for future inclusion on the UNESCO World Heritage List.
Nomination Process: A site must be on the Tentative List for at least one year before formal nomination.
Evaluation Criteria: Sites are assessed for natural, cultural, or mixed heritage value, based on global significance.
India’s Status: As of June 2025, India has 63 sites on its Tentative List, spanning ecosystems, monuments, and landscapes.
Benefits of Inclusion: While not guaranteeing World Heritage status, inclusion raises awareness, improves funding, and strengthens conservation.

[UPSC 2024] Consider the following properties included in the World Heritage List released by UNESCO:

1. Shantiniketan 2. Rani-ki-Vav 3. Sacred Ensembles of the Hoysalas 4. Mahabodhi Temple Complex at Bodhgaya

How many of the above properties were included in 2023?

Options: (a) Only one (b) Only two* (c) Only three (d) All four

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Wildlife Conservation Efforts

Species in news: Asiatic Wild Dog (Dhole)

Prelims Only Species | Enviro & Biodiversity | Mains Paper 3: Conservation, Environmental Pollution & Degradation, Eia

Why in the News?

The elusive dhole (Cuon alpinus), also known as the Asiatic wild dog, has been rediscovered in Assam’s Kaziranga-Karbi Anglong Landscape (KKAL) after being thought locally extinct.

About Dhole:

Overview: The dhole (Cuon alpinus), also known as the Asiatic wild dog, is a carnivorous mammal from the Canidae family.
Habitat: Historically, dholes inhabited southern Russia, Central Asia, South Asia, and Southeast Asia but are now limited to South and Southeast Asia, including India, Nepal, Bhutan, Bangladesh, and China.
Clusters in India: In India, dholes are found mainly in the Western and Eastern Ghats, the Central Indian Landscape, and the Northeast.
Key States: According to a 2020 study, Karnataka, Maharashtra, and Madhya Pradesh lead in dhole conservation efforts.
Social Behaviour: Dholes live in packs of up to 30 but may also hunt solo or in pairs depending on prey availability.
Ecological Role: As predators, dholes help regulate prey populations and maintain ecosystem balance.
Conservation Status:
- IUCN Red List: Endangered
- CITES: Appendix II (not necessarily threatened with extinction but may become so if trade is not closely controlled).
- Wildlife Protection Act, 1972: Schedule II (considered important for conservation and are granted a high degree of protection).

Back2Basics: Kaziranga-Karbi Anglong Landscape (KKAL)

Geographic Spread: KKAL is located south of the Brahmaputra River in Assam, comprising Kaziranga National Park (KNP) and the Karbi Anglong Hills.
Ecological Importance: KNP is a UNESCO World Heritage Site and part of the Indo-Burma Biodiversity Hotspot, known for rich, unmodified ecosystems.
Wildlife Corridor: KKAL facilitates seasonal migration during Brahmaputra floods, supporting species movement and survival.
Flagship Species: The landscape hosts the world’s largest population of Indian one-horned rhinoceroses, as well as Bengal tigers, elephants, swamp deer, and wild buffalo.
B2B Corridor: KKAL forms a vital link in the proposed Bhutan-to-Burma (B2B) Connected Landscape, a 1,400 km biodiversity corridor across northeast India.

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Innovations in Biotechnology and Medical Sciences

[pib] Researchers validate Optical Properties of Teak Leaf Extracts

PIB Prelims Only | Science Tech | Mains Paper 3: Achievements Of Indians In S&T

Why in the News?

In a breakthrough, scientists at the Raman Research Institute (RRI) have found that teak leaf extract (Tectona grandis) could offer a natural, sustainable solution for laser protection.

About Optical Properties of Teak Leaf:

Natural Composition: Teak leaves (Tectona grandis) contain natural compounds that can interact with strong laser light.
Laser Blocking Ability: These compounds can block harmful laser rays while allowing normal light to pass, making them suitable for selective light filtering.
Nonlinear Optics: This unique behaviour is called a nonlinear optical property, where a material responds differently to high-intensity light.
Linear vs Nonlinear: In linear optics, the material’s response is directly proportional to the light’s intensity. In nonlinear optics, the response becomes non-proportional, especially under laser exposure.

Back2Basics: Teak as Timber in India

Teak (Tectona grandis) is a large deciduous hardwood tree native to India and Southeast Asia, mainly found in tropical dry and moist deciduous forests.
It is highly valued for its durable, strong, and water- and pest-resistant wood, making it the “King of Timbers”.
India manages 35% of the world’s planted teak forests, with major natural habitats in Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, and Kerala.
Teak is listed as Endangered on the IUCN Red List but is not under CITES; private plantations are crucial for meeting demand due to restrictions on commercial felling in government forests.
Green felling is prohibited in government forests under the Forest Conservation Act, 1980, and National Forest Policy, 1988, with timber supply to be met mainly from dead/diseased trees or private plantations.

Recent Breakthrough:

New Discovery: Scientists discovered that teak leaf extract can function as a natural laser shield.
Protection Potential: The extract can block high-intensity laser beams, offering protection to human eyes and sensitive optical devices.
First of Its Kind: This marks the first known instance of a natural material exhibiting such laser-blocking properties.

Significance for Humans:

Practical Applications: It can be used in laser safety goggles, optical sensors, and other light-sensitive technologies.
Safe Alternative: It offers a non-toxic, eco-friendly substitute to chemical-based laser protection materials.
Sustainability Impact: The use of plant-based materials supports cost reduction and promotes sustainable innovation in science and optics.

[UPSC 2015] In India, in which one of the following types of forests is teak a dominant tree species?

Options: (a) Tropical moist deciduous forest* (b) Tropical rain forest (c) Tropical thorn scrub forest (d) Temperate Forest with grasslands

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Electoral Reforms In India

Registered Unrecognized Political Parties

Prelims Only | Polity | Mains Paper 2: Representation Of People’s Act

Why in the News?

The Election Commission of India (ECI) has initiated the process to delist some Registered Unrecognized Political Parties (RUPPs) that have not contested a single election since 2019 and whose offices are untraceable.

About Registered Unrecognized Political Parties (RUPPs):

Definition: RUPPs are political parties that are registered with the Election Commission of India (ECI) but have not yet qualified as State or National Parties.
Electoral Status: These parties may be newly registered, may have contested elections but underperformed, or may have never contested at all.
Privileges:
- Eligibility for election symbols under specific conditions.
- Tax exemptions for donations under Section 13A of the Income Tax Act, 1961.
- The ability to participate in elections under the Election Symbols (Reservation and Allotment) Order, 1968.

How are Political Parties Registered?

Legal Basis: Registration is governed by Section 29A of the Representation of the People Act, 1951.
Requirements: Parties must submit an application with their constitution or memorandum to the ECI.
Declarations: The party must affirm adherence to the Constitution and commit to socialism, secularism, democracy, and national unity.
Benefits: Once registered, the party can contest elections, seek a common symbol, and receive legal financial support.

Criteria for Recognition as a Political Party:

For State Party Recognition: A party must:
- Win 6% of valid votes and 2 Assembly seats, or
- Win 3% of Assembly seats or at least 3 seats, or
- Win 1 Lok Sabha seat and 6% of valid votes in a general election from the state.
For National Party Recognition: A party must:
- Be recognized as a State Party in 4 states, or
- Win 2% of Lok Sabha seats (11 seats) from at least 3 states, or
- Poll 6% of valid votes in 4 states and win 4 Lok Sabha seats.
Advantages of Recognition: Recognized parties get reserved symbols, broadcast time, campaign benefits, and can appoint more star campaigners.

[UPSC 2001] Consider the following statements regarding the political parties in India:

1. The Representation of the People Act, 1951 provides for the registration of political parties.

2. Registration of political parties is carried out by the Election Commission.

3. A national level political party is one which is recognised in four or more States.

4. During the 1999 general elections, there were six National and 48 State level parties recognised by the Election Commission.

Options: (a) I, II and IV (b) I and III (c) II and IV (d) I, II, III and IV*

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Festivals, Dances, Theatre, Literature, Art in News

Puri Rath Yatra of Lord Jagannath

Prelims Only | Art and Culture | Mains Paper 1: Arts & Culture

Why in the News?

The annual Rath Yatra of Lord Jagannath at Puri, Odisha, has begun today.

About Rath Yatra:

About: Rath Yatra is an annual Hindu chariot festival celebrated in Puri, Odisha, in honour of Lord Jagannath, a form of Lord Vishnu.
Legend: The festival commemorates the journey of Lord Jagannath, along with his siblings Lord Balabhadra and Devi Subhadra, from the Jagannath Temple to the Gundicha Temple, their birthplace.
Occurrence: It is held on the second day of Ashadha Shukla Paksha (June–July), according to the Odia calendar.
Procession: The deities are placed in three massive wooden chariots and pulled by devotees along the Grand Road (Bada Danda) for about 3 km.
Significance: It is one of the four sacred pilgrimages (Char Dham) in Hinduism and allows non-Hindus to have darshan of the deities, unlike entry to the temple.

Key Events of the Rath Yatra:

Pahandi Bije: The ceremonial procession where the deities are carried from the temple to the chariots.
Chhera Panhara: A ritual where the Puri King sweeps the chariots with a golden broom, signifying humility and equality.
Three Chariot Pulling: Devotees pull the chariots—Nandighosa (Jagannath), Taladhwaja (Balabhadra), and Darpadalan (Subhadra)—toward Gundicha Temple.
Bahuda Yatra: The return journey to the Jagannath Temple, held on the 10th day of Ashadha Shukla Paksha.
Poda Pitha Offering: The deities are offered traditional cakes at Mausimaa Temple during their return.
Suna Besha: On return, the deities are adorned with gold ornaments on their chariots.
Niladri Bije: Final ritual where the deities re-enter the sanctum; marks the end of the Rath Yatra.
Rasagola Divas: Devotees offer Rasagola sweets to Goddess Lakshmi to appease her for not being included in the journey.

Back2Basics: Jagannath Puri Temple

The Jagannath Temple in Puri, Odisha, is a major Vaishnavite shrine dedicated to Lord Jagannath, a form of Sri Krishna.
The current structure was rebuilt starting in the 10th century by Anantavarman Chodaganga Deva of the Eastern Ganga dynasty.
The temple showcases the Oriya style of architecture, known for sculptural richness and graceful forms.
It spans over 400,000 sq. ft., enclosed by the 20-foot-high Meghanada Pacheri.
An inner wall, called Kurma Bedha, surrounds the main sanctum.
Main Structural Sections:

1. Deula/Vimana/Garba Griha: Sanctum sanctorum housing the deities on the Ratnavedi, built in Rekha Deula style.
2. Mukhashala: The frontal porch.
3. Nata Mandir/Jagamohan: The audience or dancing hall.
4. Bhoga Mandapa: The hall of offerings.

[UPSC 2009] Mahamastakabhisheka, a great religious event, is associated with and done for who of the following?

Options: (a) Bahubali * (b) Buddha (c) Mahavir (d) Nataraja

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Agricultural Sector and Marketing Reforms – eNAM, Model APMC Act, Eco Survey Reco, etc.

India to host Regional Wing of International Potato Center (CIP)

Prelims Only | Agriculture | Mains Paper 3: Major Crops & Cropping Patterns

Why in the News?

The Union Cabinet approved the establishment of the CIP-South Asia Regional Centre (CSARC) of the International Potato Centre (CIP) in Singna, Agra, Uttar Pradesh.

About the International Potato Centre (CIP):

Establishment: The CIP was founded in 1971 in Lima, Peru, to promote research on potato, sweet potato, and Andean root crops.
Global Reach: CIP operates in South America, Africa, and Asia, focusing on sustainable agriculture and nutritional security.
India Collaboration: CIP began its work in India in 1975 through an agreement with the Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR).
Germplasm Collection: It maintains the world’s largest germplasm bank for potato and sweet potato, making it central to crop breeding and biotech innovation.
Research Areas: CIP’s activities include crop improvement, pest and disease control, post-harvest technologies, and market linkages.
Partnership Model: The center works with local governments, agricultural institutions, and NGOs to develop climate-resilient, high-yielding varieties.

Functions of the New Regional Center (CSARC) in India:

Location and Purpose: The new CIP-CSARC is being set up in Singna, Agra, to serve India and South Asia.
Core Focus: It will work on developing climate-resilient, disease-free, and processing-grade varieties of potato and sweet potato.
Food Security Goals: The center aims to enhance food and nutrition security, farmer income, and rural employment through improved productivity and value-added agri-products.
Global Linkages: It will provide Indian researchers access to CIP’s global network, innovations, and genetic resources.
Post-Harvest Development: It will strengthen seed quality, post-harvest systems, and improve India’s export potential in potato-based crops.
National Importance: This will be the second major international agri-research institute in India, after IRRI-SARC in Varanasi.

Potato Cultivation in India:

About: Potato (Solanum tuberosum) is known as the “King of Vegetables” and is India’s fourth most important food crop after rice, wheat, and maize.
Origin: Introduced to India by Portuguese traders in the 17th century; It is a native crop of the Peruvian-Bolivian Andes.
Geographic Spread: Grown in 23 states, but 85% of production comes from the Indo-Gangetic plains in North India.
Global comparison: India is the second-largest potato producer globally after China, producing 51.3 million tonnes in 2020.
Top Producing States: India’s average potato yield is 25 tonnes/hectare, which is only half the estimated potential of 50+ tonnes/hectare due to poor seed quality.
- Uttar Pradesh: ~30% of total output
- West Bengal: ~23.5%
- Bihar: ~17%
- Other contributors: Punjab, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh
Climate Needs: Potato is a cool-season crop.
- Ideal growth temp: 24°C
- Ideal tuber formation temp: 20°C
Soil Requirements: Prefers well-drained, fertile soils with moisture retention.
Planting Seasons:
- Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand: Spring (Jan–Feb), Summer (May)
- Punjab, Haryana, UP, Bihar, Bengal: Main crop in October
- MP, Maharashtra, Karnataka: Both kharif and rabi seasons
Seed Management: Use disease-free, sprouted seeds (30–50g);
Popular varieties: Kufri Jyoti, Kufri Bahar, Kufri Pukhraj, and Kufri Chandramukhi.
Fertilization & Irrigation: Apply balanced nutrients, especially phosphorus and potassium; drip irrigation is recommended.
Harvesting: Ready in 90–120 days, harvested manually or mechanically.

[UPSC 2024] Consider the following plants:

1. Groundnut 2. Horse-gram 3. Soybean

How many of the above belong to the pea family?

Options: (a) only one (b) only two (c) All three* (d) None

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In news: International Olympic Committee (IOC)

IOCR Prelims Only | International Relations | Mains Paper 2: Important International Institutions
Why in the News?

Kirsty Coventry, aged 41, has become the first African and the first woman to head the International Olympic Committee (IOC).

Also in news:

The IOC has paused the selection process for future Olympic Games hosts, impacting India’s bid for the 2036 Olympics.

About the International Olympic Committee (IOC)
- Overview: It is a non-governmental international organisation established in 1894, and is headquartered in Lausanne, Switzerland.
- Functions: It sets the rules and framework for the Olympic Games, including deciding on host cities and event structures.
- Membership: IOC members must be proficient in French or English and be citizens or residents of countries with a National Olympic Committee (NOC).
- Jurisdiction: The IOC acts as the final authority on matters related to the Olympic Games and the Olympic movement.
- Indian and the IOC:
  - The Indian Olympic Association (IOA) has been recognized by the IOC since 1927.
  - It is responsible for selecting and sending Indian athletes to the Olympics and other major international competitions.
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Zoonotic Diseases: Medical Sciences Involved & Preventive Measures

Agricultural Fungicides causing C. Tropicalis Infections

Prelims Only | Science Tech | Mains Paper 3: Awareness in various sc and tech fields
Why in the News?

Researchers at Fudan University found that overuse of the fungicide tebuconazole is causing azole-resistant Candida tropicalis to emerge — a deadly fungus with a 55–60% mortality rate.

About Candida tropicalis:
- Overview: Candida tropicalis is a fungal pathogen prevalent in tropical and subtropical regions, including India.
- Type: It is a yeast species that causes invasive candidiasis, affecting the bloodstream and internal organs.
- High-Risk Groups: The fungus is opportunistic, primarily infecting immunocompromised individuals such as cancer patients and those in ICUs.
- Mortality Rate: The infection has a high mortality rate, estimated at 55–60% when it becomes systemic.
- Drug Treatment: Standard treatments include azole-class antifungals such as fluconazole and voriconazole (widely used during COVID-19 induced Black Fungus).
- Adaptability: The pathogen shows strong genomic plasticity, allowing it to survive hostile environments and develop drug resistance.
Reasons for Spread and Resistance:
- Agricultural Influence: Studies show that azole fungicides like tebuconazole, used in farming, contribute to azole-resistant C. tropicalis
- Environmental Exposure: These fungicides accumulate in soil and water, promoting the evolution of resistant strains.
- Genetic Adaptations: Resistant strains develop aneuploidy (extra chromosomes), aiding resistance but reducing growth in drug-free environments.
- Efflux Pumps: Some strains duplicate genes like TAC1, boosting drug-efflux pumps (e.g., ABC transporters) to eject antifungals from the cell.
- Increased Virulence: Resistant strains have proven more virulent in animal studies, posing greater public health risks.
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Pharma Sector – Drug Pricing, NPPA, FDC, Generics, etc.

Substandard Cancer Drugs: A Global Public Health Alarm

Prelims Only | Science Tech | Mains Paper 3: Awareness in various sc and tech fields

Why in the News?

A global investigation has revealed that vital chemotherapy drugs used in over 100 countries have failed quality tests, posing life-threatening risks to cancer patients.

Various Drugs Used for Cancer Treatment:

Cisplatin is a platinum-based drug discovered in the 1960s. It binds to DNA in cancer cells and is widely used to treat testicular, ovarian, bladder, and lung cancers. It is known to cause kidney damage, hearing loss, and immune suppression.
Oxaliplatin is another platinum compound mainly used to treat advanced colorectal cancer. It works similarly to cisplatin but may also cause nerve-related side effects.
Cyclophosphamide is used for treating breast cancer, leukaemia, sarcoma, and lymphoma. It damages cancer cell DNA and lowers white blood cell counts, weakening the immune system. It can also cause bladder inflammation.
Doxorubicin, known as the “Red Devil”, is derived from soil bacteria and used against breast cancer, leukaemia, and sarcomas. It disrupts DNA replication but has serious side effects, including heart damage and hair loss.
Methotrexate blocks enzymes involved in DNA synthesis and is used for leukaemia, lymphoma, and various tumors. It is often followed by leucovorin, which helps protect normal cells from damage.
Leucovorin is not a chemotherapy drug but a supportive agent used with methotrexate to reduce toxicity. It is a form of vitamin B9 introduced in the 1950s.

Recent Quality Test Failure

Investigation: A 2024 investigation revealed that chemotherapy drugs sold in over 100 countries failed basic quality standards.
Failure of Generics: The drugs tested were generics. Also, 189 unexpired samples were tested; 20% failed.
Indian Pharma Under Radar: 17 manufacturers were flagged, with 16 based in India. Drugs failed for containing either too little (under 88%) or too much (over 112%) active ingredient.

[UPSC 2005] It begins as a single cell and grows into a merciless disease that claims millions of lives year after year. But scientists are steadily unlocking its mysteries, and the fight against it may now have reached a dramatic turning point. New discoveries promise better therapies and hope in the war against …” The disease referred to in the above quotation is:

Options: (a) Cancer (b) AIDS (c) Tuberculosis (d) Alzheimer’s disease

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International Space Agencies – Missions and Discoveries

What is Axiom-4 Mission?

Prelims Only | Science Tech | Mains Paper 3: Achievements Of Indians In S&T

Note4Students

From UPSC perspective, the following things are important:

Prelims level: Axiom-4 Mission

Why in the News?

The launch of Axiom-4 (Ax-4), a private mission to the International Space Station (ISS), has finally lifted-off after several postponements due to weather conditions.

About Axiom-4 Mission:

Axiom Mission 4 (Ax-4) is a private spaceflight organized by Axiom Space.
It aims to transport a crew to the International Space Station (ISS) for a 14-day mission.
This will be Axiom Space’s 4th mission to the ISS, following their previous missions (Ax-1, Ax-2, and Ax-3).
The mission will launch from the Kennedy Space Center in Florida using SpaceX’s Falcon 9 rocket.
The spacecraft for this mission is a SpaceX Crew Dragon, known for its advanced technology and safety features.
This mission is organised in collaboration with NASA, highlighting a strong partnership between private space companies and government space agencies to further space exploration and research.
Crew:
1. Peggy Whitson: A veteran astronaut with extensive experience, having completed multiple missions to the ISS.
2. Sławosz Uznanski: A Polish astronaut joining the mission, marking a significant milestone for Poland in space exploration.
3. Tibor Kapu: A Hungarian astronaut, adding to the diversity of the mission crew.
4. Group Captain Shubhanshu Shukla: An Indian astronaut, making headlines as part of this international crew.

Significance of Ax-4 Mission for India

The mission is a collaborative effort resulting from an agreement between ISRO and NASA.
It provides ISRO with an early opportunity to test experiments in space, originally planned for Gaganyaan.
Key Indian Experiments on Axiom-4:
- Microgravity’s impact on muscle dysfunction.
- Use of computer screens in zero gravity and their effects on human cognition and vision.
- Growth of six varieties of crop seeds in space conditions.
- Tardigrade survival study—these microscopic creatures can endure extreme environments and may provide insight into life support systems in space.

Back2Basics: International Space Station (ISS)

The ISS, orbiting 430 kilometres above Earth, completes 16 orbits daily, witnessing 16 sunrises and sunsets.
It orbits Earth every 90 minutes at 8 km per second.
Spanning 109 meters, it’s almost as long as an American football field.
It includes 6 sleeping areas, 2 bathrooms, a gym, and a panoramic view bay window.
Its solar array wingspan is 109 meters, and the station houses about 13 km of electrical wiring.
Its journey began on November 20, 1998, with Russia’s Zarya Control Module.
The US added the Unity Node 1 module on December 4, 1998, marking the start of a functional space lab.
It evolved into its current form after 42 assembly flights.

PYQ:

[2019] What is India’s plan to have its own space station and how will it benefit our space programme?

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Type: Prelims Only

Why in the News?

About Salkhan Fossil Park:

Back2Basics: UNESCO’s Tentative List

Why in the News?

About Dhole:

Back2Basics: Kaziranga-Karbi Anglong Landscape (KKAL)

Why in the News?

About Optical Properties of Teak Leaf:

Back2Basics: Teak as Timber in India

Recent Breakthrough:

Significance for Humans:

Why in the News?

About Registered Unrecognized Political Parties (RUPPs):

How are Political Parties Registered?

Criteria for Recognition as a Political Party:

Why in the News?

About Rath Yatra:

Key Events of the Rath Yatra:

Back2Basics: Jagannath Puri Temple

Why in the News?

About the International Potato Centre (CIP):

Functions of the New Regional Center (CSARC) in India:

Potato Cultivation in India:

Why in the News?

Also in news:

About the International Olympic Committee (IOC)

Why in the News?

About Candida tropicalis:

Reasons for Spread and Resistance:

Why in the News?

Various Drugs Used for Cancer Treatment:

Recent Quality Test Failure

Why in the News?

About Axiom-4 Mission:

Significance of Ax-4 Mission for India

Back2Basics: International Space Station (ISS)

PYQ:

**About Candida tropicalis:**