From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Udham Singh
Why in the News?
On July 31, 1940, Indian revolutionary leader Udham Singh was executed at the Pentonville prison in London for killing Michael O’Dwyer, the former lieutenant governor of Punjab.
Singh was born in Sunam in Punjab’s Sangrur district in 1899.
Political Activism
Became associated with the Ghadar Party while in the US, which was founded by Sohan Singh Bhakna in 1913 and headquartered in California.
Purpose and Actions
In 1934, Singh travelled to London to assassinate Michael O’Dwyer, the former Lieutenant Governor of Punjab during the 1919 Jallianwala Bagh massacre.
Reason for Targeting O’Dwyer
O’Dwyer had ordered Brigadier Reginald Dyer to Amritsar before the massacre, fearing a second Indian mutiny due to Hindu-Muslim unity and demonstrations.
Assassination of O’Dwyer
On March 13, 1940, Singh shot O’Dwyer at a meeting in Caxton Hall, London.
Arrest and Execution
Arrested immediately, held in Brixton prison, sentenced to death, and hanged on July 31, 1940, at Pentonville Prison.
Legacy and Recognition
Regarded as a hero for avenging the Jallianwala Bagh massacre.
Gandhi termed it an “act of insanity”.
He symbolized Hindu-Sikh-Muslim unity by adopting the name ‘RamMohamed Singh Azad’ during his trial.
Posthumous Honors
His remains were returned to India in 1974 and cremated in his village in Sunam.
His statue was installed at Jallianwala Bagh in 2018;
Udham Singh Nagar district in Uttarakhand is named after him.
PYQ:
[2014] The Ghadr (Ghadar) was a:
(a) Revolutionary association of Indians with headquarters at San Francisco.
(b) Nationalist organization operating from Singapore
(c) Militant organization with headquarters at Berlin
(d) Communist movement for India’s freedom with head-quarters at Tashkent
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Endogenous Retroviruses and their significance in human evolution
Why in the News?
Research suggests that around 8% of the human genome is composed of Endogenous Retroviruses (ERVs) often referred to as ‘zombie’ regions.
Retroviruses and Human Genome Integration
Most viruses can’t affect the human genome, but retroviruses are an exception.
Retroviruses can integrate and reshape the genomes of their hosts.
They have an RNA genome and can reverse-transcribe it to DNA, inserting it into the host’s genome.
This process is facilitated by the enzyme reverse transcriptase.
Discovered by Howard Temin and David Baltimore in 1971, this enzyme converts the virus’s RNA into a corresponding DNA sequence.
Historical Discoveries:
Viral causes of cancer were known even before the mechanism was understood.
In 1908, Oluf Bang and Vilhelm Ellermann discovered the viral cause of chicken leukosis.
In 1957, Ludwik Gross isolated a leukaemia-causing virus in mice.
What are Endogenous Retroviruses (ERVs)?
ERVs are remnants of ancient viral infections that have integrated into the genome of the host species.
When these retroviruses infect germ cells (sperm or egg cells), their genetic material can be passed down to the next generation, becoming a permanent part of the host’s DNA.
Zombie Regions:
They refer to inactive viral sequences within the genomethat no longer produce functional viruses but remain as embedded genetic fossils.
These regions are a result of retrovirus integration that has lost its ability to replicate and produce proteins, yet they persist in the host’s DNA.
Evolutionary Significance of ERVs:
In the life cycle of a retrovirus, reverse-transcribed DNA is integrated into the host’s DNA with the help of integrase.
The viral DNA, called a provirus, hijacks human cells, turning them into virus-making factories.
Over tens of thousands of years, many retroviruses have left genomic elementsin human genome, contributing to evolutionary processes.
Example:
Syncytins are genes thought to have descended from ERVs and are crucial for placental development. These genes originally came from viruses and were acquired during mammalian evolution.
Their Contribution to Human Biology
ERVs are highly expressed in the placenta and may influence conditions like preeclampsia.
Researchers found that a particular RNA derived from an ERV is dysregulated in early-onset preeclampsia, suggesting it could be used as a biomarker for the condition.
ERVs play a role in cell-type differentiationduringembryo development.
A protein called MERVL-gag is derived from an ERV. This transition is crucial for producing pluripotent stem cells capable of forming different cell types.
Researchers also found that a human ERV element LTR10affects tumour formation in colorectal cancer.
PYQ:
[2021] Consider the following statements :
1. Adenoviruses have single-stranded DNA genomes whereas retroviruses have double-stranded DNA genomes.
2. Common cold is sometime caused by an adenovirus whereas AIDS is caused by a retrovirus.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Types of derivatives
Mains level: Measures taken by SEBI related to derivatives
Why in the news?
SEBI has proposed a series of measures tocurb speculative trading in the index derivatives segment due to concerns over the exponential increase in trading volumes in futures and options, especially among individual investors.
What are the different types of derivatives?
Note: Derivatives are financial contracts deriving their value from an underlying asset such as stocks, commodities, or currencies.
Futures:
Futures are standardized contracts obligating the buyer to purchase an underlying asset (such as stocks, commodities, or currencies) at a predetermined price on a specified future date. They are traded on exchanges, with daily settlements based on market price changes.
Futures contracts have margin requirements and are marked to market daily, ensuring liquidity and reducing credit risk.
Options:
Options give the buyer the right, but not the obligation, to buy (call option) or sell (put option) an underlying asset at a predetermined price within a specified time frame. Unlike futures, options are not obligatory; the buyer can choose whether to exercise the option.
Options can be traded on exchanges or over-the-counter (OTC) and require the payment of a premium by the buyer.
Forwards:
Forward contracts are similar to futures but are privately negotiated agreements between two parties to buy or sell an asset at a future date and price. They are customizable and traded over the counter, which allows for flexibility but introduces counterparty risk.
Settlement occurs at the maturity date, and forward contracts do not have standardization like futures.
Swaps:
Swaps involve the exchange of cash flows or financial instruments between two parties, often based on interest rates or currencies. Common types include interest rate swaps and currency swaps, which allow participants to manage exposure to interest rate fluctuations or gain access to different currencies.
Swaps are typically traded over the counter and can be tailored to meet the specific needs of the parties involved.
What measures have the SEBI proposed?
Increase in minimum contract size for index derivatives from Rs 5-10 lakh to Rs 15-20 lakh, which can be further increased to Rs 20-30 lakh after six months.
Upfront collection of option premiums by brokers from clients.
Intraday monitoring of position limits for index derivative contracts by Market Infrastructure Institutions (MIIs).
Providing only one weekly options contract on a single benchmark index of an exchange.
Removal of calendar spread benefits on the expiry day for positions involving any of the contracts expiring on the same day.
Rationalisation of options strikes, with a uniform interval up to a fixed coverage of 4% near the prevailing index price and an increased interval as the strikes move away from the prevailing price.
Increasing margins on the expiry day and the previous day to address the issue of high implicit leverage in options contracts near expiry.
Why have these measures been proposed?
The measures aim to enhance investor protection and promote market stability in the derivative markets, amidst concerns about an exponential rise in the volume of trade in the futures and options (F&O) segment, particularly by individual investors.
In the Union Budget 2024-25, the Securities Transaction Tax (STT) on F&O of securities was doubled to 0.02% and 0.1%, respectively, effective October 1, 2024.
Data shows that in FY 2023-24, 92.50 lakh unique individuals and proprietorship firms traded in the NSE index derivatives segment and cumulatively incurred a trading loss of Rs 51,689 crore, with only 14.22 lakh investors (about 15%) making a net profit.
Way forward:
Enhancing Investor Education and Awareness: To mitigate the risks associated with speculative trading in index derivatives, it is essential to implement comprehensive investor education programs.
Strengthening Regulatory Oversight and Compliance: SEBI should enhance its regulatory framework by implementing robust monitoring systems that ensure compliance with the proposed measures.
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: National Pharmaceutical Pricing Authority (NPPA)
Why in the News?
The NPPA monitors the prices of scheduled as well as non-scheduled medicines under Drugs (Prices Control) Order, 2013 (DPCO, 2013), informed the Union Minister of State for Chemicals and Fertilizers.
What are Scheduled and Non-Scheduled Formulations?
[A] Scheduled Formulations:
Defined as formulations listed in Schedule-I of the Drugs (Prices Control) Order, 2013 (DPCO, 2013).
Ceiling prices of these formulations are revised annually based on the Wholesale Price Index (WPI) for the preceding calendar year.
National Pharmaceutical Pricing Authority (NPPA) is responsible for revising and notifying these prices.
[B] Non-Scheduled Formulations:
Defined as formulations not included in Schedule-I of the DPCO, 2013.
Prices of these formulations can be increased by manufacturers, but the Maximum Retail Price (MRP) cannot be increased by more than 10% during the preceding 12 months.
NPPA also monitors the prices of non-scheduled formulations to ensure compliance.
Action is taken against companies selling formulations at prices higher than permissible, and overcharged amounts are recovered.
About National Pharmaceutical Pricing Authority (NPPA)
NPPA was set up as an independent regulator on August 29, 1997, for drug pricing and ensuring affordable access to medicines.
It is an attached office of the Department of Pharmaceuticals (DoP), Ministry of Chemicals & Fertilizers.
NPPA is not a Statutory or Constitutional Body.
It is responsible for implementing and enforcing the provisions of the DPCO.
Functions of NPPA:
Fixation and revision of prices of ‘Scheduled’ drugs under Drug (Price Control) Orders.
Scheduled drugs (15% of the pharma market) are allowed an increase based on WPI.
Non-scheduled drugs (85% of the pharma market) are allowed an automatic 10% increase annually.
Monitoring and enforcement of drug prices.
Ensuring availability and accessibility of all medicines and medical devices, including non-scheduled drugs.
Undertaking or sponsoringstudies on drug pricing.
Collecting and maintaining data on production, exports, imports, market share, and profitability of pharmaceutical companies.
Advising the Central Government on changes or revisions in drug policy.
Back2Basics:Drugs (Prices Control) Order (DPCO)
The DPCO is an order issued by the Government of India under Sec. 3 of Essential Commodities Act, 1955 to regulate the prices of drugs.
The Order provides the list of price controlled drugs, procedures for fixation of prices of drugs, method of implementation of prices fixed by Govt., penalties for contravention of provisions etc.
Under the provisions of DPCO 2013, only the prices of drugs that figure in the National List of Essential Medicines (NLEM) are monitored and controlled by the regulator, the National Pharmaceutical Pricing Authority.
Essential medicines are those that satisfy the priority healthcare needs of the majority of the population.
PYQ:
[2019] How is the Government of India protecting traditional knowledge of medicine from patenting by pharmaceutical companies?
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Mekedatu Project
Why in the News?
Karnataka CM has offered to discuss with Tamil Nadu, the implementation of Mekedatu Project across River Cauvery.
About Mekedatu Project
Mekedatu is a location along Kaveri in the border of Chamarajanagar and Ramanagara Districts in Karnataka.
Karnataka intends to build a reservoir across River Cauvery near Mekedatu.
The dam is proposed to have a capacity of 48 TMCfeet (thousand million cubic) and is estimated to cost Rs 6,000 crore.
It was first proposed in 2003 with an intention:
To use the water for a hydro power station (400 MW) and
Supply drinking water to Bengaluru city.
At Mekedatu, the Kaveri runs through a deep, narrow ravineof hard granite rock.
Tamil Nadu’s concerns over the Project
Tamil Nadu has all along strongly opposed the project and approached the Supreme Court as well.
Its argument is that any dam proposal by upper riparian states in the Cauvery basin would deprive the state’s delta farmers of their rightful share of water as per the top court verdict.
Tamil Nadu contends that the proposed dam violates the final award of the Cauvery Water Disputes Tribunal, which determined the water-sharing arrangements between the two states.
About Cauvery River
The Cauvery River, also spelled as ‘Kaveri’ and known as ‘Ponni’in Tamil, originates from Talakaveri in the Brahmagirirange located in Karnataka’s Kodagu district.
It spans approximately 800 km, traversing through the states of Karnataka and Tamil Nadu, until it eventually discharges in theBay of Bengal.
The river’s catchment area covers regions in Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Karnataka, and the Union Territory of Pondicherry.
Key tributaries that join the Cauvery include Harangi, Hemavati, Kabini, Suvarnavathi, and Bhavani.
Cauvery remains perennial due to its dual reliance on both advancing and retreating monsoons for rainfall.
Justifications and proposals by Karnataka
Ensuring adequate flow to TN: Karnataka argues that the construction of the Mekedatu dam will not hinder the stipulated quantum of water release to Tamil Nadu nor be utilized for irrigation purposes.
Allocation of funds and willingness to negotiate: The Karnataka government has earmarked Rs 1,000 crore for the project, indicating its commitment. It also expresses willingness to engage in discussions and negotiations with Tamil Nadu to address concerns and find a resolution.
Clearance of feasibility study: The Central Water Commission cleared a feasibility study for the Mekedatu project in 2018, providing additional support for Karnataka’s justifications and indicating the project’s viability.
PYQ:
[2016] Recently, linking of which of the following rivers was undertaken?
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: 46th World Heritage Committee, UNESCO
Why in the News?
The 46th Session of the World Heritage Committee has concluded successfully.
It was the first timeIndia hosted this international assembly.
Capacity-building initiatives proposed by India
Indiapledged $1 million to the UNESCO World Heritage Centre to support capacity-building initiatives and conservation projects in developing countries.
India proposed to develop and implement training programsfor heritage professionals from around the world.
India proposed exchange programs for heritage professionals and researchers.
Leading Indian heritage institutions, such as the Archaeological Survey of India and the Indian National Trust for Art and Cultural Heritage (INTACH), will play a key role in implementing the initiatives.
About the World Heritage Young Professional Forum
The World Heritage Young Professionals Forum is an initiative by UNESCO to engage young professionals in the field of heritage conservation.
The first World Heritage Young Professionals Forum was organized in 1995.
The primary aim is to engage young professionals in heritage conservation and management through capacity building, networking, and awareness-raising.
Back2Basics: UNESCO World Heritage Sites
Description
UNESCO World Heritage Sites
Landmarks or areas selected by UNESCO for their cultural, historical, scientific, or other significant value, legally protected by international treaties.
Importance
World Heritage Sites represent collective and preservative interests of humanity, signifying remarkable accomplishments and intellectual history.
Selection Criteria
Sites must be already-classified landmarks, unique and significant culturally or physically, such as ancient ruins, historical structures, cities, monuments, etc.
Conservation
World Heritage Sites require practical conservation to protect them from risks like trespassing, uncontrolled access, or administrative negligence.
World Heritage Committee
Selects and monitors World Heritage Sites, manages the World Heritage Fund, and provides financial assistance. Composed of 21 states parties elected for a four-year term.
Membership
India is NOT a permanent member of the World Heritage Committee.
It has been selected for a term from 2021 to 2025.
PYQ:
[2014] Consider the following international agreements:
The International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture
The United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification
The World Heritage Convention
Which of the above has / have a bearing on the biodiversity?
The invasion violated the Games’ Olympic Truce, which says nations should not attack each other from 1 week before the Olympics to 1 week after the Paralympics.
Belarus was implicated for allegedly allowing Russia to use its territory for military purposes.
In October 2023, the Russian Olympic Committee was suspended after declaring authority over Ukrainian sports organizations in certain regions.
Political Neutrality and Violations
The IOC cited Russia’s International Friendship Association (IFA) as a political body violating the IOC charter.
The charter states that sports organizations within the Olympic Movement shouldapply political neutrality.
Russia’s announcement of the Friendship Games in 2024 led to accusations of politicizing sports.
Critics note the concept of “political neutrality” is not based on objective criteria and is challenging to interpret consistently.
What is Individual Neutral Athletes (AINs)?
The IOC allows athletes from these countries to participate as individual-neutral athletes (AINs).
Athletes must not represent their country or any associated organization.
They cannot actively support the Russian invasion of Ukraine.
AINs are athletes with Russian or Belarusian passports qualified through existing qualification systems.
They will compete under a neutral flagand uniform, with a neutral song played if they win medals.
The audience cannot wave their flags.
Do you know?
The Indian Olympic Association was suspended in 2014, leading to three athletes competing under the Olympic flag.
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Oropouche Fever
Why in the News?
Brazil has reported the first deaths from Oropouche fever.
About Oropouche Fever
Oropouche fever is a viral disease caused by the Oropouche virus.
The virus is transmitted primarily through the bites of infected midges, specifically the Culicoides paraensis, and mosquitos.
The World Health Organization (WHO) reported the first-ever outbreak in Cuba on June 11, 2024.
Symptoms:
Symptoms are similar to those of dengue fever and typically begin between four to eight days after the bite.
Common symptoms include:
Sudden onset of fever
Headaches
Body aches
Chills
Joint stiffness
Nausea and vomiting (occasionally)
Most patients recover within seven days, and severe cases are rare.
There is no evidence of human-to-human transmission.
Treatment and Prevention
There is no specific vaccine or antiviral treatment for Oropouche fever.
Treatment is usually symptomatic, focusing on relieving fever and pain.
Preventative measures include avoiding bites from midgesand mosquitos by using repellents, wearing protective clothing, and using insect nets.
PYQ:
[2010] Widespread resistance of malarial parasites to drugs like chloroquine has prompted attempts to develop a malarial vaccine to combat malaria. Why is it difficult to develop an effective malaria vaccine?
(a) Malaria is caused by several species of Plasmodium
(b) Man does not develop immunity to malaria during natural infection
(c) Vaccines can be developed only against bacteria
(d) Man is only an intermediate host and not the definitive host
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: FnCas9 Enzyme
Why in the News?
Scientists from the “CSIR-Institute of Genomics and Integrative Biology” have developed an enhanced genome-editing system using FnCas9that can modify DNA more precisely and more efficiently than existing CRISPR-based technologies.
CRISPR occurs naturally in some bacteria, as a part of their immune system that limits infections by recognizing and destroying viral DNA.
What is FnCas9?
FnCas9 is a variant of the Cas9 enzyme derived from the bacterium Francisella novicida.
It is used in genome editing technologies, particularly within the CRISPR (Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeats) system, to make precise modifications to DNA sequences.
What is CRISPR-Cas9 System?
CRISPR-Cas9 is a revolutionary genome-editing tool adapted from a natural bacterial defense mechanism against viruses.
Bacteria use CRISPR sequences to store segments of viral DNA, which helps them recognize and combat viruses in subsequent infections.
The most commonly usedCas9 enzyme is derived from Streptococcus pyogenes.
Mechanism:
Guide RNA (gRNA): A specifically designed RNA molecule that matches the target DNA sequence.
Cas9 Enzyme: Acts as molecular scissors that cut DNA at a location specified by the gRNA.
Proto-spacer Adjacent Motif (PAM): A short DNA sequence adjacent to the target site that Cas9 must recognize and bind to in order to cut the DNA.
DNA Repair: Once the DNA is cut, the cell’s natural repair mechanisms either repair the break or introduce desired genetic changes.
Applications:
Agriculture: Enhancing crop yield and nutritional value.
Healthcare: Diagnosing and treating genetic disorders.
Research: Studying gene functions and interactions.
Challenges with Traditional Cas9: SpCas9 can sometimes cut DNA at unintended sites, leading to potential unintended genetic modifications.
How FnCas9 overpowers traditional Cas9 (SpCas9)?
FnCas9 is known for its higher specificityin targeting DNA sequences compared to SpCas9, resulting in fewer off-target effects.
More accurate targeting reduces unintended genetic modifications.
It ensures more reliable and safer genome editing.
Achievements by Indian Scientists
Scientists at the CSIR-IGIB in New Delhi have modified FnCas9 to enhance its efficiency without compromising specificity.
Key Modifications include:
Amino Acid Tinkering: Researchers modified amino acids in FnCas9 that interact with the PAM sequence to increase binding affinity.
Improved Binding: Enhanced binding affinity allows FnCas9 to sit more securely on the DNA, improving gene-editing effectiveness.
Flexibility: The enhanced FnCas9 can access and edit hard-to-reach regions of the genome.
Experimental Results:
Enhanced FnCas9 cuts target DNA at a higher rate than the unmodified version.
FnCas9 improved ability to detect single-nucleotide changes in the genome, broadening its diagnostic and therapeutic applications.
PYQ:
[2019] What is Cas9 protein that is often mentioned in news?
(a) A molecular scissors used in targeted gene editing
(b) A biosensor used in the accurate detection of pathogens in patients
(c) A gene that makes plants pest-resistant
(d) A herbicidal substance synthesized in genetically modified crops
[2016] In the context of the developments in Bioinformatics, the term ‘transcriptome’, sometimes seen in the news, refers to:
(a) a range of enzymes used in genome editing
(b) the full range of mRNA molecules expressed by an organism
(c) the description of the mechanism of gene expression
(d) a mechanism of genetic mutations taking place in cells
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: MQ-9B HALE UAV
Why in the News?
The Defence Acquisition Council (DAC) has reviewed and approved amendments to the deal for 31 MQ-9B High Altitude Long Endurance (HALE) Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs) from General Atomics of the US.
The DAC also approved a proposal for the scheduled refit of aircraft carrier INS Vikramaditya later this year.
About MQ-9B HALE UAV
The MQ-9B drone is a version of the MQ-9 “Reaper” and has two models: Sky Guardian and Sea Guardian.
It is built by the General Atomics.
This drone can fly over 40,000 feet high, making it useful for watching the Himalayan border areas.
It can stay in the air for up to 40 hours, perfect for long surveillance missions.
The MQ-9B has advanced features like automatic take-off and landing, a system to avoid other objects, secure GPS, and encrypted communications.
It can offer 80% of a manned aircraft’s capabilities at 20% of the cost per hour.
Deployment:
The MQ-9B drones are planned to be deployed at four places, including INS Rajaji near Chennai and Porbandar in Gujarat, by the Indian Navy.
The other two services will keep them jointly at two bases in Sarsawa and Gorakhpur in Uttar Pradesh at Air Force bases due to long runway requirements.
Specifications of the Procurement:
India is looking to procure 31 MQ-9B UAVs, including 15 Sea Guardians for the Indian Navy and 16 Sky Guardians (eight each for the Indian Army and Air Force).
The Indian Navy has leased two MQ-9As with the maiden flight taking place on November 21, 2020.
The estimated cost is $3.99 billion.
As part of the deal, General Atomics will establish a Global Maintenance, Repair, and Overhaul (MRO) facility in India, contributing to offset obligations.
Significance of the deal
The SeaGuardian model can help the Navy patrol large areas more economically than manned aircraft.
For the Army and Air Force, these drones will help monitor movements along the borders, especially with China.
Back2Basics: Defence Acquisition Council (DAC)
Details
Constitution
Established under the Defence Ministry for guiding defence procurement planning.
Role
Highest decision-making body in the Defence Ministry for new policies and capital acquisitions for the Army, Navy, Air Force, and Indian Coast Guard.
Formation
Created in 2001 following recommendations on reforming the National Security System after the Kargil War.
Chairman
Minister of Defence.
Members
Chief of Defence Staff (CDS), Minister of State for Defence, Three Service Chiefs (Army, Navy, Air Force), Chief of Integrated Staff Committees, Defence Secretary, Secretary Defence Research & Development.
Functions
In-principle approval of the 15 Year Long-Term Integrated Perspective Plan for Defence Forces.
Accord of Acceptance of Necessity for acquisition proposals.
Categorize acquisition proposals into ‘Buy’, ‘Buy & Make’, and ‘Make’.
Decisions on offset provisions for acquisitions above Rs. 300 crores.
Decisions regarding the transfer of technology under the ‘Buy & Make’ category.
PYQ:
[2018] What is “Terminal High Altitude Area Defense (THAAD)”, sometimes seen in the news?
(a) An Israeli radar system
(b) India’s indigenous anti-missile programme
(c) An American anti-missile system
(d) A defence collaboration between Japan and South Korea
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Agarwood
Why in the News?
India successfully prevented the inclusion of Aquilaria malaccensis (agarwood) in the Review of Significant Trade (RST) of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES).
CITES notified a new export quota for Aquilaria malaccensis from India, effective April 2024.
What is Agarwood?
Agarwood (the Wood of Gods) also known as “Oud,” is a highly valuable and aromatic resinous wood produced by the Aquilaria tree.
The resin forms in the heartwood of the tree when it becomes infected with a particular type of mold (Phialophora parasitica).
This infection causes the tree to produce a dark, fragrant resin, which is highly sought after for its distinctive aroma.
This contains essential oils with compounds like sesquiterpenes, chromones, and phenylethyl chromone derivatives.
It thrives in tropical forests, at altitudes up to 1000 meters, often found in areas with high humidity and rainfall.
Conservation Status:
IUCN Status: Listed as Critically Endangered.
CITES: Listed in Appendix II in 1995 based on India’s proposal at CoP9 in 1994.
Uses of Agarwood
It is traditionally used as incense.
Extracts (agarwood oil) are used in perfumes, the aroma industry, medicine, air fresheners, and purifiers.
Essential oil has anti-inflammatory, anti-rheumatic, analgesic, and anti-oxidant properties.
Agarwood cultivation is prevalent in parts of India, especially in the Northeast.
This development will benefit lakhs of farmers in districts of Assam, Manipur, Nagaland, and Tripura.
What is the issue over the inclusion of ‘Agarwood’ (Aquilaria malaccensis) in the RST of the CITES list?
Aquilaria malaccensis was listed in Appendix II of CITES in 1995, which means its trade is controlled to avoid utilization incompatible with its survival.
The RST process assesses whether trade in a species is detrimental to its survival and recommends actions to ensure sustainability.
India’s stance was supported by a study conducted by the Botanical Survey of India (BSI), which suggested that the harvest from wild populations should be prohibited, while allowing harvest from plantations and private/community lands.
Arguments against Inclusion in RST
Controlled Harvesting: India argued that it has established controlled harvesting practices, ensuring that only cultivated agarwood is used for trade.
Economic Impact: Inclusion in the RST could have disrupted the livelihoods of farmers and traders who depend on agarwood cultivation, particularly in the northeastern states of Assam, Manipur, Nagaland, and Tripura.
Sustainable Practices: The NDF indicated that the current practices in India were sustainable and that the species was being cultivated widely, reducing pressure on wild populations.
New Export Quota
Establishment of Quota: CITES notified a new export quota for agarwood from India, effective from April 2024. The quota was set at 1,51,080 kg/year for agarwood chips and powder/sawdust, and 7,050 kg/year for agarwood oil.
Formal Trade: The absence of an export quota for a long period had led to informal trade and increased prices. The new quota aims to regulate and legalize the trade, ensuring benefits to local growers and the economy.
[2016] With reference to ‘Red Sanders’, sometimes seen in the news, consider the following statements:
1. It is a tree species found in a part of South India.
2. It is one of the most important trees in the tropical rainforest areas of South India.
Which of the statements given above is /are correct?
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Shift in snowfall patterns in Himachal, Rivers and glaciers located
Why in the News?
Himachal Pradesh is experiencing a reducing snow cover over the years.
There is a noticeable shift in snowfall occurrence from winter months towards early summer months.
Findings from the Latest Study:
The study by the Centre on Climate Change of Himachal Pradesh Council for Science Technology-Environment (HIMCOSTE) shows an overall decrease of 12.72% in snow cover area in 2023-24 compared to 2022-23.
The study used Advanced Wide Field Sensor (AWiFS) satellite data to analyze snow cover trends.
Early winter months (October-November) showed a decrease in snow cover area except for the Ravi basin, which showed a marginal increase in October.
Peak winter months (December-January) saw a negative trend in snow cover area.
Late winter months (February-March) showed a positive trend with an increase in snow cover area in all basins compared to the previous year.
Snow cover area increased in April due to fresh snowfall in the early summer period.
Impact on Water Availability
The decrease in snow cover during peak winter months (December and January) is especially alarming.
Snowfall during these months sustains longer and enhances the discharge dependability of major river basins during summer.
Reduced snow cover in winter could affect water availability during the summer months.
Concerns and Implications
Environmentalists and scientists are concerned about the shifting snowfall patterns.
Depleting snow cover and changing snowfall patterns have significant impacts on hydro-power, water sources, people, livestock, forests, farms, and infrastructure.
Back2Basics: Rivers of Himachal Pradesh
Description
Satluj
Originating from Rakas Lake in Tibet, the Satluj River is the longest river in Himachal Pradesh.
It flows through the districts of Kinnaur, Shimla, Kullu, Mandi, Solan, and Bilaspur, and enters Punjab near Nangal.
The river is crucial for hydropower generation and irrigation.
Prelims Only | Polity | Mains Paper 2: Indian Constitution - historical underpinnings, evolution, features, amendments, significant provisions and basic structure
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Appointment of Governors
Why in the News?
President Droupadi Murmu has appointed six new Governors and reshuffled three others.
New appointments:
Name
New Position
Om Mathur
Governor of Sikkim
K. Kailashnathan
Lieutenant Governor of Puducherry
Santosh Kumar Gangwar
Governor of Jharkhand
Jishnu Dev Varma
Governor of Telangana
Ramen Deka
Governor of Chhattisgarh
C.H. Vijayashankar
Governor of Meghalaya
Haribhau Kisanrao Bagde
Governor of Rajasthan
About the Office of Governor and his/her Appointment
Details
Role
Constitutional head of a state, similar to the President at the central level.
Exists in states, while lieutenant governors and administrators are in union territories.
Independent constitutional office, not subordinate to Central government.
Articles
Articles 153 to 167 in Part VI of the Constitution deal with the state executive
Part of State Executive
Consists of the Governor, Chief Minister, Council of Ministers, and Advocate General
Borrowed Office
From the Government of India Act of 1935.
Canadian model adopted: Governor appointed by President by warrant under his hand and seal.
Dual Role
Chief executive Head of the States (nominal).
Agent of the central government.
Qualifications
Constitutional: Citizen of India, 35+ years old.
Conventional: Outsider to the state, President consults the Chief Minister.
Oath
Administered by the Chief Justice of the state High Court (or senior-most judge available)
Swears to execute office faithfully, preserve the Constitution, and serve the people
Term of Office
No fixed term, holds office for 5 years subject to President’s pleasure
Eligible for reappointment.
Can be transferred or hold office beyond term until successor assumes charge
Removal
Can resign by addressing the President
Can be removed by the President at any time without specified grounds
Chief Justice of state high court may temporarily discharge functions in contingencies
Additional Functions
Acts on advice of Chief Minister and Council of Ministers
Holds executive power, legislative power (to some extent), and discretionary power
Functions as Chancellor of state universities, where applicable
Reforms stipulated by Sarkaria Commission (1988)
Governor should be appointed by the President after consulting the Chief Minister.
Should be a person of eminence, not belonging to the state.
Should not be removed before term completion except in rare circumstances.
Act as a bridge between the center and state.
Exercise discretionary powers judiciously.
PYQ:
[2013] Which one of the following statements is correct?
(a) In India, the same person cannot be appointed as Governor for two or more States at the same time
(b) The Judges of the High Court in India are appointed by the Governor of the State just as the Judges of the Supreme Court are appointed by the President
(c) No procedure has been laid down in the Constitution of India for the removal of a Governor from his/her post
(d) In the case of a Union Territory having a legislative setup, the Chief Minister is appointed by the Lt. Governor on the basis of majority support.
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Indexation, Capital Gains Tax Regime.
Why in the News?
The withdrawal of theindexation benefit from the long-term capital gains (LTCG) tax regime has emerged as a contentious decision in the Union Budget for 2024-25.
What is Indexation?
Indexation is a method used to adjust the purchase price of an asset to account for inflation over the period it was held.
This reduces the taxable capital gain, as it reflects the increase in the asset’s value due to inflation.
Purpose: To ensure that the taxpayers are taxed only on the real gains and not on the inflationary increase in the value of the asset.
Changes in the LTCG Regime
The new LTCG regime removes the indexation benefit for property, gold, and other unlisted assets.
The LTCG tax rate is reduced from 20% to 12.5%.
For assets purchased before 2001, the fair market value as of April 1, 2001, is considered the cost of acquisition.
Implications of the Changes
The government claims the changes simplify the capital gains tax structure without causing a loss to most taxpayers.
The uniform tax rate for various asset classes is intended to benefit both taxpayers and tax authorities.
Concerns for Taxpayers
There was significant concern, particularly in the residential real estate sector, about increased LTCG tax liabilities.
The government clarified that the new regime would be beneficial in most cases, as real estate returns typically outpace inflation.
The Income Tax Department explained that:
For properties held for 5 years, the new regime is beneficial if the value has appreciated 1.7 times or more, and
For 10 years, if the value has increased to 2.4 times or more.
Back2Basics:Capital Gains Tax Overview
Details
Definition
Tax on profit from the sale of a capital asset.
Launch
Introduced in 1956, as part of the Income Tax Act, 1961.
Types
Short-Term Capital Gains (STCG): Held for ≤36 months (≤12 months for specified assets).
Long-Term Capital Gains (LTCG): Held for >36 months (>12 months for specified assets).
Tax Rates (STCG)
With STT: 15%
Without STT: Applicable income tax slab rates.
Tax Rates (LTCG)
Listed Equity Shares & Equity-Oriented Funds: 10% on gains >₹1 lakh without indexation.
Other Assets: 20% with indexation (proposed 12.5% without indexation from FY 24-25).
Indexation
Adjusts purchase price for inflation using Cost Inflation Index (CII).
Purpose of Indexation
To tax only the real gains, accounting for inflation.
Formula (Indexation)
Indexed Cost of Acquisition: (Cost of Acquisition × CII of sale year) / CII of purchase year
Indexed Cost of Improvement: (Cost of Improvement × CII of sale year) / CII of improvement year
PYQ:
[2012] Under which of the following circumstances may ‘capital gains’ arise?
1. When there is an increase in the sales of a product
2. When there is a natural increase in the value of the property owned
3. When you purchase a painting and there is a growth in its value due to increase in its popularity
Select the correct answer using the codes given below:
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Collegium System
Why in the News?
The Union government has said that 219 proposals for the appointment of High Court judges by the Collegium are in various stages of processing.
What is Collegium System?
The collegium system is the method used for the appointment and transfer of judges in the Supreme Court and High Courts of India.
It is the Indian Supreme Court’s invention.
The term ‘Collegium’ does not find mention in the Constitution.
Constitutional Provisions:
Article 124: The President appoints the Chief Justice and other judges of the Supreme Court after consultations with judges of the Supreme Court and High Courts as deemed necessary.
Article 217: The President appoints High Court judges after consultations with the Chief Justice of India, the Governor of the state, and the Chief Justice of the High Court concerned
Composition:
Supreme Court Collegium:
A five-member body.
Headed by the Chief Justice of India (CJI).
Includes the four other senior most judges of the Supreme Court at that time.
High Court Collegium:
Led by the Chief Justice of the respective High Court.
Includes the two senior most judges of that High Court.
Recommendations for appointments by a High Court collegium are sent to the government only after approval by the CJI and the Supreme Court collegium.
Evolution: Three Judges Cases
First Judges Case (1981) ruled that the “consultation” with the CJI in the matter of appointments must be full and effective.
The Supreme Court, in a majority decision, held that the opinion of the Chief Justice of India is not binding on the executive in the matter of appointments and transfers of judges. The court ruled that the executive has primacy in judicial appointments.
Second Judges Case (1993) introduced the Collegium system, holding that “consultation” really meant “concurrence”.
The Supreme Court, by a majority of 7:2, overruled the First Judges Case and held that the CJI’s opinion regarding judicial appointments and transfers should be given primacy.
The court established that the CJI should consult with the two senior-most judges of the Supreme Court before making recommendations for appointments and transfers, thereby creating a collegium system.
Third Judges Case (1998): On a Presidential Reference for its opinion, the Supreme Court, in the Third Judges Case (1998) expanded the Collegium to a five-member body, comprising the CJI and four of his senior-most colleagues.
The procedure followed by the Collegium:
Appointment of CJI
The President of India appoints the CJI and the other SC judges.
As far as the CJI is concerned, the outgoing CJI recommends his successor.
In practice, it has been strictly by seniority ever since the supersession controversy of the 1970s.
The Union Law Minister forwards the recommendation to the PM who, in turn, advises the President.
Other SC Judges:
For other judges of the top court, the proposal is initiated by the CJI.
The CJI consults the rest of the Collegium members, as well as the senior-most judge of the court hailing from the High Court to which the recommended person belongs.
The consultees must record their opinions in writing and it should form part of the file.
The Collegium sends the recommendation to the Law Minister, who forwards it to the Prime Minister to advise the President.
For High Courts:
The CJs of High Courts are appointed as per the policy of having Chief Justices from outside the respective States. The Collegium takes the call on the elevation.
High Court judges are recommended by a Collegium comprising the CJI and two senior-most judges.
The proposal, however, is initiated by the Chief Justice of the High Court concerned in consultation with two senior-most colleagues.
The recommendation is sent to the Chief Minister, who advises the Governor to send the proposal to the Union Law Minister.
Qualifications for Appointment as a Supreme Court Judge:
According to Article 124(3) of the Constitution, a person can be appointed as a judge of the Supreme Court if he or she:
Is a citizen of India.
Has served as a judge of a High Court for at least five years or in two such courts in succession.
Alternatively, has been an advocate of a High Court for at least ten years or in two or more such courts in succession.
Is a distinguished jurist in the opinion of the President.
Qualifications for Appointment as a High Court Judge:
The person must have held a judicial office for at least 10 years in India, or
Must have been a practising advocate in a High Court for at least 10 years.
The person must be enrolled under the Bar Council of India.
PYQ:
[2012] What is the provision to safeguard the autonomy of the Supreme Court of India?
While appointing the Supreme Court Judges, the President of India has to consult the Chief Justice of India.
The Supreme Court Judges can be removed by the Chief Justice of India only.
The salaries of the Judges are charged on the Consolidated Fund of India to which the legislature does not have to vote.
All appointments of officers and staffs of the Supreme Court of India are made by the Government only after consulting the Chief Justice of India.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Charaideo Moidam, UNESCO World Heritages
Why in the News?
The Charaideo Moidams, a unique 700-year-old mound-burial system of the Ahom dynasty from Assam, has been added to the UNESCO World Heritage List.
About Charaideo Moidams
The Charaideo moidams represents the late medieval(13th-19th century CE) mound burial tradition of the Tai Ahom community in Assam.
Charaideo, more than 400 km east of Guwahati, was the first capital of the Ahom dynasty founded by Chao Lung Sukaphaa in 1253.
The Ahoms preferred to place the deceased family members at Charaideo where the first king Sukapha was laid to rest.
The historical chronicles inform that wives, attendants, pet animals and huge quantity of valuables were buried with the departed kings.
After 18th century, the Ahom rulers adopted the Hindumethod of cremation and began entombing the cremated bones and ashes in a Maidam at Charaideo.
Out of 386 Maidams explored so far, 90 royal burials at Charaideo are the best preserved, representative of and the most complete examples of mound burial tradition of the Ahoms.
Architecture details:
Architecturally it comprises a massive underground vault with one or more chambers having domical superstructure.
It is covered by a heap of earthen mound and externally it appears a hemispherical mound.
At the top of the mound, a small open pavilion chow-chali is provided.
An octagonal dwarf wall encloses whole maidam.
Significance of this addition:
Moidams has become the 43rd property from India to be included in the UNESCO List.
India now stands at the 6th position globally for the most number of World Heritage Properties.
The Moidams are the first site from the North East to be recognized as a World Heritage Site in the cultural category.
Assam has 2 other World Heritage Sites in the natural category: Kaziranga National Park and Manas National Park, both upgraded to tiger reserves.
Who were the Ahoms?
The Ahom, also known as the Tai-Ahom, are an ethnic group from Assam and Arunachal Pradesh in India.
This ethnic group is made up of interbred descendants of the Tai people, who first came to Assam’s Brahmaputra valley in 1228, and indigenous people who later joined them.
The current Ahom people and culture are a mix of the ancient Tai people and culture, as well as indigenous Tibeto-Burman people and cultures that they assimilated in Assam.
Sukaphaa, the Tai group’s leader, and his 9000 supporters founded the Ahom empire (1228–1826 CE), which ruled over part of modern-day Assam’s Brahmaputra Valley until 1826.
It retained sovereignty for 600 years until annexed by British India in 1826 (Treaty of Yandaboo).
Lachit Borphukan (1622-1672) is the most celebrated ruler of Ahom Dynasty.
Back2Basics:UNESCOWorld Heritage Sites
Aspect
Details
Definition
Sites of outstanding cultural or natural value to humanity, are protected under the UNESCO Convention of 1972.
Classification
Cultural Heritage Sites: Historic buildings, archaeological sites, monumental sculptures/paintings.
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Cassini-Huygens Mission, Titan
Why in the News?
US space agency NASA’s Cassini-Huygens spacecraft launched in October 1997.
Using Cassini’s radar data, scientists from Cornell University have discovered new information about the liquid ocean on Titan, Saturn’s largest moon.
Observations made about Titan
Titan is composed ofhydrocarbons – organic chemicals consisting of carbon and hydrogen.
The astronomers have reportedly located calm seas of methane with a slow tidal current.
About Cassini-Huygens Mission
The Cassini-Huygens mission was a collaborative project between NASA, the European Space Agency (ESA), and the Italian Space Agency (ASI) to explore Saturn and its moons.
The spacecraft was named after astronomers Giovanni Cassini and Christian Huygens.
The mission consisted of the Cassini orbiter and the Huygens probe.
It was launched on October 15, 1997.
It ended its mission on September 15, 2017 by plunging into Saturn’s atmosphere.
Key Achievements:
Saturn Exploration:
Detailed study of Saturn’s atmosphere, rings, and magnetosphere.
Discovered new rings and observed the complex structure of the existing ones.
Moons of Saturn:
Titan Exploration: Huygens probe successfully landed on Titan, Saturn’s largest moon, on January 14, 2005, providing the first direct exploration of Titan’s surface and atmosphere.
Enceladus Discoveries: Found water-ice plumes erupting from Enceladus, indicating a subsurface ocean that could potentially harbor life.
Other Moons: Provided detailed images and data on other moons like Lapetus, Rhea, Dione, and Tethys.
Technological Milestones:
Demonstrated the success of long-duration missions in deep space.
Advanced the understanding of spacecraft navigation and operation in complex planetary environments.
PYQ:
[2014] Which of the following pairs is/are correctly matched?
Spacecraft
Purpose
1.
Cassini-Huygens
Orbiting the Venus and transmitting data to the Earth
2.
Messenger
Mapping and investigating the Mercury
3.
Voyager 1 and 2
Exploring the outer solar system
Select the correct answer using the code given below:
(a) 1 only
(b) 2 and 3 only
(c) 1 and 3 only
(d) 1, 2 and 3
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Hema Commission Report on Women Safety
Why in the News?
A single bench of the Kerala High Court has stayed the release of the Justice Hema Commission report.
The report investigated women’s working conditions in the Malayalam film industry.
About the Assault that Exposed the Deep Gender Divide
On February 17, 2017, a leading Malayalam film actress was abducted and sexually assaulted in her car while traveling from Thrissur to Kochi.
The incident caused shock and outrage across Kerala as disturbing details emerged, including a video purportedly intended for blackmail.
Six of the ten accused were arrested quickly, and popular actor Dileep was named an accused and remanded to judicial custody in July. He is currently out on bail, with the trial ongoing since 2020.
Formation of the Women in Cinema Collective (WCC)
The incident highlighted the discriminatory treatment faced by women in the film industry.
The Women in Cinema Collective (WCC) was formed in response, submitting a petition to the Chief Minister demanding an inquiry into gender issues in the industry.
The Hema Commission
In July 2017, five months after the incident, the state government formed a 3-member committee headed by retired Kerala High Court judge, Justice K Hema.
The committee’s objective was to investigate issues of sexual harassment and gender inequality in the Malayalam film industry.
In December 2019, a 300-page report was submitted to the CM Pinarayi Vijayan, including documents, audio, and video evidence.
Findings and Recommendations
The commission consulted multiple women professionals in the industry, recording detailed accounts of sexual harassment, wages earned, and possible blacklisting.
The report highlighted the existence of a casting couch, and the presence of alcohol and drugs on film sets.
The commission recommended forming a tribunal to investigate these allegations.
Other recommendations included making job contracts mandatory, ensuring wage parity across genders for the same job, banning drugs and liquor on shooting locations, and ensuring safe working conditions for women.
PYQ:
[2010] Two of the schemes launched by the Government of India for Women’s development are Swadhar and Swayam Siddha. As regards the difference between them, consider the following statements:
Swayam Siddha is meant for those in difficult circumstances such as women survivors of natural disasters or terrorism, women prisoners released from jails, mentally challenged women etc., whereas Swadhar is meant for holistic empowerment of women through Self Help Groups.
Swayam Siddha is implemented through Local Self-Government bodies or reputed Voluntary Organizations whereas Swadhar is implemented through the ICDS units set up in the states.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
(a) 1 only
(b) 2 only
(c) Both 1 and 2
(d) Neither 1 nor 2
[2014] We are witnessing increasing instances of sexual violence against women in the country. Despite existing legal provisions against it, the number of such incidences is on the rise. Suggest some innovative measures to tackle this menace.
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Comparison of Indian Constitution
Why in the News?
On July 14, K. P. Sharma Oli was sworn in as Nepal’s Prime Minister for the fourth time, leading a new coalition government.
Since the abolition of the monarchy in 2008, Nepal has had 14 governments despite a new constitution in 2015 promising progress.
Evolution of Nepal’s Constitution
1948: The Government of Nepal Act was the first attempt at creating a constitution.
1951: The Interim Government of Nepal Act aimed to establish democracy but was replaced in 1959.
1959: Introduced a multi-party system, but the Panchayat Constitution of 1962 established a party-less system under King Mahendra.
1990: A constitutional monarchy restored the multi-party system.
2007: An Interim Constitution was adopted after continued political upheavals.
2015: The current constitution established Nepal as a federal democratic republic.
Comparing the Indian Constitution and Nepal’s Constitution:
India
Nepal
Historical Background
Adopted on November 26, 1949, and came into effect on January 26, 1950.
Framed by the Constituent Assembly elected in 1946.
Current constitution promulgated on September 20, 2015.
Many attempts since 1948, 1951, 1959, 1962, 1990, and 2007.
Form of Government
Quasi-federal nature of the Indian constitution is described as a “Union of States” in Article 1. Other factors also talk about the quasi-federal like Emergency power and independent judiciary. etc
Parliamentary system with the President as the ceremonial head and the Prime Minister as the head of government.
Federal democratic republic.
Parliamentary system with the President as the ceremonial head and the Prime Minister as the executive head.
Structure of Government
Bicameral legislature: Lok Sabha (House of the People) and Rajya Sabha (Council of States).
Three levels of government: central, state, and local.
Bicameral legislature: House of Representatives and National Assembly.
Three levels of government: federal, provincial, and local.
Federal Structure
More centralized federal structure. The central government has significant authority over states.
Flexible to allow greater central control when necessary.
More decentralized federal structure. Greater autonomy to provinces.
Includes seven provinces, each with its own government and legislature.
Elections and Representation
First-past-the-post (FPTP) system for Lok Sabha elections. Representation through single-member constituencies and multi-party systems.
Mixed electoral system with both FPTP and proportional representation (PR). Ensures broader representation but leads to the proliferation of smaller parties.
Judiciary
The Supreme Court of India is the highest judicial authority.
Ensures protection of fundamental rights and upholds the rule of law.
The Supreme Court of Nepal is the highest judicial body.
Interprets the Constitution and protects citizens’ rights. Aims to uphold the rule of law and safeguard fundamental rights.
Fundamental Rights and Duties
Comprehensive list of Fundamental Rights in Part III, including equality, freedom, religion, and constitutional remedies. Fundamental Duties in Part IV-A.
Extensive fundamental rights, covering civil, political, and socio-economic rights. Emphasizes affirmative action for marginalized groups.
Secularism and Religion
A secular state with no official religion which mentioned in the Preamble of the Constitution.
The secular state was declared in the 2015 Constitution.
Protects religious freedom and promotes harmony among religious communities.
PYQ:
[2023] Compare and contrast the British and Indian approaches to Parliamentary sovereignty.
[2022] Critically examine the procedures through which the Presidents of India and France are elected.
[2021] Analyze the distinguishing features of the notion of Right to Equality in the Constitutions of the USA and India.
[2021] Analyse the distinguishing features of the notion of Right to Equality in the Constitutions of the USA and India.
[2020] The judicial systems in India and the UK seem to be converging as well as diverging in recent times. Highlight the key points of convergence and divergence between the two nations in terms of their judicial practices.
[2019] What can France learn from the Indian Constitution’s approach to secularism?
[2018] India and the USA are two large democracies. Examine the basic tenets on which the two political systems are based.
