Why in the News?
Permanent Lok Adalats in as many as 16 districts of Rajasthan have ceased functioning owing to the non-extension of tenure of their presiding officers and members.
About Permanent Lok Adalats (PLAs)
- Legal Basis: PLAs are statutory bodies established under Section 22-B of the Legal Services Authorities Act, 1987.
- Establishment: They were introduced in 2002 to offer speedy and affordable dispute resolution for public utility services.
- Disputes Handled: PLAs resolve issues related to transport (air, road, water), postal, telecom, electricity, water supply, sanitation, healthcare, and insurance.
- Composition: Each PLA has a Chairman (a current or retired District Judge or higher) and 2 members with experience in the relevant public utility sectors.
- Functioning: Unlike regular Lok Adalats, PLAs operate on a continuous basis and are always available for dispute resolution.
- Jurisdiction Limit: They can hear cases involving claims up to ₹1 crore but cannot take up non-compoundable criminal cases.
- Unique Power: If conciliation fails, the PLA has the authority to adjudicate the dispute and issue a final and BINDING award, just like a civil court.
Back2Basics: Lok Adalats vs Permanent Lok Adalats
|
Lok Adalats |
Permanent Lok Adalats |
| Nature |
Ad hoc, held occasionally |
Permanent, functional continuously |
| Jurisdiction |
Broad (civil, compoundable criminal, family, etc.) |
Limited to public utility service disputes |
| Dispute Stage |
Usually post-litigation |
Pre-litigation stage only |
| Panel Composition |
Judicial officers, lawyers, social workers |
Chairman (Judge) + 2 experts in utility services |
| Conciliation Role |
Only conciliatory; no decision if no settlement |
Can adjudicate if no settlement is reached |
| Decision |
Binding only if parties agree |
Award is final and binding, with no appeal |
| Legal Status |
Decree of a civil court |
Also a civil court decree, but with adjudication power |
| Appeal Provision |
No appeal, but fresh suit possible |
No appeal, but constitutional remedies may apply |
| [UPSC 2009] With reference to Lok Adalats, consider the following statements:
1. An award made by a Lok Adalat is deemed to be a degree of a civil court and no appeal lies against thereto before any court.
2. Matrimonial/Family disputes are not covered under Lok Adalat.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
Options: (a) 1 only * (b) 2 only (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2 |
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Why in the News?
The Archaeological Survey of India (ASI), in private collaboration, has successfully completed the restoration of Rajon ki Baoli, a 16th-century Lodi-era stepwell located in New Delhi.
About Rajon ki Baoli:
- Location: Situated in Mehrauli Archaeological Park, Delhi, around 400 meters south of Adham Khan’s Tomb.
- Build year: Built in 1506 CE by Daulat Khan Lodi, an official under Sikandar Lodi.
- Name Meaning: “Rajon ki Baoli” means “Stepwell of the Masons”, referring to raj mistris, not royalty.
- Structure: The stepwell is rectangular, covering 1,610 sq m, and is 13.4 meters deep.
- Design: It is a 4-level structure, with only the topmost tier visible from ground level.
- Architectural Features:
- Includes verandas, arched corridors, 12-pillared arcades, and stucco medallions.
- The complex also has a mosque, a tomb, and a chhatri (pavilion).
- Purpose: Served as a water source and resting place and had social-religious utility.
About the Lodi Dynasty:
- The Lodi Dynasty ruled the Delhi Sultanate from 1451 to 1526.
- Founder: Established by Bahlul Lodi, the first Afghan ruler of Delhi.
- Territorial Control: Dominated Punjab, Jaunpur, Gwalior, and the Upper Ganga Valley.
- Key Rulers:
-
- Bahlul Lodi (1451–1489): Annexed Jaunpur and solidified Afghan influence in northern India.
- Sikandar Lodi (1489–1517): Founded Agra, introduced agricultural reforms, standardised land with Gaz-i-Sikandari, and patronised literature and music. He imposed jizya and demolished temples in Mathura, reflecting intolerance.
- Ibrahim Lodi (1517–1526): Lost the First Battle of Panipat to Babur, ending the dynasty and the Sultanate.
- Successor: Their fall marked the shift from the Delhi Sultanate to the Mughal Empire in Indian history.
Tap to read more about Traditional Water Harvesting Systems in India.
| [UPSC 2006] Which one of the following is the correct chronological order of the Afghan rulers to the throne of Delhi?
(a) Sikandar Shah – Ibrahim Lodi – Bahlol Khan Lodi
(b) Sikandar Shah – Bahlol Khan Lodi – Ibrahim Lodi
(c) Bahlol Khan Lodi – Sikandar Shah – Ibrahim Lodi*
(d) Bahlol Khan Lodi – Ibrahim Lodi – Sikandar Shah |
ASI completes conservation work in Lodhi-era stepwell – The Hindu
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Why in the News?
The Department of Posts has released a commemorative postage stamp to mark 125 years of the Kodaikanal Solar Observatory (KoSO)—one of India’s oldest and most significant astronomical research centres dedicated to studying the Sun.
About the Kodaikanal Solar Observatory (KoSO):
- Founding: Established in the late 19th century, KoSO was established in 1899 after atmospheric surveys by Charles Michie Smith.
- Location: It is located in Kodaikanal, Tamil Nadu, in the Palani Hills, chosen for its excellent sky conditions.
- Early Observations: Initially focused on observing sunspots, solar prominences, and solar radiation.
- Modern Equipment: Now equipped with the H-alpha telescope (for flares and prominences) and WARM (for high-resolution sunspot imaging).
- Institutional Role: Became part of the Indian Institute of Astrophysics (IIA) in April 1971.
- Scientific Importance: KoSO contributes to understanding the Sun’s effect on Earth’s climate and space weather.
Important Observations / Discoveries:
- Evershed Effect (1909): Discovered by John Evershed, it was the first observation of radial gas outflows in sunspots, a key finding in solar physics.
- Historic Solar Archive (1904–2017): Created one of the world’s longest continuous solar datasets.
- Digitization: First Indian observatory to digitise solar data (since 1984); currently maintains a digital archive of 1.48 lakh images (~10 TB).
- Wider Scientific Work: Extended research into cosmic rays, radio astronomy, ionospheric physics, and stellar astrophysics over the decades.
| [UPSC 2016] Discuss India’s achievements in the field of Space Science and Technology. How the application of this technology has helped India in its socio-economic development? |
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Why in the News?
May 16 is observed annually as Sikkim Day, marking the historic occasion in 1975 when the Kingdom of Sikkim formally became a state of India.
About the Kingdom of Sikkim
- Foundation: The Kingdom of Sikkim was established in 1642, when three Tibetan lamas crowned Phuntsong Namgyal as the first Chogyal (monarch).
- Namgyal dynasty: It ruled Sikkim for 333 years, maintaining a Buddhist monarchy until 1975.
- Treaty of Tumlong (1861): It made Sikkim a British protectorate, where the Chogyals retained internal authority while the British handled external affairs.
- Other key treaties shaping Sikkim’s status: These included the Treaty of Titaliya (1817), Calcutta Convention (1890), and Lhasa Convention (1904), which defined borders and reaffirmed British influence.
How did Sikkim join India?
- Post-1947 Status: After India’s independence, Sikkim did not join India like other princely states, due to its unique British treaty status.
- Nehru’s Approach: While Sardar Patel and B.N. Rau wanted Sikkim to accede, Jawaharlal Nehru opted for a Standstill Agreement to preserve the status quo.
- Indo-Sikkim Treaty of 1950: This treaty made Sikkim an Indian protectorate, with India managing defence, foreign affairs, and communications.
- Role of Sikkim National Congress: Led by Kazi Dorji, the SNC became the key pro-democracy and pro-merger party.
- 1973 Agreement: After widespread protests, a tripartite agreement was signed between the Chogyal, the Government of India, and the Sikkimese parties.
- Democratic Transition: In 1974, elections were held, and a new constitution reduced the monarch’s powers.
- Referendum of 1975: In April 1975, over 97% of voters supported abolishing the monarchy and merging with India.
- Merger with India: In May 1975, the 36th Constitutional Amendment was passed, and Sikkim became the 22nd state of India. It added Article 371F to provide special provisions for the state of Sikkim.
Back2Basics: Article 371F of the Indian Constitution
- Constitutional Origin: Added by the 36th Amendment Act (1975) when Sikkim became the 22nd state of India.
- Objective: Protects Sikkim’s unique history, culture, and legal system during integration.
- Legislative Assembly: Sikkim must have at least 30 MLAs, fewer than other states under Article 170.
- Parliamentary Representation: Sikkim has 1 Lok Sabha and 1 Rajya Sabha seat, with the Assembly electing the MP.
- Governor’s Role: Governor holds special responsibility for peace, equity, and development.
- Pre-Merger Laws: Existing laws and judgments before 1975 remain valid unless changed by Parliament.
- Presidential Powers: President can modify laws and extend central laws to Sikkim within two years post-merger.
- Land and Job Rights: Only 1961-registered Sikkimese can own land or hold state government jobs.
- Tax Exemption: Original Sikkimese were exempt from income tax.
- Recent Controversy: The Finance Bill, 2023 expanded the term “Sikkimese”, raising concerns over erosion of indigenous rights.
|
| [UPSC 2007] Which one of the following is the correct chronological order of the formation as full States of the Indian Union?
Options:
(a) Sikkim-Arunachal Pradesh-Nagaland-Haryana
(b) Nagaland-Haryana-Sikkim-Arunachal Pradesh *
(c) Sikkim-Haryana-Nagaland-Arunachal Pradesh
(d) Nagaland-Arunachal Pradesh-Sikkim-Haryana |
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Why in the News?
The Tamil Nadu CM has criticised the Presidential Reference under Article 143 as a “desperate attempt” to weaken State powers, following a Supreme Court ruling that set timelines for Governors and the President to act on State Bills.
Recent Invocation:
- The Presidential Reference asked whether the Supreme Court could impose timelines on:
- Governors under Article 200 (assent to State Bills)
- The President under Article 201 (Bills reserved for Presidential assent)
|
What is Article 143 of the Indian Constitution?
- Article 143 empowers the President of India to seek the advisory opinion of the Supreme Court on any question of law or fact that is-
- of public importance
- Likely to arise or has already arisen
- This provision defines the Supreme Court’s advisory jurisdiction, exclusive to the President.
- Sub-clauses and Legal Operation:
- Article 143(1): The President may refer any matter to the Supreme Court for its opinion. In the first case, the Supreme Court may tender or may refuse to tender its opinion to the president.
- Article 143(2): Allows the President to refer disputes arising from pre-Constitution agreements, including state-related matters, for the Supreme Court’s opinion. The Supreme Court must tender its opinion to the President.
- Nature of the Reference: The Supreme Court’s opinion is advisory and NOT legally binding since it is NOT a judicial pronouncement.
- President’s Response: It is NOT binding on the President; he/she may follow or may not follow the opinion. However, it facilitates the government to have an authoritative legal opinion.
- Types of Questions Referred: Article 143(1) allows the President to refer questions of law or fact.
- Legal questions: Constitutional interpretation, rights, and executive powers.
- Factual questions: The 1993 Ram Janmabhoomi-Babri Masjid reference asked whether a temple existed at the disputed site.
- Judicial Interpretation: The Supreme Court has clarified that Article 143 is broad in scope and not limited to questions that have arisen; potential or likely questions can also be referred.
Executive’s Control of Presidential Reference:
- Although Article 143 vests the power in the President, the real decision to refer is taken by the Union Council of Ministers under Article 74(1).
- Article 74(2) bars the Court from inquiring whether such advice was given.
|
| [UPSC 2010] Consider the following statements:
The Supreme Court of India tenders’ advice to the President of India on matters of law or fact
1. on its own initiative (on any matter of larger public interest).
2. if he seeks such an advice.
3. only if the matters relate to the Fundamental Rights of the citizens.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
Options: (a) 1 only (b) 2 only * (c) 3 only (d) 1 and 2 only |
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Why in the News?
A team of researchers from top Chinese scientific institutions has reported a major breakthrough in the creation of atomically thin 2D metal sheets using a novel high-pressure sandwich method.
About the 2D Metal Created:
- Definition: 2D metals are only one or two atoms thick, so electrons can move in just two dimensions.
- Quantum Confinement: Electrons in 2D metals are restricted to specific energy levels, similar to how they behave in atoms.
- Scientific Interest: Metals like bismuth, tin, and lead in 2D form are being studied for their electrical, magnetic, and quantum properties.
- Applications: Their special properties make them useful for quantum computing, sensors, and advanced electronics.
Technologies Involved:
- Quantum Dots: These are tiny semiconductors where electrons are tightly confined, creating quantised energy states.
- Quantum Confinement: In quantum dots, electrons can’t move freely in any direction, leading to discrete energy levels.
- Link to 2D Metals: In 2D metals, electrons are confined in two dimensions, changing conductivity, magnetism, and optical behaviour.
- Process: Chinese scientists created 2D metals by sandwiching metal powder between two MoS₂-coated sapphire layers.
- Steps involved: The structure is heated, twisted, and pressed to form ultra-thin sheets, then cooled and peeled off.
- Material Choice: MoS₂ and sapphire were chosen for their strength, smoothness, and low chemical reaction with metal.
Note:
Quantum confinement occurs when a particle like an electron is trapped in an extremely small space, such as a nanoscale material. This restriction changes its energy levels, making them discrete instead of continuous. As a result, the material’s properties—like color and conductivity—can change with size. |
| [UPSC 2012] Graphene is frequently in the news recently. What is its importance?
1. It is a two-dimensional material and has good electrical conductivity.
2. It is one of the thinnest but strongest materials tested so far.
3. It is entirely made of silicon and has high optical transparency.
4. It can be used as ‘conducting electrodes’ required for touch screens, LCDs and organic LEDs.
Options: (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 3 and 4 only (c) 1, 2 and 4 only* (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4 |
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Why in the News?
India and Japan have begun the preliminary design phase of the Chandrayaan-5 mission, also known as LUPEX (Lunar Polar Exploration).
Back2Basics: Legacy of Chandrayaan Missions
- Chandrayaan-1 (2008): First mission, focused on mineral and chemical mapping.
- Chandrayaan-2 (2019): Orbiter mission with 98% success.
- Chandrayaan-3 (2023): Achieved a historic soft landing on the Moon’s south pole.
- Chandrayaan-4 (Upcoming, 2027):
- It is a planned lunar sample return mission by ISRO, expected to launch around 2027, with the landing site near Statio Shiv Shakti at the lunar south pole.
- The mission involves five modules launched on two LVM-3 rockets, later docked in Earth orbit to form an integrated spacecraft.
- A robotic arm and drill will collect 2–3 kg of surface and sub-surface lunar samples for return to Earth.
- The Re-entry Module (RM) will re-enter Earth’s atmosphere with the samples using ballistic re-entry, marking India’s first attempt at sample return.
- Chandrayaan-5 / LUPEX: Aimed at deeper exploration with global participation.
- Manned Lunar Mission: Prospected lunar landing by 2040.
|
About Chandrayaan-5/LUPEX Mission:
- It is a collaborative mission between ISRO and JAXA.
- Approval: Cabinet approval for the mission was granted on March 10, 2025.
- Launch: It will carry a 6.5-tonne payload and launch aboard Japan’s H3 rocket in 2027–28.
- Collaboration: The lander is being developed by ISRO and the 350-kg rover by JAXA.
- Duration: The mission is expected to last 100 days, with a possible extension of one year.
- Mission Goals and Objectives:
-
- Explore water and regolith in the lunar south pole’s Permanently Shadowed Regions (PSRs).
- Drill into the Moon’s surface, analyse soil samples, and perform in-situ experiments.
- Assess water content, quality, and analyse surface volatiles using advanced instrumentation.
- Exploration of the far side of the Moon.
Scientific Collaboration and Instruments:
- A total of 7 scientific instruments will be onboard the mission.
- ISRO’s Contribution: Development of the lander; creation of one sensor in a major four-sensor instrument.
- JAXA’s Contribution: Development of the rover and three sensors in the same instrument; Rover is designed to climb 25° inclines and operate on a complex battery charging protocol.
- ESA (European Space Agency): Developing a mass spectrometer.
- NASA: Contributing neutron spectrometers.
| [UPSC 2009] In the context of space technology, what is Bhuvan, recently in the news?
Options: (a) A mini satellite launched by ISRO for promoting the distance education in India (b) The name given to the next Moon Impact Probe, for Chandrayaan-II (c) A geoportal of ISRO with 3D imaging capabilities of India* (d) A space telescope developed by India |
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Why in the News?
The Ministry of New and Renewable Energy (MNRE) has lowered the efficiency requirement for off-grid solar panels to make rural electrification easier and more affordable.
About India’s Off-Grid Solar Programme:
- About: The programme was launched by the Ministry of New and Renewable Energy to provide solar energy access in regions without reliable grid electricity.
- Mission Framework: Implemented under the National Solar Mission (2010), it aimed to install 2,000 megawatt-peak (MW-P) of off-grid and decentralised systems by 2022.
- Phased Implementation:
- Phase I (2010–2014) targeted 200 MW-P capacity.
- Phase II (2014–2017) expanded to 500 MW-P with a focus on lighting, pumps, and study lamps.
- Phase III (2018–2021) emphasised solar streetlights, study lamps, and solar plants for public institutions.
- Restructuring: Solar pumps were moved to the Pradhan Mantri Kisan Urja Suraksha evam Utthaan Mahabhiyan scheme (PM-KUSUM), and solar home lights were integrated into the Saubhagya Scheme.
- Key Applications: Included solar home lighting systems, streetlights, lanterns, study lamps, power packs, and water pumps for irrigation and drinking.
India’s Progress in Off-Grid Solar Energy:
- Installed Capacity: As of April 2025, India’s total solar capacity reached 107.95 gigawatts, with 4.98 gigawatts from off-grid systems.
- Capacity Growth: From 2016 to 2024, solar installations grew from 172.45 gigawatts to 216.86 gigawatts.
- Recent Trends: In 2024, adoption rose as solar appliances became more affordable in remote and underserved regions.
- Impact: The programme has been vital for electrification in areas where grid expansion is limited by geography, cost, or infrastructure.
Tap to know more about India’s Solar Capacity and its Global Position.
| [UPSC 2020] With reference to solar water pumps, consider the following statements:
1. Solar power can be used for running surface pumps and not for submersible pumps.
2. Solar power can be used for running centrifugal pumps and not the ones with piston.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
Options: (a) 1 only (b) 2 only (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2* |
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Why in the News?
In a recent breakthrough at CERN’s ALICE (A Large Ion Collider Experiment), scientists observed that near-collisions of lead ions in the Large Hadron Collider (LHC) can result in the formation of gold atoms and other novel nuclei.
How was Lead converted into Gold?
- In ultra-peripheral collisions at the Large Hadron Collider, lead atoms passed close without touching, creating strong electromagnetic fields.
- These fields released photons that caused some lead atoms to lose 3 protons and 2 neutrons, transforming them into gold-203.
- Between 2015–2018, 86 billion gold atoms were created—just 29 picograms—scientifically important but not commercially valuable.
|
About the Large Hadron Collider (LHC):
- The LHC has been working since September 2008 and is the world’s largest particle accelerator.
- Development: Between 1998 and 2008 in collaboration with over 10,000 scientists, and hundreds of universities and laboratories across more than 100 countries.
- Location: It lies in a 27-kilometre tunnel under the France–Switzerland border, near Geneva, and is operated by CERN.
- Purpose: It smashes protons or lead atoms together to help scientists study the smallest building blocks of the universe.
- Working Mechanism: About 9,600 magnets guide particles in a circle using strong magnetic fields.
- Speed: Particles travel at 99.999999% the speed of light, creating conditions like the Big Bang.
- Particles Studied: The LHC focuses on quarks (which come in six types) and gluons, which hold quarks together using the strong nuclear force.
- Members: 24 countries spans across the Europe. Japan and US are Observer.
-
- India signed a cooperation agreement with CERN in 1991 and joined its Large Hadron Collider project in 1996; it became an Associate Member in 2016 after gaining Observer status in 2002.
- India also helped design LHC components such as superconducting magnets, cryogenic systems, and accelerator protection systems.
About the ALICE Experiment:
- ALICE is designed to study heavy-ion collisions, mainly using lead atoms.
- Objective: It recreates matter similar to that formed just after the Big Bang, helping us understand the early universe.
- Detection Range: ALICE can study both large particle blasts and rare, low-energy events with high precision.
- Size and Setup: It weighs 10,000 tons, measures 26 × 16 × 16 metres, and sits 56 metres underground.
- Members: As of 2024, ALICE includes over 1,900 scientists from 174 institutes across 39 countries, including India.
- India’s Contribution: Key instruments like the Photon Multiplicity Detector for ALICE and the Hadron Outer Calorimeter for CMS.
|
| [UPSC 2009] In the year 2008, which one of the following conducted a complex scientific experiment in which sub-atomic particles were accelerated to nearly the speed of light?
Options: (a) European Space Agency (b) European Organization for Nuclear Research* (c) International Atomic Energy Agency (d) National Aeronautics and Space administration |
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Why in the News?
Justice B.R. Gavai has been sworn in as the 52nd Chief Justice of India (CJI).
About the Chief Justice of India:
- The CJI is the head of the Supreme Court and the highest-ranking judicial officer in the country.
- As the “Master of the Roster,” the CJI has the exclusive authority to:
- Constitute benches
- Allocate cases among judges
- Decide the schedule of hearings
- The CJI leads the judicial and administrative functions of the Supreme Court.
- Holds administrative control as recognised in State of Rajasthan v. Prakash Chand (1997).
- The CJI is referred to as “first among equals” among Supreme Court judges.
Powers and functions of the CJI:
-
- Assigns judges to the Constitution Benches. (Article 145)
- Handles interpretation of important legal and constitutional matters. (Article 145)
- Exercises judicial leadership by steering jurisprudential direction. (Article 145)
- Exercises judicial authority in matters of national significance. (Article 136)
- Protects fundamental rights through the Supreme Court’s original and appellate jurisdiction. (Article 32)
- Administrative Functions:
-
- Maintains court roster and case listing. (Derived from judicial precedent and administrative conventions)
- Supervises court staff and administration. (Based on administrative authority of the CJI)
- Ensures smooth functioning of the Supreme Court. (Supreme Court Rules, 2013)
- Holds disciplinary authority over subordinate judicial officers. (Administrative powers acknowledged in precedents)
- Engages in administration of justice at the highest level. (Overarching responsibility under Article 145)
-
- Provides advisory input when consulted by the President. (Article 143)
Appointment and Terms:
- Article 124 of the Constitution empowers the President of India to appoint the CJI.
- Traditionally, the senior-most judge of the Supreme Court is appointed.
- Exceptions to this practice:
- 1973: Justice A.N. Ray appointed over 3 senior judges.
- 1977: Justice M.H. Beg appointed over Justice H.R. Khanna.
- Qualifications as outlined in Article 124(3):
- Must be a citizen of India, and:
- Served at least five years as a High Court judge, or
- Practised at least ten years as a High Court advocate, or
- Deemed a distinguished jurist by the President.
Selection Procedure:
- Governed by the Memorandum of Procedure for Appointment of Supreme Court Judges.
- The Union Law Minister seeks the outgoing CJI’s recommendation.
- The recommendation is processed as follows:
- Sent to the Prime Minister by the Law Ministry.
- Prime Minister advises the President.
- President of India appoints the new CJI.
- No specific timeline is defined — the recommendation must be made at the “appropriate time”.
Tenure and Removal:
- CJI serves until the age of 65 years.
- Can only be removed through removal under Article 124(4):
- Requires approval by both Houses of Parliament.
- Must be supported by:
- A majority of total membership, and
- A two-thirds majority of members present and voting.
- Grounds for removal: Proven misbehavior or incapacity.
[UPSC 2021] With reference to the Indian judiciary, consider the following statements:
- Any retired judge of the Supreme Court of India can be called back to sit and act as a Supreme Court judge by the Chief Justice of India with the prior permission of the President of India.
- A High Court in India has the power to review its own judgment as the Supreme Court does
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
Options: (a) 1 only (b) 2 only (c) Both 1 and 2 * (d) Neither I nor 2 |
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Why in the News?
In October 2022, 75 Digital Banking Units were launched across remote districts to commemorate India’s 75th Independence Day, but their momentum has declined from past 2 years.
About Digital Banking Units (DBUs):
- DBUs are specialized, fixed-location banking hubs designed to deliver a wide range of digital financial services using modern infrastructure.
- They operate in both self-service and assisted modes, offering customers 24/7 access to banking in a paperless, secure, and cost-effective environment.
- The RBI permits commercial banks with digital banking experience to establish DBUs in Tier I to Tier VI cities, without prior approval unless restricted.
- RRBs, payment banks, and local area banks are not eligible.
- In October 2022, as part of India’s 75th independence anniversary, 75 DBUs were launched across 75 remote districts to promote financial inclusion and bring banking services closer to citizens in semi-urban and rural areas.
Services and Features:
- DBUs offer digital services such as account opening, internet and mobile banking kits, debit and credit card applications, and UPI QR-based merchant solutions.
- Customers can apply online for retail loans, MSME loans, and government-sponsored schemes, with the entire process—from application to disbursal—handled digitally.
- Each DBU operates independently from existing branches and must follow RBI guidelines, including housing in separate premises with automated-only cash services.
- They are equipped with interactive teller machines, cash recyclers, document upload systems, and video KYC facilities.
- A senior bank executive is appointed as Chief Operating Officer (COO) to manage each unit.
Benefits Offered:
- DBUs offer a convenient, paperless banking experience, reducing the need to visit traditional branches.
- They support inclusive banking by expanding access to financial services in underserved regions.
- Customers in remote areas benefit from both automated and assisted service options.
- For banks, DBUs help optimize costs while improving service delivery and outreach.
| [UPSC 2024] Consider the following statements in respect of the digital rupee:
1. It is a sovereign currency issued by the Reserve Bank of India (RBI) in alignment with its monetary policy. 2. It appears as a liability on the RBI’s balance sheet. 3. It is insured against inflation by its very design. 4. It is freely convertible against commercial bank money and cash.
Which of the statements given above are correct?
Options: (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 1 and 3 only (c) 2 and 4 only (d) 1, 2 and 4* |
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Why in the News?
The Centre for Earth Sciences and Himalayan Studies (CESHS) has successfully drilled India’s first geothermal production well in Dirang, located in Arunachal Pradesh’s West Kameng district.
This could potentially make Dirang the first geothermal-powered town in the country.
What is Geothermal Energy?
- Geothermal energy is derived from heat stored in the Earth’s interior, primarily from the decay of radioactive elements.
- It can be utilised for electricity generation, heating, and industrial applications.
- It is considered a renewable energy source as the Earth continuously generates heat.
|
About Dirang Geothermal Project:
- This project in West Kameng, Arunachal Pradesh, is the first successful geothermal drilling site in Northeast India.
- It is led by CESHS under the Arunachal Pradesh Department of Science and Technology, with support from the Ministry of Earth Sciences.
- It is a medium-to-high enthalpy zone (~115°C), with a fault between quartzite and schist, enabling efficient, low-impact drilling.
- The site was selected after two years of geochemical and structural surveys, and can support applications like agricultural drying, space heating, and controlled storage.
- International partners include the Norwegian Geotechnical Institute, Geotropy ehf (Iceland), and Guwahati Boring Service for execution.
India’s Geothermal Landscape:
- The Geothermal Atlas of India (2022) identifies 381 thermally anomalous sites across the country.
- India has an estimated geothermal potential of 10,600 MW, enough to power over 10 million homes.
- Geothermal energy offers base load power, unlike intermittent solar and wind sources.
- The first operational plant was a 20 kW binary cycle pilot in Manuguru, Telangana, developed by SCCL.
- A 25 MW project in Khammam remains stalled due to tariff issues with the Andhra Pradesh Electricity Regulatory Commission.
- In Puga Valley, Ladakh, ONGC resumed work in 2024 on a 1 MW pilot plant, after a 2022 hot water leak raised safety concerns.
- In Dholera, Gujarat, geothermal energy is used for cooking and air conditioning at a temple, showing direct-use feasibility.
- India has signed MoUs with Iceland (2007) and Saudi Arabia (2019), and included geothermal energy in the 2023 RETAP agreement with the United States.
| [UPSC 2013] Consider the following: (1). Electromagnetic radiation (2). Geothermal energy (3). Gravitational force (4). Plate movements (5). Rotation of the earth (6). Revolution of the earth
Which of the above are responsible for bringing dynamic changes on the surface of the earth?
Options: (a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 1, 2 and 3 (d) None* |
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Why in the News?
India extended critical financial assistance to the Maldives by rolling over a $50 million Treasury Bill, continuing its support under a government-to-government arrangement since 2019.
About Treasury Bill:
- A T-Bill is a short-term debt instrument issued by the GoI through the Reserve Bank of India (RBI).
- They are part of Government Securities (G-Secs) and are used to raise short-term funds.
- They are zero-coupon securities, meaning they do not carry periodic interest payments.
- Instead, they are issued at a discount and redeemed at face value upon maturity.
- They were first introduced in India in 1917.
- They are ideal for investors seeking safety and liquidity over short periods.
Features of the T-Bills:
- Tenures Available: 91-day, 182-day, and 364-day maturity periods.
- Issued at a Discount: T-Bills are sold at a lower price than their face value. The return (yield) is the difference between purchase price and face value.
- Minimum Investment: Starts at ₹25,000, and in multiples of ₹25,000 thereafter.
- Zero-Coupon Nature: No interest payments during the tenure. Investors earn via the discounted purchase price.
- Risk-Free Investment: Backed by the Government of India, making it virtually risk-free.
- High Liquidity: Due to short tenure, T-Bills can be easily converted to cash.
- Auction Mechanism: Sold through competitive and non-competitive bidding at RBI auctions.
- Taxable Gains: Returns are treated as short-term capital gains and are taxable.
- Sensitive to Inflation: Fixed returns can be impacted by rising inflation, reducing real returns.
| [UPSC 2018] Consider the following statements:
1.The Reserve Bank of India manages and services GoI Securities but not any State Government Securities.
2.Treasury bills are issued by the GoI and there are no treasury bills issued by the State Governments.
3.Treasury bills offer are issued at a discount from the par value.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
Options: (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 3 only (c) 2 and 3 only * (d) 1, 2 and 3 |
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Why in the News?
Asteroid YR4, discovered in December 2024 via Chile’s ATLAS telescope, was first thought to threaten Earth but was later ruled out. Scientists now focus on its potential Moon impact in 2032.
About Asteroid 2024 YR4:
- Asteroid 2024 YR4 was discovered in December 2024 by the ATLAS telescope located in Chile.
- It is a near-Earth asteroid (NEA) whose orbit brings it within 1.3 AU (Earth-Sun distances) of Earth.
- It is estimated to be 65 metres wide, roughly the size of a 10-storey building.
- Initially, it was suspected to have a 3.1% chance of impacting Earth in 2032, triggering NASA’s highest-ever asteroid impact alert.
- Subsequent tracking ruled out an Earth impact but indicated a 3.8% chance of hitting the Moon on December 22, 2032.
- A Moon impact would create a 500 to 2,000-metre-wide crater and release energy 340 times more powerful than the Hiroshima bomb.
- Despite being smaller than the 140m threshold for “potentially hazardous asteroids,” its unusual trajectory drew global scientific attention.
- Scientists continue to observe YR4, including during a close approach in 2028, to refine its orbital predictions.
Back2Basics: ATLAS Telescope
- ATLAS (Asteroid Terrestrial-impact Last Alert System) is a NASA-funded early warning project for detecting small near-Earth objects (NEOs).
- It is developed and operated by the University of Hawaii’s Institute for Astronomy.
- As of 2025, ATLAS operates five telescopes in Hawaii, South Africa, Chile, and the Canary Islands.
- Each telescope has a 0.5-meter Wright-Schmidt design, a 1-meter focal length, and a 110 MP CCD detector with a 7.4° field of view.
- The system scans 20,000 square degrees of sky three times per night and provides 1–3 week warnings for asteroids 45–120 meters wide.
- In addition to asteroids, ATLAS also discovers supernovae, comets, dwarf planets, and variable stars.
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| [UPSC 2011] Comets show a perceptible glowing tail, while asteroids do not. Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
Options: (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 1 and 3 only* (c) 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3 |
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Why in the News?
India’s briefing on Operation Sindoor was opened with lines from poet Ramdhari Singh Dinkar and concluded with a reference to the Ramcharitmanas (by Tulsidas) by the IAF spokesperson.
About Tulsidas:
- Tulsidas, born as Ram Bola Dubey, was a Brahmin poet-saint believed to have been born in Rajapur (present-day Banda district, Uttar Pradesh).
- He composed the Ramcharitmanas on the banks of the Ganga in Varanasi.
- Writing began on Ram Navami in 1574, and the composition was completed over the following years.
- Tulsidas lived during the time of Emperor Akbar, and some sources suggest he had contact with Abdurrahim Khan-e-Khanan, son of Akbar’s general Bairam Khan.
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About the Ramcharitmanas:
- Ramcharitmanas was written in the 16th century in the Awadhi dialect and is spoken across Lucknow, Prayagraj, and Ayodhya regions.
- It is a retelling of Valmiki’s Ramayana in a vernacular language accessible to the common people.
- It is divided into seven chapters (Kand), covering Lord Ram’s life from birth to his coronation.
- It is referred to simply as “Ramayan” across the Hindi heartland.
- It is regarded as the holiest text in the Indo-Gangetic region.
- Geeta Press (Gorakhpur) has reportedly sold nearly 7 crore copies.
| [UPSC 2002] Who among the following was the first Bhakti saint to use Hindi for the propagation of his message?
Options: (a) Dadu (b) Kabir (c) Ramananda* (d) Tulsidas |
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Why in the News?
A new study by Columbia University, suggests that the universe may have an alternate mechanism for producing gold — not just in neutron star collisions, as previously believed, but also in magnetar flares.
What are Magnetars?
- Magnetars are a rare type of neutron star with immensely strong magnetic fields, among the most powerful in the universe.
- They are formed when a massive star collapses during a supernova, leaving a highly dense stellar core.
- Due to magnetic instability, magnetars sometimes release intense flares of X-rays and gamma rays.
- These flares can be millions of times stronger than typical solar flares.
- A magnetar’s magnetic field is estimated to be about a thousand times stronger than that of ordinary neutron stars.
|
r-Process in a Magnetar Flare:
- The r-process (rapid neutron-capture process) forms heavy elements like gold, platinum, and uranium by rapidly attaching neutrons to atomic nuclei.
- It was earlier believed to occur mainly in neutron star mergers.
- In a 2024 study, scientists analysed a 2004 magnetar flare followed by delayed gamma-ray emissions, recorded by NASA’s Compton Gamma Ray Observatory.
- The radiation patterns matched those of radioactive decay from r-process elements, suggesting neutron-rich nuclei were produced.
- Around 1.9 septillion kilograms of matter was ejected at near-light speeds, marking the first direct evidence of r-process nucleosynthesis in a magnetar flare.
Implications for Gold Formation:
- The study shows that magnetar flares may also produce gold and other heavy elements, not just neutron star collisions.
- This implies such elements could have formed earlier in the universe than previously believed.
- The findings broaden our understanding of the origins of chemical elements in space.
- It confirms that multiple astrophysical events contribute to the formation of heavy elements.
- It also offers a new perspective on cosmic gamma-ray bursts and ancient stellar compositions.
| [UPSC 2012] Consider the following is/are cited by the scientists as evidence/evidences for the continued expansion of the universe?
1. Detection of microwaves in space
2. Observation of redshift phenomenon in space
3. Movement of asteroids in space
4. Occurrence of supernova explosions in space
Select the correct answer using the code given below:
Options: (a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3 |
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Why in the News?
Chinese researchers has developed a first-of-its-kind rice pangenome by integrating genetic data from 144 wild and cultivated rice varieties from Asia (similar to the Human Genome Project).
About the Rice Pangenome:
- A pangenome includes both the core genes shared by all members of a species and the unique genes found in specific varieties, offering a complete view of genetic diversity.
- The rice pangenome was built using data from 144 wild and cultivated rice varieties across Asia, making it the first comprehensive genomic resource for rice.
- Researchers led the project from the Chinese Academy of Sciences to explore rice evolution and domestication.
- Researchers used PacBio HiFi sequencing and advanced computational tools to detect variations, uncovering 3.87 billion base pairs of genetic material previously missing from the standard rice genome.
Key Findings:
- The study identified 69,531 genes, including 28,907 core genes common to all varieties and 13,728 genes unique to wild rice.
- About 20% of all genes were exclusive to wild rice, offering potential for trait improvement in cultivated varieties.
- The study confirmed that all Asian cultivated rice (Oryza sativa L.) originated from Or-IIIa, a subgroup of Oryza rufipogon.
- Japonica rice was first domesticated in China, while indica rice arose later via hybridization as japonica spread across Asia.
- Wild-specific genes were linked to environmental adaptation, phenotypic flexibility, and regenerative traits, offering insights for future crop resilience.
- Bridging the genetic gap between wild and cultivated rice could lead to climate-resilient and high-yield varieties.
India’s Contribution:
- Rice is India’s staple food and the main monsoon crop, grown from June to September.
- In 2024–25, India produced a record 220 million tonnes of rice over 51,000 hectares, with an average yield of 4.2 tonnes per hectare.
- The Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) has developed two genome-edited rice varieties — Samba Mahsuri and MTU 1010 — known for higher yields and drought resistance; these are currently under testing.
| [UPSC 2001] Assertion (A): Scientists can cut apart and paste together DNA molecules at will, regardless of the source of the molecules. Reason (R): DNA fragments can be manipulated using restriction endonucleases and DNA ligases.
Options: (a) Both A and R are individually true and R is the correct explanation of A * (b) Both A and R are individually true but R is NOT a correct explanation of A (c) A is true but R is false (d) A is fasle but R is true |
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Why in the News?
The Supreme Court notified civic officials of allegedly violating its 1996 directive in the M.C. Mehta vs Union of India case (1996) by approving a private housing project in Delhi’s ecologically sensitive Morphological Ridge area.
About Delhi Morphological Ridge:
- The Delhi Ridge is the northern extension of the ancient Aravalli Range, stretching approximately 35 km from Tughlaqabad to Wazirabad, along the Yamuna River.
- It is composed mainly of quartzite rock, is over 1.5 billion years old, and significantly older than the Himalayas.
- It functions as Delhi’s green lungs, aiding in carbon sequestration, temperature regulation, and air pollution reduction.
- It acts as a natural barrier against desert winds from Rajasthan and supports rich biodiversity, making Delhi one of the world’s most bird-rich capitals.
- It is divided into four zones: Northern Ridge, Central Ridge, South-Central Ridge, and Southern Ridge.
- Key conservation areas include the Northern Ridge Biodiversity Park and the Asola Bhatti Wildlife Sanctuary.
Land Use Regulation in the Ridge:
- Although the area shares ecological features with the Delhi Ridge, it is NOT officially notified as forest land, but it enjoys judicial protection.
- A 1966 directive prohibits any NON-forest use or encroachment without court approval.
- Any change in land use must be cleared by the Ridge Management Board (RMB) and the Supreme Court-appointed Central Empowered Committee (CEC).
- The area is mapped using data from the Delhi Forest Department and the 2006 Seismic Zonation Map.
- Formal notification as a Reserved Forest under the Indian Forest Act, 1927, is pending due to the absence of ground-truthing.
- In revenue records, it is often marked as “gair mumkin pahad”, meaning uncultivable rocky hill.
- The terrain is ecologically fragile, with shallow soil and rocky outcrops, making it unsuitable for construction.
| [UPSC 2001] The approximate age of the Aravalli range is-
Options: (a) 370 million years (b) 470 million years (c) 570 million years (d) 670 million years |
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Why in the News?
The BrahMos supersonic cruise missile has garnered global attention as it was reportedly used for the first time in a combat scenario during Operation Sindoor.
About the BrahMos Missile:
- BrahMos is a supersonic cruise missile jointly developed by India and Russia through BrahMos Aerospace.
- The name is derived from the Brahmaputra River (India) and the Moskva River (Russia).
- It is one of the world’s fastest cruise missiles, reaching speeds up to Mach 3.
- It was first successfully tested on June 12, 2001, from Chandipur, Odisha.
- It is a ‘fire and forget’ missile, requiring no further guidance after launch.
- It can be launched from land, sea, air, and submarine platforms.
- It has been inducted into the Indian Navy (2005), Army (2007), and Air Force (2017).
- Key Features:
- Classified as a stand-off weapon, it can be launched from a safe distance, avoiding enemy defences.
- The original range was 290 km, now extended to 350–400 km, with future variants targeting 800 km and hypersonic speeds (Mach 5).
- It offers high accuracy, extended seeker range, and 9 times more kinetic energy than subsonic missiles.
- It operates in all weather conditions, day or night, and strikes both land and sea targets with precision.
Anatomy of the BrahMos Missile:
- BrahMos is a two-stage missile with advanced propulsion and stealth capabilities.
- The first stage is a solid-propellant booster that accelerates the missile to supersonic speed.
- The second stage uses a liquid-fuelled ramjet engine to sustain high-speed cruise up to Mach 3.
- The ramjet is an air-breathing engine that combines liquid fuel with incoming air for efficient thrust.
- It features stealth technologies, such as low radar cross-section and special materials.
- The missile can cruise at up to 15 km altitude and descend to 10 metres in the terminal phase for pinpoint accuracy.
- It supports multiple launch platforms, including mobile launchers, naval ships, Sukhoi-30 MKI aircraft, and submarines.
Key Weapons and Systems used by India in Operation SINDOOR:
| Type |
Name |
Features & Role in Operation SINDOOR |
| Air-Launched Missile |
SCALP (Storm Shadow) |
Long-range missile launched from Rafale jets; used for deep strikes on terror camps with minimal collateral damage. |
| Precision-Guided Bomb |
HAMMER |
Modular weapon with 15–70 km range; delivered from aircraft to hit mid-range targets with high accuracy. |
| Surface-to-Air Missile |
Akash |
Indigenous system that can engage multiple aerial targets simultaneously; intercepted enemy drones and missiles. |
| Air Defence System |
SAMAR |
Rapid-response missile system for low-flying threats like UAVs and drones; bolstered India’s layered air defence. |
| Anti-Drone System |
D-4 (Detect, Deter, Destroy) |
Uses radar, jammers, and laser weapons to disable or destroy hostile drones and UCAVs. |
| Loitering Munition |
SkyStriker |
Kamikaze drone that hovers over targets before striking; used for precision attacks on enemy assets. |
| Satellite Systems |
Cartosat, RISAT, EOS Series |
Provided real-time surveillance and intelligence for target tracking and mission planning. |
| Navigation System |
NavIC |
India’s satellite-based navigation system; enabled sub-metre precision for missile and drone targeting. |
| Anti-Aircraft Gun |
Upgraded L-70 (Bofors) |
Equipped with radar and auto-tracking; used to shoot down low-flying drones in conflict zones. |
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| [UPSC 2023] Consider the following statements:
1. Ballistic missiles are jet-propelled at subsonic speeds throughout their fights, while cruise missiles are rocket-powered only in the initial phase of flight.
2. Agni-V is a medium-range supersonic cruise missile, while BrahMos is a solid-fuelled intercontinental ballistic missile.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
Options: (a) 1 only (b) 2 only (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2 |
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Why in the News?
India participated in the 20th session of the United Nations Forum on Forests (UNFF20) held at the UN Headquarters, New York, reaffirming its commitment to the United Nations Strategic Plan for Forests (UNSPF) 2017–2030.
About United Nations Forum on Forests (UNFF):
- UNFF was established in 2000 by the UN Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC).
- It aims to promote sustainable forest management and global forest policy coordination.
- It holds annual sessions at UN Headquarters:
- Technical discussions in odd years
- Policy-level dialogues in even years
- It has universal membership — includes all UN Member States and relevant forest-related agencies.
- India is a founding member and plays an active role in shaping forest policies.
- The UN Strategic Plan for Forests (UNSPF) is the guiding framework for achieving global forest goals by 2030.
- The 19th UNFF Declaration secured high-level political commitment for forest conservation.
Key Highlights of UNFF20:
- India reaffirmed its commitment to Voluntary National Contributions (VNCs) under the UNSPF (2017–2030).
- It reported an increase in forest and tree cover to 25.17% of its geographical area.
- National efforts included the Aravalli Green Wall, a 7.86% rise in mangrove cover, 1.55 lakh hectares afforested under the Green India Mission, and 1.4 billion seedlings planted under the Ek Ped Maa Ke Naam campaign.
- India invited countries to join the International Big Cat Alliance (IBCA) for big cat conservation.
- It urged support for outcomes of the Country-Led Initiative (CLI) on forest fire management held in Dehradun (2023).
- In a high-level panel, India presented findings on carbon sequestration, water services, biodiversity, and tools like System of Environmental Economic Accounting (SEEA) and Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MEA).
- It stressed the need to mainstream ecosystem valuation in forest policy.
| [UPSC 2021] With reference to the ‘New York Declaration on Forests’, which of the following statements are correct?
1. It was first endorsed at the United Nations Climate Summit in 2014.
2. It endorses a global timeline to end the loss of forests.
3. It is a legally binding international declaration.
4. It is endorsed by governments, big companies, and indigenous communities.
5. India was one of the signatories at its inception.
Select the correct answer using the code given below:
Options: (a) 1, 2, and 4* (b) 1, 3, and 5 (c) 3 and 4 (d) 2 and 5 |
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