Why in the News?
Jayant Narlikar, renowned Indian astrophysicist and Padma Vibhushan awardee, who co-developed the Hoyle–Narlikar Theory to refine Einstein’s Theory of Relativity, passed away in Pune at the age of 87.
About Jayant Narlikar and His Contributions:
- Early Life: Born in 1938 in Kolhapur, Maharashtra, and pursued a PhD at Cambridge University under Fred Hoyle.
- Scientific Influence: Hoyle had earlier developed the steady-state theory with Bondi and Gold and coined the term “Big Bang” sarcastically in 1948.
- Narlikar’s Belief: He argued that the universe always looks the same, as new matter fills the gaps created by expansion.
- Critique of Big Bang: He believed the Big Bang theory includes unproven assumptions, especially about the sudden origin of all matter and energy.
- Enduring Work: Despite steady-state theory’s decline, Narlikar’s contributions remain respected for their scientific depth and originality.
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What Is the Hoyle–Narlikar Theory?
Fred Hoyle and Jayant Narlikar developed a theory to answer one of the most basic questions: Why do things have mass, and how are they connected to the rest of the universe?
- Based on Mach’s Principle: They believed your mass isn’t just something you have on your own. Instead, it depends on your connection to everything else in the universe. That means even faraway stars and galaxies play a role in what you weigh.
- Inertia Explained: In simple terms, when you feel resistance while trying to move (inertia), it’s because of the gravitational pull of all the matter in the universe acting on you at once.
- Mass is Relative: Earth, the Sun, or even you don’t have a fixed mass. That mass is influenced by everything else that exists out there, no matter how far away it is.
- C-field and Steady-State Model
- New Idea – C-Field: They introduced the “creation field”, which creates new matter in space.
- Universe Without a Start: Their steady-state theory says the universe has no beginning or end, is always expanding, and keeps its density constant.
- Against the Big Bang: They believed the Big Bang couldn’t explain everything we see today.
- Hydrogen Creation: They said hydrogen atoms form in space to fill in the gaps as the universe grows.
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- CMB Discovery (1965): Scientists found cosmic microwave background radiation, strong proof of the Big Bang.
- Other Evidence: Later discoveries like young, chaotic galaxies and studies by Hawking and Penrose supported the Big Bang.
- Current View: The Big Bang theory became more accepted, but Hoyle and Narlikar’s ideas are still respected for their scientific value.
| [UPSC 2018] Consider the following phenomena:
1. Light is affected by gravity.
2. The Universe is constantly expanding.
3. Matter warps its surrounding space-time.
Which of the above is/are the prediction/predictions of Albert Einstein’s General Theory of Relativity, often discussed in media?
Options: (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 3 only (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3* |
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Why in the News?
The RBI has released revised draft guidelines for investments made by Regulated Entities (REs) in Alternative Investment Funds (AIFs) to ensure better regulatory oversight, prevent misuse of funds, and align with the rules already set by SEBI.
What are Alternative Investment Funds (AIFs)?
- Definition: They are unique investment vehicles that are privately pooled and invested in alternative asset classes such as venture capital, private equity, hedge funds, commodities, real estate, and derivatives.
- Regulation: They are governed by SEBI under the SEBI (Alternative Investment Funds) Regulations, 2012.
- Working: It can be formed as a trust, company, Limited Liability Partnership (LLP), or any other SEBI-permitted structure.
- Legal Structure: They can be set up as trusts, companies, Limited Liability Partnership (LLP), or other legally permitted forms.
- Investor Base:
- AIFs are meant for High Net-Worth Individuals (HNIs) and institutional investors, NOT small retail investors.
- Resident Indians, NRIs, and foreign nationals can invest.
- Minimum Investment Requirement:
- The minimum investment size is ₹1 crore (SEBI, May 2024), except for accredited investors as defined by SEBI.
- For employees or directors of the AIF or its manager, the minimum investment is ₹25 lakh.
- An AIF must have a minimum corpus of ₹20 crore (₹10 crore for Angel Funds).
Types of AIFs:
- Category I: These funds invest in early-stage unlisted companies in the form of equity or debt (venture capital). These alternative asset funds can also invest in infrastructure-based projects or social ventures.
- Category II: These types of funds invest in equity or debt of unlisted companies that are in the mid or late stage of growth and are known as private equity or pre-IPO, respectively.
- Category III: This category of funds invests in the shares of listed companies. These alternative strategy funds can be for any period, long only or a combination of long and short.
| [UPSC 2014] What does Venture Capital mean?
Options: (a) A short-term capital provided to industries. (b) A long-term start-up capital provided to new entrepreneurs* (c) Funds provided to industries at times of incurring losses. (d) Funds provided for replacement and renovation of industries. |
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Why in the News?
India is likely to become the world’s largest potato producer, overtaking China, by 2050, according to experts from the International Potato Center (CIP) based in Peru.
Back2Basics: International Potato Center (CIP)
- The CIP is a research-for-development organisation founded in 1971, focused on improving potato, sweet potato, and Andean root and tuber crops.
- Headquartered in Lima, Peru, CIP operates in over 20 countries across Africa, Asia, and Latin America.
- It maintains the world’s largest Potato Gene Bank, safeguarding biodiversity for future use in research and breeding.
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Potato Cultivation in India:
- About: Potato (Solanum tuberosum) is known as the “King of Vegetables” and is India’s fourth most important food crop after rice, wheat, and maize.
- Origin: Introduced to India by Portuguese traders in the 17th century.
- Geographic Spread: Grown in 23 states, but 85% of production comes from the Indo-Gangetic plains in North India.
- Top Producing States:
- Uttar Pradesh: ~30% of total output
- West Bengal: ~23.5%
- Bihar: ~17%
- Other contributors: Punjab, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh
- Climate Needs: Potato is a cool-season crop.
- Ideal growth temp: 24°C
- Ideal tuber formation temp: 20°C
- Soil Requirements: Prefers well-drained, fertile soils with moisture retention.
- Planting Seasons:
- Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand: Spring (Jan–Feb), Summer (May)
- Punjab, Haryana, UP, Bihar, Bengal: Main crop in October
- MP, Maharashtra, Karnataka: Both kharif and rabi seasons
- Seed Management: Use disease-free, sprouted seeds (30–50g);
- Popular varieties: Kufri Jyoti, Kufri Bahar, Kufri Pukhraj, and Kufri Chandramukhi.
- Fertilization & Irrigation: Apply balanced nutrients, especially phosphorus and potassium; drip irrigation is recommended.
- Harvesting: Ready in 90–120 days, harvested manually or mechanically.
Global Comparison and Future Outlook:
- Global Rank: India is the second-largest producer after China.
- Production Volume: Over 50 million tonnes/year currently; projected to reach 100 million tonnes by 2050 (CIP experts).
- Growth Drivers: Expansion is due to large cultivation area, strong domestic demand, and government support.
- Tuber Crop Potential: Promoting crops like sweet potato can improve nutrition, livelihoods, and climate resilience.
Policy measure for Potato Farmers: Operation Greens
- It is a scheme launched by the GoI in 2018, modelled after Operation Flood, with the aim to stabilize the supply and prices of Tomato, Onion, and Potato (TOP) crops.
- The scheme is implemented by the Ministry of Food Processing Industries (MoFPI) and was initially allocated a budget of ₹500 crore.
- Objectives:
- Stabilize the supply and prices of potatoes (along with tomato and onion) to protect both farmers and consumers from extreme price fluctuations.
- Reduce post-harvest losses of potatoes by improving storage, processing, and logistics infrastructure
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| [UPSC 2014] In India, cluster bean (Guar) is traditionally used as a vegetable or animal feed, but recently the cultivation of this has assumed significance.
Which one of the following statements is correct in this context?
Options: (a) The oil extracted from seeds is used in the manufacture of biodegradable plastics. (b) The gum made from its seeds is used in the extraction of shale gas.* (c) The leaf extract of this plant has the properties of antihistamines. (d) It is a source of high quality biodiesel. |
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PYQ Relevance:
[UPSC 2013] ‘The expansion and strengthening of NATO and a stronger US-Europe strategic partnership works well in India.’ What is your opinion about this statement? Give reasons and examples to support your answer.
Linkage: Turkiye is a NATO member, and its foreign policy decisions (like supporting Pakistan or Azerbaijan) are influenced by its position within such alliances, which in turn affects India’s relationships and interests in the region. |
Mentor’s Comment: India, Turkey, and Azerbaijan entered into diplomatic tensions after Turkey and Azerbaijan openly supported Pakistan following the Pahalgam massacre. This support sparked a sharp rise in regional political conflicts and strong public reactions. Social media anger quickly escalated, prompting top Indian institutions to pause agreements and causing many travelers to cancel trips to Turkey and Azerbaijan, as reported by travel websites.
Today’s editorial explains the diplomatic tensions between India, Turkey, and Azerbaijan and their implications. This topic will be included in GS Paper I (Unity in Society) and GS Paper II (International Relations).
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Let’s learn!
Why in the News?
Data shows that even if India officially bans trade with Azerbaijan and Turkey, it is likely to experience minimal losses due to limited economic dependence on these countries.
What triggered the boycott of Turkiye and Azerbaijan in India?
- Support for Pakistan: Turkiye and Azerbaijan backed Pakistan following India’s military confrontation after the Pahalgam massacre, which angered many Indians.
- Social media-driven calls for boycott: The support sparked calls on social media to boycott both countries, leading to a surge in travel cancellations. Eg: Sharp spike in cancellations of tour bookings to Turkiye and Azerbaijan reported by travel platforms.
- Institutional actions: Indian institutions suspended ties, and trader associations resolved to boycott trade and commercial ties with these countries. Eg: IIT Bombay and IIT Roorkee suspended MoUs with Turkish universities.
Why do Azerbaijan and Turkey oppose India?
- Support for Pakistan in the Kashmir conflict: Historically, Turkiye has aligned with Pakistan on the Kashmir issue, opposing India’s sovereignty over the region. Eg: Turkiye’s consistent diplomatic backing of Pakistan’s claims on Kashmir since the partition of India in 1947.
- Azerbaijan’s conflict with Armenia: India has historically supplied arms and support to Armenia, Azerbaijan’s adversary in the Nagorno-Karabakh conflict, creating tensions with Azerbaijan. Eg: India’s provision of surface-to-air missile systems to Armenia, opposing Azerbaijan’s territorial claims.
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How have arms trade relations evolved between Turkiye and Pakistan?
- Long-term arms exports since the 1990s: Turkiye has been supplying arms to Pakistan continuously for over three decades. Eg: SIPRI data shows arms exports from Turkiye to Pakistan starting in the 1990s.
- Major focus on artillery systems: A significant part of the trade involves artillery like naval guns, howitzers, self-propelled guns, and multiple rocket launchers. Eg: Pakistan has received multiple rocket launchers and howitzers from Turkiye.
- Supply of armored vehicles: Turkiye exports tanks, armored cars, and personnel carriers to Pakistan’s military. Eg: Delivery of armored vehicles strengthens Pakistan’s ground forces.
- Mutual strategic and political support: Arms trade is supported by reciprocal backing in geopolitical issues such as Kashmir and Cyprus. Eg: Turkiye supports Pakistan on Kashmir; Pakistan supports Turkiye on Cyprus disputes.
- Strengthened ties during regional conflicts: The relationship deepened as Turkiye provided diplomatic and military backing to Pakistan in various geopolitical standoffs. Eg: Turkiye’s vocal support for Pakistan during Kashmir-related tensions.
Who stands to lose more economically if trade is banned?
- India’s low dependency on crude oil: The combined share of crude oil imports from these two countries is less than 1% of India’s total crude imports. Eg: Charts show less than 1% crude import share over the past six years.
- Azerbaijan’s significant reliance on India: India was Azerbaijan’s third largest destination for crude oil exports in 2023. Eg: Azerbaijan could face a bigger impact if India bans trade.
- Limited trade volume in machinery: Turkiye accounts for only about 1% of India’s total imports in machinery, including nuclear reactors and boilers. Eg: India relies more on countries like China and Germany for such equipment.
- India’s diversified import sources: India’s major imports come from several other countries, making it less vulnerable to a ban on trade with Turkiye and Azerbaijan. Eg: China and Germany are larger suppliers of machinery than Turkiye.
- Greater economic impact likely on Azerbaijan: Azerbaijan stands to lose more from India’s trade ban because India is a major crude oil buyer for them. Eg: India being the third largest market for Azerbaijan’s crude oil exports highlights this dependence.
Where has there been a notable rise in Indian tourism and student migration recently?
Indian tourism
- Significant increase in Indian tourists to Turkey: In 2024, about 330,000 Indian tourists visited Turkey, marking a 20.7% increase from the previous year. This growth was due to better air connectivity and Turkey’s appeal as a budget-friendly European destination.
- Rapid growth of Indian tourists in Azerbaijan: Indian tourist arrivals in Azerbaijan jumped from around 60,700 in 2022 to over 243,000 in 2024, fueled by affordability and rich cultural heritage.
Student migration
- Increase in Indian students in Turkey: Indian student numbers in Turkey have grown from less than 100 in 2017 to several hundreds by 2024, attracted by diverse programs and competitive costs.
- Rising Indian student in Azerbaijan: The number of Indian students in Azerbaijan also increased significantly, supported by institutions like Türkiye-Azerbaijan University established in 2024.
Note: This 2024 data is from before Operation Sindoor. The real effects on tourism and student migration will be seen later because it takes time for such events to show their impact. |
Way forward:
- Promote diplomatic dialogue: India should engage in sustained diplomatic efforts with Turkiye and Azerbaijan to address mutual concerns and reduce geopolitical tensions.
- Expand people-to-people and economic ties: Enhancing cultural exchanges, trade, and educational cooperation can build trust and diversify relations beyond political differences.
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Why in the News?
The release of the Panchayat Advancement Index (PAI) Baseline Report 2022–23 in April 2025 marks a major milestone in India’s grassroots governance and data-driven policymaking.
Why does it mark a major milestone?
- Empowers Local Decision-Making: PAI presents complex data in an understandable way for Gram Panchayat leaders, enabling them to identify gaps and take targeted actions. Eg: A sarpanch can use PAI scores to improve health or education outcomes in their village.
- Links Data to Outcomes: It moves beyond raw data by connecting indicators to actual development results, helping stakeholders focus on measurable progress. Eg: PAI scores reveal if a Panchayat is truly “healthy,” guiding specific interventions to improve wellbeing.
What is the Panchayat Advancement Index (PAI)?
PAI is a composite index using 435 local indicators (331 mandatory, 104 optional) and 566 data points across nine themes of Localized SDGs (LSDGs).
Why is it significant?
- Scale: Covers over 2.16 lakh gram panchayats; data from 11,000+ GPs excluded for non-validation.
- Participatory & Understandable: Designed for grassroots actors—sarpanchs, ward members—enabling self-assessment and goal-setting.
- States’ Response: While 25 States/UTs provided almost complete data, Uttar Pradesh reported only 40% GPs, raising concerns about governance bottlenecks.
- Outcome-Oriented: Data is now tied directly to outcomes—e.g., identifying gaps in a GP’s health indicators helps drive targeted intervention.
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What are the main limitations in evidence-based decision-making?
- Delayed and Inaccessible Data: Lack of timely and accessible data hinders informed planning and policy formulation. Eg: The delay in conducting the Census and not releasing its data restricts effective resource allocation in sectors like health, education, and welfare schemes.
- Poor Data Usability and Visualization: Data made available is often in complex formats, making it difficult for citizens and policymakers to interpret and act upon. Eg: On data.gov.in, datasets are vast but lack adequate visualization tools, overwhelming even trained researchers.
- Top-Down Data Flow: Data is often generated at the grassroots but is primarily used by officials at the state or national level, not by local decision-makers. Eg: Gram Panchayat data is collected but rarely used by local elected representatives due to lack of access or interpretation tools.
Who are the stakeholders expected to benefit from the PAI?
- Gram Panchayat Representatives: Sarpanches and ward members can understand their Panchayat’s performance and take action to improve local governance.
- State and District Level Officials: Block Development Officers and District Collectors can use PAI data to plan and monitor development programs more effectively.
- Elected Legislators: Members of Parliament (MPs) and Members of Legislative Assemblies (MLAs) can identify local gaps and use funds from MPLADS/MLALADS accordingly.
- Line Departments and Frontline Workers: Departments like health, education, and rural development can coordinate efforts better using specific PAI indicators.
- Civil Society Organizations (CSOs) and Academia: NGOs and Unnat Bharat Abhiyan institutions can support Panchayats by interpreting data and suggesting local interventions.
- Citizens and Local Communities: Residents can be made aware of their Panchayat’s status and engage in participatory planning and accountability.
How can they contribute to achieving the LSDGs (Localisation of Sustainable Development Goals)?
- Targeted Planning and Implementation: Stakeholders can use PAI data to identify local gaps and implement focused interventions aligned with LSDGs. Eg: A Panchayat noticing low scores in sanitation can prioritize toilet construction and awareness drives under Swachh Bharat Abhiyan.
- Resource Optimization and Fund Allocation: Elected representatives and officials can direct funds more effectively to areas needing urgent attention. Eg: An MLA can use MLALAD funds to improve access to clean drinking water in a low-scoring GP on the “Safe Drinking Water” indicator.
- Community Mobilization and Accountability: Civil society and academic institutions can raise awareness and ensure community involvement in achieving development goals. Eg: An NGO working with local residents can organize meetings to explain their PAI score and co-develop action plans to improve education or health indicators.
Where does data submission fall short, and why is it concerning?
- Incomplete data: Undermines the reliability of the Panchayat Advancement Index (PAI). Eg: Without full data from Uttar Pradesh, true development gaps remain hidden.
- Policy gaps: Poor data coverage leads to misinformed decisions, leaving underperforming areas unaddressed. Eg: GPs excluded from PAI may not receive adequate funds or interventions.
- Inequality: Skewed data causes unequal resource allocation and widens regional disparities. Eg: States with full data submissions benefit more from schemes aligned with LSDGs.
What are the steps taken by the Indian government?
- National Data Sharing and Accessibility Policy (NDSAP), 2012: The government made non-sensitive data publicly available in open, accessible formats to promote transparency. Eg: Data is shared through portals like https://data.gov.in.
- Panchayat Advancement Index (PAI): A composite index was developed to analyze and present data from over 2.16 lakh Gram Panchayats to help local leaders understand and act on development goals. Eg: PAI links data to outcomes like health, enabling targeted interventions at the grassroots.
- Use of Technology and Portals: The government created online platforms like the PAI portal (www.pai.gov.in) for easy access and report generation by officials and representatives. Eg: MPs and MLAs can generate constituency-wise reports to plan specific development actions.
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Way forward:
- Improve Data Accessibility and Visualization: Develop user-friendly dashboards and visualization tools to make data easily understandable for all stakeholders, including elected representatives and citizens.
- Strengthen Data Validation and Coverage: Ensure complete and accurate data submission from all states and Gram Panchayats through rigorous validation and support mechanisms.
Mains PYQ:
[UPSC 2022] “To what extent, in your opinion, has the decentralisation of power in India changed the governance landscape at the grassroots ?
Linkage: The governance landscape at the grassroots and the impact of decentralization. Evaluating this impact necessitates a detailed understanding of the local reality and changes brought about by devolving power – precisely what “getting the micropicture” seeks to achieve.
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Why in the News?
In May 2025, Saudi Arabia led OPEC+ to reverse previous production cuts, sparking a full-fledged oil price war—a new form of global conflict fought aggressively over barrels of crude oil rather than through military aggression.
What is OPEC+?
OPEC+ is a group consisting of the Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) plus several non-OPEC oil-producing countries that coordinate their oil production policies to manage global oil supply and influence prices.
Key points about OPEC+:
- OPEC: A cartel of 13 major oil-exporting countries, including Saudi Arabia, Iraq, Iran, UAE, Nigeria, and others.
- The “+”: Includes major non-OPEC producers like Russia, Mexico, Kazakhstan, Oman, and others.
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What led OPEC+ to increase oil production in May 2025?
- Ineffectiveness of previous cuts: Despite voluntary output cuts of 2.2 million barrels per day (bpd) by eight members in 2023 (including a collective cut of 5 million bpd earlier), oil prices kept declining.
- Oversupply & competition: New producers (e.g., Brazil, Guyana, shale oil players) increased their market share, reducing OPEC+’s control.
- Saudi frustration: Overproduction by OPEC+ members like Kazakhstan, Iraq, UAE, and Nigeria undermined collective output discipline.
- Market flooding strategy: To discipline overproducers and regain market share, Saudi Arabia led a reversal in strategy, increasing output (411,000 bpd) starting June 2025.
- Preemptive move: Anticipating return of major sanctioned producers (Iran, Venezuela, Russia), OPEC+ may be frontloading production before supply increases further.
Why is Saudi Arabia called a “swing producer”?
- Large spare production capacity: It can increase or decrease output swiftly to influence global oil prices.
- Stabilizing role: Prefers stable and moderately high prices to ensure consistent oil revenue.
- Historical precedence: Has previously launched price wars (1985–86, 1998, 2014–16, 2020) to discipline the market and punish overproducers.
- Current context: Took the largest voluntary cut (3 million bpd) in 2024, but shifted to increasing output as a strategic move to reassert influence.
Who are the key oil producers under U.S. sanctions?
- Russia: Sanctioned due to the Ukraine conflict and other geopolitical reasons.
- Iran: Sanctioned for its nuclear program and regional activities.
- Venezuela: Sanctioned for political repression and economic mismanagement.
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How does the oil price war affect India’s economy?
- Lower Import Bill and Fiscal Savings: Falling oil prices reduce India’s import costs significantly. Eg: In 2024–25, India spent $137 billion on crude imports. A $1 drop in global oil prices can save India roughly $1.5 billion annually.
- Reduced Export Earnings from Petroleum Products: India exports refined petroleum products, a top export item. Lower crude prices reduce global demand and margins for these exports. Eg: Refinery margins decline, affecting companies like Reliance Industries and Indian Oil Corporation, and reducing foreign exchange earnings.
- Negative Impact on Gulf Economies and Remittances: Gulf countries face revenue drops, leading to reduced infrastructure spending and job losses for Indian expatriates. Eg: Over 9 million Indians work in the Gulf, sending home more than $50 billion in remittances annually. Job losses or salary cuts can hurt India’s balance of payments.
- Lower Tax Revenues from Oil Sector: As oil prices drop, the government earns less in excise duties, royalties, and other taxes from oil and gas sales. Eg: The petroleum sector contributes significantly to India’s tax base—lower prices reduce collections, affecting fiscal planning and public spending.
- Strained Bilateral Economic Ties with Oil Exporters: Economic decline in oil-exporting countries (like Saudi Arabia, UAE, and Nigeria) affects India’s project exports, bilateral trade, and inbound investments. Eg: Indian companies working on infrastructure projects in Gulf countries may face payment delays or cancellations due to budgetary constraints in host nations.
Way forward:
- Diversify Energy Sources and Boost Renewables: Reduce dependency on crude oil imports by accelerating adoption of renewable energy, energy efficiency, and alternative fuels like hydrogen and biofuels to enhance energy security.
- Strengthen Economic Resilience and Diplomatic Engagement: Build strategic petroleum reserves, improve fiscal buffers, and deepen diplomatic ties with diverse energy suppliers to better manage supply shocks and geopolitical risks.
Mains PYQ:
[UPSC 2013] It is said the India has substantial reserves of shale oil and gas, which can feed the needs of country for quarter century. However, tapping of the resources doesn’t appear to be high on the agenda. Discuss critically the availability and issues involved.
Linkage: It focuses on the potential of unconventional sources like shale oil/gas within India, which could impact its energy security and reduce dependence on imports influenced by global price tensions.
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Why in the News?
The Overseas Citizenship of India (OCI) status of a notable British-Indian academic has been cancelled due to involvement in anti-India activities.
About Overseas Citizenship of India (OCI):
- Launch: Introduced in August 2005 to give Persons of Indian Origin (PIOs) a long-term connection to India.
- Eligibility: Open to those who were citizens of India on/after January 26, 1950, or eligible for Indian citizenship on that date.
- Nature: OCI is not full citizenship but offers lifelong visa and residency benefits.
- Benefits: Includes a multiple-entry, lifelong visa and exemption from police registration.
- Administered by: Ministry of Home Affairs (MHA).
- Global Numbers (2023): Over 45 lakh OCI holders from 129 countries — top sources include the USA (16.8 lakh), UK (9.34 lakh), Australia (4.94 lakh), and Canada (4.18 lakh).
Who are the Persons of Indian Origin (PIOs)?
- The PIO category was abolished in 2015 and merged with the OCI category. However, existing PIO cards are valid till December 31, 2023.
- PIO referred to a:
- Foreign citizen (except a national of Pakistan, Afghanistan Bangladesh, China, Iran, Bhutan, Sri Lanka and Nepal) who at any time held an Indian passport, or
- Who or either of their parents/ grandparents/great grandparents was born and permanently resided in India as defined in Government of India Act, 1935, or
- Who is a spouse of a citizen of India or a PIO.
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Rules, Amendments & Privileges:
- 2021 Rule Change: Special permission required for visiting restricted areas, conducting research, journalism, or religious work.
- FEMA Status: Treated as foreign nationals under the Foreign Exchange Management Act (2003).
- Earlier Privileges:
- 2005: Life-long visa, no FRRO (Foreigners Registration Office) registration
- 2007: Parity with NRIs for adoption, domestic airfare
- 2009: Parity for monument entry and access to regulated professions
Limitations and Ineligibility:
- Not Eligible:
- Individuals with parents/grandparents from Pakistan or Bangladesh
- Foreign military personnel, active or retired
- Spouse Clause: Foreign spouse eligible if legally married for at least two years.
- No Political Rights: OCI holders cannot vote, contest elections, hold constitutional posts (President, Vice President, or Supreme Court/High Court Judge), or work in Indian government services.
| [UPSC 2021] Consider the following statements:
1.There is only one citizenship and one domicile.
2.A citizen by birth only can become the Head of State.
3.A foreigner, once granted citizenship, cannot be deprived of it under any circumstances.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
Options: (a) 1 only * (b) 2 only (c) 1 and 3 (d) 2 and 3 |
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Why in the News?
The Global Report on Food Crises (GRFC) 2025 has revealed that more than 295 million people in 53 countries and territories faced acute hunger in 2024.
About the Global Report on Food Crises (GRFC):
- Publication: The GRFC has been published every year since 2016 by the Global Network Against Food Crises (GNAFC).
- Supporting Organisations: It is backed by the Food Security Information Network (FSIN) and includes input from UN agencies, the EU, and various NGOs.
- Purpose: Provides a consensus-based analysis of acute food insecurity and malnutrition worldwide.
Key Highlights from GRFC 2025:
- Scope: The 2025 report covers 65 countries, with complete data for 53. India was not included in the analysis.
- Global Hunger Level: In 2024, 295 million people faced acute food insecurity, up 13.7 million from 2023 — the sixth consecutive year of rising hunger.
- Severity: 23% of the analysed population experienced food insecurity, remaining above 20% for five years.
- Catastrophic Hunger: A record 1.9 million people were in Integrated Food Security Phase Classification (IPC) Phase 5—catastrophic levels of hunger.
| [UPSC 2023] Which of the following countries has been suffering from decades of civil strife and food shortages and was in the news in the recent past for its very severe famine?
Options: (a) Angola (b) Costa Rica (c) Ecuador (d) Somalia * |
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Why in the News?
As of February 2025, the Indian Coast Guard (ICG) protected a record 6.98 lakh Olive Ridley turtles during their mass nesting at the Rushikulya river mouth in Odisha.
About Operation Olivia:
- Launch: Operation Olivia is an annual conservation mission by the Indian Coast Guard, started in the early 1980s.
- Main Objective: It aims to protect Olive Ridley turtles during their nesting season, from November to May.
- Primary Locations: The operation focuses on Odisha’s coast, especially Gahirmatha Beach, Devi River mouth, and Rushikulya River mouth.
- Turtle Nesting Scale: Over 8 lakh turtles arrive annually at these sites to nest.
- Surveillance Efforts: The Coast Guard has conducted more than 5,387 surface patrols and 1,768 aerial missions.
- Community Engagement: Fishermen are encouraged to use Turtle Excluder Devices (TEDs) that allow turtles to escape fishing nets.
About Olive Ridley Turtles:
- Appearance: Named for their olive-green shell, or carapace.
- Diet: They are Omnivores, though feeding mainly on jellyfish, crustaceans, and molluscs.
- Nesting Behaviour: Known for Arribada, a phenomenon where thousands of females come ashore simultaneously to lay eggs.
- Habitat Range: Found in warm waters of the Pacific, Atlantic, and Indian Oceans.
- Major Nesting Sites in India:
- Gahirmatha Marine Sanctuary, Odisha (largest site)
- Devi River mouth (discovered in 1981)
- Rushikulya River mouth (discovered in 1994)
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- IUCN Red List: Listed as Vulnerable.
- CITES: Included in Appendix I, banning international trade.
- Wildlife Protection Act, 1972: Listed under Schedule I, offering the highest legal protection in India.
| [UPSC 2002] The sea coast of which one of the following states has become famous as a nesting place for the giant Olive Ridley turtles from South America?
Options: (a) Goa (b) Gujarat (c) Odisha* (d) Tamil Nadu |
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Why in the News?
Scientists now believe the Moon’s near side looks different from its far side due to its internal structure and volcanic past, revealed by NASA’s Gravity Recovery and Interior Laboratory (GRAIL) mission.
About the GRAIL Mission:
- Launch: NASA launched the GRAIL mission in 2011 to study the moon’s internal structure.
- Spacecraft Used: It used two spacecraft, Ebb and Flow, flying in tandem to detect gravity variations.
- Objectives: The mission measured tiny changes in distance between the two spacecraft caused by differences in the moon’s gravitational field.
- Scientific Outcome: The data revealed important details about the moon’s crust thickness, interior composition, and subsurface features.
Key Findings: Reasons for the Moon’s Asymmetry
- Tidal Deformation: The nearside bends more than the farside due to Earth’s gravity, a process called tidal deformation.
- Internal Activity: The nearside is geologically warmer and more active, suggesting internal structural differences.
- Volcanic History: Ancient volcanic activity on the nearside formed large basaltic plains, while the farside remained rugged and less active.
- Heat Distribution: Elements like thorium and titanium accumulated on the nearside, making it 100–200°C hotter than the farside.
- Crust Thickness: The nearside has a thinner crust, allowing magma to escape, while the farside’s thicker crust trapped heat and blocked eruptions.
- Thermal Contrast: The thinner crust also allowed more heat-producing elements to concentrate, increasing the temperature gap between the two sides.
Why do these findings matter?
- Support for Lunar Missions: Insights from GRAIL help design better navigation and timing systems for future lunar operations.
- Applications: GRAIL’s method can be applied to other moons like Enceladus and Ganymede, which may hold potential for life.
| [UPSC 2007] NASA’S Deep Impact space mission was employed to take detailed pictures of which comet nucleus?
Options: (a) Halley’s Comet (b) Hale-Bopp (c) Hyakutake (d) Tempel 1 * |
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PYQ Relevance:
[UPSC 2017] Critically examine the Supreme Court’s judgement on ‘National Judicial Appointments Commission Act, 2014’ with reference to appointment of judges of higher judiciary in India.
Linkage: NJAC Act was struck down (the Collegium system) had its detailed guidelines laid down by the Supreme Court in the Third Judges case, which itself was a Presidential reference made under Article 143. Therefore, understanding the advisory jurisdiction under Article 143 and its outcome in the Third Judges case is essential background for critically examining the NJAC judgment. |
Mentor’s Comment: The Supreme Court recently set time limits for Governors to decide on state bills, so they can’t delay action forever—a practice often called a “Pocket Veto.” The Court said Governors must act within one or three months, based on the case. This raised doubts about the Court’s powers under Article 142, so President Murmu asked for its advice under Article 143.
Today’s editorial talks about Article 143 of the Constitution, where the President has asked the Supreme Court for its opinion on the powers and responsibilities of the President and Governors. This topic is useful for GS Paper II (Indian Polity) in the UPSC Mains exam.
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Let’s learn!
Why in the News?
President Droupadi Murmu has used Article 143 of the Constitution to ask the Supreme Court for its opinion on some important questions about the powers and duties of the President and Governors, especially related to how and when they should act on state bills.
What are the provisions?
- Article 143(1): The President may refer any matter to the Supreme Court for its opinion. In the first case, the Supreme Court may tender or may refuse to tender its opinion to the president.
- Article 143(2): Allows the President to refer disputes arising from pre-Constitution agreements, including state-related matters, for the Supreme Court’s opinion. The Supreme Court must tender its opinion to the President. The Supreme Court’s opinion is advisory—not binding or precedent-setting—but carries strong persuasive value.
- Article 145: Such references must be heard by a bench of at least five judges.
Note: The President makes these references based on the Cabinet’s advice.
What is the historical context?
The advisory jurisdiction of India’s Supreme Court under Article 143 originates from the Government of India Act, 1935, which gave the Governor-General the power to refer important legal questions to the federal court for opinion.
What were past instances?
- Delhi Laws Act Case (1951): Clarified the scope of delegated legislation by the legislature to the executive.
- Kerala Education Bill (1958): Interpreted the balance between Fundamental Rights and Directive Principles, especially regarding minority education rights under Article 30.
- Berubari Union Case (1960): Held that ceding Indian territory to another country requires a constitutional amendment under Article 368.
- Special Courts Bill (1978): Stated that references must be specific and that the Court may decline to answer vague or political questions.
- Third Judges Case (1998): Laid down detailed guidelines for the appointment of judges and established the collegium system.
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What is the significance of Article 143 and its colonial legacy?
- Provides Advisory Role to the Executive: Allows the President to seek the Supreme Court’s opinion on complex legal or constitutional issues, helping the executive navigate difficult questions. Eg: President referred the question on delegated legislation in the Delhi Laws Act case (1951).
- Ensures Constitutional Clarity: Helps resolve ambiguities or uncertainties in law, thus guiding governance and preventing conflicts. Eg: The Berubari case (1960) clarified constitutional procedures for ceding Indian territory.
- Maintains Separation of Powers: The advisory nature avoids direct judicial interference in executive functions while still providing legal guidance. Eg: The Supreme Court may decline vague or political questions, as in the Special Courts Bill reference (1978).
What key issues are raised in the latest Article 143 reference?
- Judicial Review of Executive Discretion: The reference questions whether the judiciary can review the discretionary powers of the President and Governors, particularly regarding the assent to bills under Articles 200 and 201.
- Imposition of Timelines on Constitutional Authorities: It seeks clarity on whether the Supreme Court can prescribe timelines for the President and Governors to act on bills, given that the Constitution does not specify such timeframes.
- Concept of ‘Deemed Assent’: The reference challenges the Supreme Court’s introduction of the ‘deemed assent’ concept, questioning its compatibility with the constitutional framework.
- Scope of Article 142 Powers: Article 142 gives the Supreme Court power to pass orders to do “complete justice”, but it must be within constitutional bounds. In the present reference questions whether this provision allows the Court to create new rules not found in the Constitution.
- Justiciability of Executive Actions Pre-Legislation: The reference probes whether actions of the President and Governors concerning bills can be subjected to judicial review before the bills become law.
- Impacts Federalism and Democratic Functioning: The Supreme Court’s opinion will influence the Centre-State power dynamics and safeguard democratic processes. Eg: The Cauvery dispute advisory opinion (1992) that reinforced limits on the Court’s advisory role to respect federalism.
How does India’s advisory jurisdiction compare globally?
|
India |
Canada |
United States |
| Origin / Legacy |
Inherited from Government of India Act, 1935 |
Similar colonial legacy |
No advisory jurisdiction |
| Nature of Opinion |
Non-binding but persuasive |
Non-binding but persuasive |
No advisory opinions given |
| Who Can Refer |
President on Union Council of Ministers’ advice |
Federal and provincial governments |
Not applicable |
| Judicial Approach |
Supreme Court may decline to give opinion |
Supreme Court provides opinions on request |
Strict separation of powers, no advisory role |
| Example (Eg) |
Article 143 references (e.g., Berubari case) |
Reference re Secession of Quebec (1998) – clarified constitutional secession rules |
In Muskrat v. United States (1911), the Supreme Court rejected advisory jurisdiction |
Way forward:
- Clarify Constitutional Timelines: Amend or clarify constitutional provisions to explicitly define timelines for presidential and gubernatorial actions on bills, reducing ambiguities and potential conflicts.
- Strengthen Centre-State Dialogue: Promote cooperative federalism through regular dialogue and dispute resolution mechanisms to prevent politicization of constitutional functions and ensure smooth governance.
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Why in the News?
A protest has erupted in Goa after a scientific paper on water availability and diversion in the Mahadayi basin reignited its long-standing dispute with Karnataka.
About the Mahadayi River:
- Origin: The Mahadayi River (Mhadei in Goa) originates in Bhimgad, Karnataka, in the Western Ghats.
- Length and Flow: It flows 81 km, passing through Karnataka (35 km), Goa (45 km), and Maharashtra (1 km) before reaching the Arabian Sea.
- Basin Area: Covers 2,032 sq km—78% in Goa, 18% in Karnataka, and 4% in Maharashtra.
- Significance: Forms the Mandovi River, essential for drinking water, agriculture, and navigation in Goa.
- Tributaries: Kalasa Nala, Surla Nala, Haltar Nala, Poti Nala, Mahadayi Nala, Pansheer Nala, Bail Nala, Andher Nala and many more. It has a catchment area of 2032 sq.km.
- Topography: Elevation ranges between < 0m and > 980m w.r.t Mean Sea Level, slope of the catchment varies up to 150%. Very high slope we observed in the Ghats (Braganja Ghats).
- Waterfalls: Variations in the terrain has led to formation of various water falls such as the Doodhsagar falls,Vajra poha falls etc.
- Ecology: Supports rich biodiversity, including the Salim Ali Bird Sanctuary.
- Mineral Ores found: Iron, limestone, bauxite, quartz, limestone, sand, clay, lime shell, Manganese, Asbestos, Mica, Lead, Cadmium.
Mahadayi Water Dispute:
- Karnataka’s Project: Proposed the Kalasa-Banduri Nala to divert water to the Malaprabha basin.
- Tribunal Setup: The Mahadayi Water Disputes Tribunal (2010) addressed disagreements.
- 2018 Verdict:
- Karnataka: 13.42 tmcft (1.72 from Kalasa, 2.18 from Bhandura).
- Goa: 24 tmcft (plus 9.395 tmcft for existing use).
- Maharashtra: 1.33 tmcft.
- Concerns: Goa feared impacts on Mandovi navigation; the tribunal cited tidal flow ensures stability.
- Legal Status: Both states have challenged the verdict in the Supreme Court.
Controversy Over CSIR-NIO Report:
- Study Findings: Claimed Karnataka’s diversions would have minimal impact on Goa’s water or estuarine navigation.
- Institutions: Report authored by CSIR-NIO (Goa) and INCOIS (Hyderabad).
- Recommendations: Suggested check dams and a Tillari-style agreement for shared water use and ecological balance.
Tap to read more about Interstate Water Disputes in India.
| [UPSC 2013] Constitutional mechanisms to resolve the inter-state water disputes have failed to address and solve the problems. Is the failure due to structural or process inadequacy or both? Discuss. |
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Why in the News?
Chinese researchers found that A-to-I mRNA editing, once considered random, plays a key role in development, especially in the wheat pathogen Fusarium graminearum.
About A-to-I mRNA Editing:
- mRNA: Our cells use DNA as a guide to make proteins. First, they copy DNA into messenger RNA (mRNA).
- A-to-I editing: This is a process where the letter adenosine (A) in mRNA is changed to inosine (I) by special enzymes called ADARs. The cell reads inosine as guanine (G), which can change the protein being made.
- Why it matters:
- It helps the cell make different versions of proteins without changing the DNA.
- It can remove early stop signals, allowing full proteins to be made.
- It helps the cell adapt to different conditions or stages of life.
What did scientists discover in the fungus?
- Fungal Discovery: Scientists found that the fungus edits over 26,000 mRNA sites during reproduction, not during normal growth.
- Development Role: This editing fixes early stop signals in key genes, helping the fungus develop and reproduce properly.
- Stress Adaptation: Some genes work better unedited under stress, showing the fungus edits only when needed for survival.
Does this happen in humans?
Yes, A-to-I editing is common in humans:
- In the brain: It helps with brain growth, memory, and learning.
- In the immune system: It helps fight infections and control inflammation.
Health Implications:
- Health Risks: Faulty editing is linked to epilepsy and certain cancers.
- Therapeutic Potential: Understanding this process can lead to new treatments and improve gene-editing technologies.
| [UPSC 2016] In the context of the developments in Bioinformatics, the term ‘transcriptome’, sometimes seen in the news, refers to:
Options: (a) a range of enzymes used in genome editing (b) the full range of mRNA molecules expressed by an organism * (c) the description of the mechanism of gene expression (d) a mechanism of genetic mutations taking place in cells |
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Why in the News?
The RBI may transfer a record ₹2.5–₹3 lakh crore surplus for 2024–25 after its recent review of its Economic Capital Framework (ECF).
About Surplus Transfer by RBI:
- Legal Basis: Under Section 47 of the RBI Act, 1934, the RBI must transfer its net surplus from its income to the central government.
- Tax Exemption: As per Section 48, the RBI is exempt from income tax and direct taxes.
- Timeline: RBI has recently changed its accounting year from June-July to April-May.
- Recent Transfers: In 2023–24, RBI transferred a record ₹2.11 lakh crore; estimates for 2024–25 range between ₹2.5 and 3 lakh crore.
- Reserve Allocation: Some surplus may be set aside for contingency or asset development funds.
- Policy Debate: The government often seeks higher transfers, while the RBI stresses on maintaining financial stability and autonomy.
- Past Disagreements: Tensions have occurred but are usually resolved through mutual agreement.
How does the RBI generate its surplus?
- Foreign Investments: RBI earns returns from investing in foreign government bonds, treasury bills, and deposits with other central banks.
- Domestic Bonds: It receives interest on Indian government securities (G-secs) held in its portfolio.
- Bank Lending: Income is earned by lending short-term funds to commercial banks via repo operations.
- Commission Services: The RBI charges commissions for managing borrowings and public debt for the central and state governments.
- Main Expenditure: Costs include printing currency, staff salaries and pensions, bank commissions, and dealer fees.
- Net Surplus: The surplus is what remains after expenses, provisions, and reserves are accounted for.
Back2Basics: Economic Capital Framework (ECF)
- Purpose: The ECF guides how much capital RBI must retain and how much surplus can be transferred.
- Y.H. Malegam Committee (2013): It reviewed the adequacy of reserves and surplus distribution policy in 2013, recommended a higher transfer to the government.
- Introduction: Finalised in 2019, based on a committee led by Bimal Jalan.
- Goal: Seeks to balance government funding needs with RBI’s financial resilience.
- Reserve Components: Defines key buffers like the Contingency Risk Buffer (CRB), Revaluation Reserves, and Asset Development Fund.
- Minimum CRB: Requires at least 5.5% of RBI’s balance sheet to be held as contingency reserve.
- Transfer Stability: Allows for more consistent surplus transfers when RBI’s earnings are strong.
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| [UPSC 2021] In India, the central bank’s function as the ‘lender of last resort’ usually refers to which of the following:
1.Lending to trade and industry bodies when they fail to borrow from other sources.
2.Providing liquidity to the banks having a temporary crisis.
3.Lending to governments to finance budgetary deficits.
Select the correct answer using the code given below:
Options: (a) 1 and 2 (b) 2 only * (c) 2 and 3 (d) 3 only |
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Why in the News?
The onset of cool, moisture-laden monsoon winds offers not just relief but also a significant opportunity for wind energy generation.
About the Indian Monsoon:
- Origin: The word “monsoon” comes from Arabic ‘mausin’ or Malayan ‘monsin,’ meaning “season”.
- Seasonal Wind Shift: Monsoons are seasonal winds that reverse direction with changing seasons.
- Types:
-
- Southwest Monsoon: Blows from sea to land, bringing rainfall across most of India.
- Northeast Monsoon: Blows from land to sea, bringing rain mainly to southeast India.
- Role of Tibet: The Tibetan Plateau heats up in summer, creating low pressure that draws in moist winds.
- Ocean Influence: A high-pressure system in the southern Indian Ocean helps drive the southwest monsoon.
- Atmospheric Factors: Influencers include the Subtropical Jet Stream, Tropical Easterly Jet, and ITCZ.
- Other Drivers: The Somali Jet, Somali Current, Indian Ocean Dipole, and Walker Cell also affect monsoon behaviour.
How does monsoon impact wind variability?
- Changing Wind Speeds: Monsoon wind speeds vary in strength and direction over time and place.
- Energy Planning: Wind behaviour prediction is crucial for renewable power management, especially wind energy.
- Agricultural Demand: Kharif crops planted in June depend on monsoon, raising seasonal energy demand.
- Wind Energy Output: In areas like the Western Ghats, 70% of wind energy is generated June–September.
- Forecasting Tools: Numerical Weather Prediction (NWP) models provide high-resolution wind forecasts.
- AI Models: Tools like Google’s MetNet3 use satellite and radar data to predict wind in remote areas.
India’s Wind Energy: Capacity, Growth & Challenges
- India became the 3rd largest wind and solar producer in 2024, after China and the US.
- Installed wind capacity: 50 GW as of March 31, 2025.
- In 2024, wind and solar contributed 10% of electricity—solar 7%, wind 3%; hydro added 8%, totalling 22% from clean sources.
- Solar capacity grew by 24 GW in 2024, doubling 2023’s figure; wind grew by 3.4 GW.
- Leading wind additions: Gujarat (1,250 MW), Karnataka (1,135 MW), Tamil Nadu (980 MW).
- Top wind states: Tamil Nadu, Gujarat, and Maharashtra; targets: 140 GW wind and 500 GW non-fossil capacity by 2030.
- Land Use & Capacity Utilization Factor (CUF): Wind farms occupy just 2% of land, allowing agriculture on the rest; CUF ranges between 16%–19%, with peak generation during monsoon months.
|
| [UPSC 2014] The seasonal reversal of winds is the typical characteristic of:
Options: (a) Equatorial climate (b) Mediterranean climate (c) Monsoon climate * (d) All of the above climates |
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Why in the News?
Recently, the Ministry of Road Transport and Highways (MoRTH) has approved a 166.8-km four-lane highway from Shillong to Silchar. This highway will later be extended to Zorinpui in Mizoram and will link the Kaladan Multi-Modal Transit Transport Project (KMMTTP) with a fast road network running through the center of Northeast India.
What is the Kaladan project’s role in Northeast India’s connectivity?
- The Kaladan Multi-Modal Transit Transport Project (KMMTTP) offers a strategic alternative to the narrow and vulnerable Siliguri Corridor (“Chicken’s Neck”), currently the only land route connecting the Northeast to the rest of India. Eg: Direct Kolkata–Mizoram route via Myanmar.
- The project significantly shortens the transport distance (by around 1,000 km) and time (3–4 days), facilitating faster movement of goods and people, and promoting trade and investment in the resource-rich but infrastructure-poor Northeast.
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Why have India-Bangladesh ties worsened recently?
- Political Shift and Leadership Change: The ousting of pro-India Prime Minister Sheikh Hasina in August 2024 disrupted longstanding bilateral ties. Her party, the Awami League, was subsequently banned by the interim government led by Muhammad Yunus, raising concerns in India about democratic processes and political inclusivity.
- Strained Diplomatic Exchanges: Interim leader Muhammad Yunus made statements perceived as antagonistic by India, such as referring to Northeast India as “landlocked” and suggesting Bangladesh as the “only guardian of the ocean.” These remarks, especially during his visit to China, were viewed by India as a shift towards a more China-aligned stance, causing diplomatic unease.
- Trade Restrictions and Economic Tensions: In response to Bangladesh’s interim government’s approach, India imposed restrictions on Bangladeshi exports to its Northeast region.
Why has the Kaladan project been delayed?
- Security Concerns: Ongoing civil unrest in Myanmar, especially in Rakhine State, has disrupted construction and posed risks to workers. Eg: In 2024, the Arakan Army seized Paletwa, making the area unsafe for project activities.
- Incomplete Infrastructure: Critical segments of the project, especially the road link from Paletwa to Zorinpui, remain unfinished. Eg: The 109 km road stretch needed to connect the waterway to the Indian border is still under construction.
- Operational Hurdles: Difficult terrain, weak contractor coordination, and reliance on local sub-contracting have caused delays. Eg: Despite awarding the contract to IRCON in 2022, progress has been slow due to logistical difficulties.
How does the new Shillong-Silchar-Zorinpui highway enhance the connectivity of the Kaladan project?
- Strategic Redundancy: The highway provides an alternative route to the vulnerable Siliguri Corridor, ensuring uninterrupted access to the Northeast. Eg: In response to Bangladesh’s “landlocked” remark, India approved the ₹22,864 crore Shillong–Silchar highway to bypass Bangladesh.
- Integrated Multi-Modal Link: It seamlessly connects to the Kaladan Multi-Modal Transit Transport Project, facilitating efficient cargo movement between Kolkata and the Northeast. Eg: The Shillong–Silchar highway acts as a continuation of the Kaladan project, linking the Northeast to Kolkata via Myanmar.
- Economic Development: Enhanced connectivity boosts trade, tourism, and economic activities in the Northeast region. Eg: The new corridor is expected to spur economic development by improving road connectivity and reducing travel time.
- Reduced Transit Time: The highway shortens travel time between key cities, facilitating faster movement of goods and people. Eg: The 166.8 km highway will cut travel time between Shillong and Silchar from 8.5 hours to 5 hours.
Way forward:
- Strengthen Security and Coordination: Enhance cooperation with Myanmar and local stakeholders to ensure safe and timely completion of the Kaladan project’s remaining sections, addressing security challenges in Rakhine State.
- Expand Infrastructure Integration: Accelerate development of connecting highways and transport networks in Northeast India to fully leverage the Kaladan corridor for economic growth and strategic resilience.
Mains PYQ:
[UPSC 2013] The protests in Shahbag Square in Dhaka in Bangladesh reveal a fundamental split in society between the nationalists and Islamic forces. What is its significance for India?
Linkage: The political and social changes happening inside Bangladesh are important for India to understand, because they can affect India’s security and ties with its neighbour. Recently, Bangladesh’s sentiments (like cut the “Chicken’s Neck” of India) have raised concerns for India, especially around the narrow “Chicken’s Neck” – the only land link between mainland India and the Northeast. That’s why the Kaladan project is very important. It will give the Northeast a direct link to the Bay of Bengal, reducing dependence on Bangladesh.
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Why in the News?
During the tenure of Chief Justices D.Y. Chandrachud and Sanjiv Khanna, authorities appointed 15 out of 17 judges to the Madras High Court from BC, OBC, MBC, SC, or ST communities.
Why is BC/OBC/SC/ST representation highest in Madras High Court?
- Strong Social Justice Framework in Tamil Nadu: Tamil Nadu has a long history of affirmative action and reservation policies aimed at uplifting Backward Classes (BC), Other Backward Classes (OBC), Most Backward Classes (MBC), Scheduled Castes (SC), and Scheduled Tribes (ST), which creates a larger pool of eligible candidates from these communities.
- Better Educational Access and Mobility: The state contributes disproportionately to the OBC population in higher education—while Tamil Nadu has about 10% of India’s OBC population, it accounts for 13% of OBCs enrolled in higher education nationally. This leads to higher qualifications among BC/OBC candidates, increasing their chances of judicial appointments.
- Collegium Appointments Reflect State Demographics: The Supreme Court Collegium, while selecting judges, considers inputs from the state, and the Madras High Court appointments reflect this social reality, with 88.2% of recent appointees belonging to BC/OBC/MBC/SC/ST groups, the highest among all High Courts.
Why do Southern High Courts have more non-general category judges?
- Higher Social Mobility and Educational Access: Southern States like Tamil Nadu have better upward social mobility for BC/OBC groups, reflected in higher enrollment rates in higher education. Eg, Tamil Nadu has about 10% of India’s OBC population but accounts for 13% of OBCs in higher education nationally, which leads to greater representation in judicial appointments.
- Regional Political and Social Dynamics: Southern States often have political environments and social policies that encourage inclusion of non-general categories in key positions. Eg, Madras High Court had 88.2% of appointees from BC/OBC/SC/ST groups, the highest share among all High Courts.
What role do Chief Ministers and State Intelligence play in appointments?
- Chief Ministers’ Opinions Are Considered: The Supreme Court Collegium takes into account the views of Chief Ministers during the appointment process, which can subtly influence the selection of judges. Eg, this influence might explain variations in representation across States, though the exact extent of their impact is unclear.
- State Intelligence Inputs Are Used: The Collegium also reviews inputs from the State Intelligence Branch to assess candidates’ suitability and background. Eg, such inputs could affect appointments in States like Rajasthan, where political and security considerations might play a role.
How does BC social mobility affect judicial representation?
- Women from Non-General Categories Are Represented but in Small Numbers: Out of 34 women appointed, several belonged to BC, OBC, MBC, SC, or ST communities, showing some diversity in gender and social groups. Eg, at the Madras High Court, 5 women were appointed, including one from BC, one from MBC, and three from OBC categories.
- Other High Courts Also Appoint Women from Non-General Categories: States like Telangana, Kerala, Andhra Pradesh, Rajasthan, Guwahati, and Manipur have women appointees from various non-general groups, reflecting broader inclusivity. Eg, Telangana appointed women from BC and OBC categories, while Manipur had a woman appointee from the ST category.
Way forward:
- Institutionalize Diversity Criteria in Appointments: Formal guidelines should be introduced to ensure fair representation of BC/OBC/SC/ST and women in judicial appointments across all High Courts.
- Strengthen Educational and Legal Training Access: Expand scholarships, coaching, and mentorship programs for underrepresented communities to build a larger pool of eligible candidates for the judiciary.
Mains PYQ:
[UPSC 2021] Discuss the desirability of greater representation to women in the higher judiciary to ensure diversity, equity and inclusiveness.
Linkage: While the article focuses on social categories (caste/class), the underlying theme of ensuring diversity and representation in the judiciary is common. The article also provides data on women appointees, including their social categories in Madras HC.
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PYQ Relevance:
[UPSC 2024] Distinguish between gender equality, gender equity and women’s empowerment. Why is it important to take gender concerns into account in programme design and implementation?
Linkage: Gender concerns are important in programme design, aligning with the article’s argument that nutrition programmes like POSHAN have limited impact. |
Mentor’s Comment: India’s free foodgrain programme, which supports 800 million people, shows a harsh truth: hunger and malnutrition are still big problems. In this fight against malnutrition, women and girls are often ignored. Even though the economy is growing and many welfare schemes exist, nutrition is still very unequal, especially for women. The government started the POSHAN Abhiyaan in 2018 to make India free of malnutrition by 2022. This scheme focuses on improving nutrition for pregnant women, new mothers, teenage girls, and young children. But, big differences in nutrition levels still remain.
Today’s editorial discusses malnutrition among women and girls in India, despite government efforts like the POSHAN Abhiyaan. This topic is useful for GS Paper I (Women-related Issues) and GS Paper II (Welfare State).
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Let’s learn!
Why in the News?
The government launched the POSHAN Abhiyaan to end malnutrition by 2022, but it has not achieved its goals.
How does malnutrition in India remain deeply gendered?
- Stark Anaemia Disparity: NFHS-5 reports 57% of women aged 15–49 are anaemic compared to 26% of men, highlighting deep nutritional inequality.
- Underweight Burden: Nearly 1 in 5 women is underweight, a sharp contrast to men and a sign of chronic deprivation.
- Entrenched Norms: In poorer households, women eat last and least, reinforcing invisible cultural biases that deny them basic nutritional rights.
- Economic Disempowerment: 49% of women lack control over their own earnings, which translates into less dietary agency and poor health outcomes.
- Nutrition as Justice: Malnutrition is framed not just as a health issue, but a social justice issue driven by patriarchal household structures.
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Why has POSHAN 2.0 failed to improve women’s nutrition significantly?
- Underutilization of Allocated Funds: Despite a large budget, only about 69% of funds were used by December 2022, limiting the programme’s reach and effectiveness. Eg: ₹24,000 crore allocated in 2022-23, but nearly one-third remained unspent.
- Rising Anaemia Rates Despite Investments: Anaemia prevalence among women increased from 53% to 57%between NFHS-4 and NFHS-5, showing no significant improvement. Eg: NFHS-5 data shows anaemia rates rose even after POSHAN 2.0’s interventions.
- Focus on Awareness Over Actual Nutrition: The programme has raised awareness (Jan Andolan) but awareness alone cannot address the root causes of malnutrition such as poverty and food scarcity.
- Ignoring Social and Economic Barriers: POSHAN 2.0 largely addresses food supply and supplementation but does not sufficiently tackle women’s economic dependence and decision-making power. Eg: 49% of women lack control over how their income is spent, limiting their ability to benefit from nutrition programmes.
How does women’s empowerment impact nutritional outcomes?
- Improved Spending on Nutrition: When women control income, they prioritize food and health for themselves and their families, leading to better nutrition. Eg: Nobel laureate Esther Duflo found that women’s control over extra income increases spending on children’s nutrition.
- Greater Decision-Making Power: Empowered women can make choices about their diet, healthcare, and food allocation, reducing malnutrition risks. Eg: NFHS-5 showed that women with decision-making power over finances had better nutritional status.
- Increased Access to Employment and Income: Economic empowerment through stable jobs helps women afford nutritious food and healthcare. Eg: Women with even modest independent income were found less likely to be undernourished in low-income communities.
- Enhanced Health Awareness and Education: Empowered women tend to have better knowledge of nutrition and health practices, improving family nutrition. Eg: Women participating in financial literacy and health workshops show better child feeding practices.
- Reduced Gender-Based Nutritional Inequality: Empowerment challenges social norms that deprioritize women’s nutrition, leading to more equitable food distribution. Eg: Households where women contribute economically often have less gender disparity in food consumption.
How can inter-scheme convergence tackle gendered malnutrition?
| Note: Inter-scheme convergence is the coordinated collaboration of multiple government programmes across sectors. |
- Integrated Service Delivery: Combining nutrition, health, and livelihood schemes ensures women receive comprehensive support addressing multiple malnutrition causes. Eg: Anganwadi centres providing food supplements along with skill training and job linkages.
- Efficient Resource Utilization: Coordination between departments reduces duplication and optimizes use of funds for women’s nutrition and empowerment. Eg: Joint budgeting for POSHAN Abhiyaan and women’s employment schemes leads to better fund utilization.
- Holistic Empowerment of Women: Linking nutrition programmes with economic and social empowerment schemes increases women’s ability to accessand afford nutritious food. Eg: Combining POSHAN 2.0 with financial literacy and credit schemes for women.
- Targeted Interventions in High-Risk Areas: Collaborative planning allows focused efforts in districts with severe malnutrition, addressing structural and social barriers. Eg: Health, nutrition, and livelihood departments working together in tribal districts to improve women’s nutrition.
- Multi-dimensional Monitoring and Evaluation: Integrated monitoring tracks progress on nutrition and women’s empowerment indicators simultaneously, improving accountability. Eg: Measuring both reduction in anaemia and increase in women’s decision-making power under joint schemes.
What steps can make women active agents in nutrition programmes? (Way forward)
- Enhance Economic Empowerment: Provide women with access to skill training, income opportunities, and financial literacy so they can afford nutritious food and make independent decisions. Eg: Linking Anganwadi centres with local skill development and credit schemes for women.
- Increase Decision-Making Power: Promote women’s participation in household and community decisions related to health, diet, and resource allocation. Eg: Community meetings where women lead discussions on nutrition and health interventions.
- Strengthen Awareness and Capacity Building: Use nutrition programmes to conduct health education, nutritional counselling, and leadership training, empowering women as knowledge bearers and change-makers. Eg: Financial literacy workshops and health awareness sessions at POSHAN Abhiyaan centres.
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Why in the News?
Permanent Lok Adalats in as many as 16 districts of Rajasthan have ceased functioning owing to the non-extension of tenure of their presiding officers and members.
About Permanent Lok Adalats (PLAs)
- Legal Basis: PLAs are statutory bodies established under Section 22-B of the Legal Services Authorities Act, 1987.
- Establishment: They were introduced in 2002 to offer speedy and affordable dispute resolution for public utility services.
- Disputes Handled: PLAs resolve issues related to transport (air, road, water), postal, telecom, electricity, water supply, sanitation, healthcare, and insurance.
- Composition: Each PLA has a Chairman (a current or retired District Judge or higher) and 2 members with experience in the relevant public utility sectors.
- Functioning: Unlike regular Lok Adalats, PLAs operate on a continuous basis and are always available for dispute resolution.
- Jurisdiction Limit: They can hear cases involving claims up to ₹1 crore but cannot take up non-compoundable criminal cases.
- Unique Power: If conciliation fails, the PLA has the authority to adjudicate the dispute and issue a final and BINDING award, just like a civil court.
Back2Basics: Lok Adalats vs Permanent Lok Adalats
|
Lok Adalats |
Permanent Lok Adalats |
| Nature |
Ad hoc, held occasionally |
Permanent, functional continuously |
| Jurisdiction |
Broad (civil, compoundable criminal, family, etc.) |
Limited to public utility service disputes |
| Dispute Stage |
Usually post-litigation |
Pre-litigation stage only |
| Panel Composition |
Judicial officers, lawyers, social workers |
Chairman (Judge) + 2 experts in utility services |
| Conciliation Role |
Only conciliatory; no decision if no settlement |
Can adjudicate if no settlement is reached |
| Decision |
Binding only if parties agree |
Award is final and binding, with no appeal |
| Legal Status |
Decree of a civil court |
Also a civil court decree, but with adjudication power |
| Appeal Provision |
No appeal, but fresh suit possible |
No appeal, but constitutional remedies may apply |
| [UPSC 2009] With reference to Lok Adalats, consider the following statements:
1. An award made by a Lok Adalat is deemed to be a degree of a civil court and no appeal lies against thereto before any court.
2. Matrimonial/Family disputes are not covered under Lok Adalat.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
Options: (a) 1 only * (b) 2 only (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2 |
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Why in the News?
The Archaeological Survey of India (ASI), in private collaboration, has successfully completed the restoration of Rajon ki Baoli, a 16th-century Lodi-era stepwell located in New Delhi.
About Rajon ki Baoli:
- Location: Situated in Mehrauli Archaeological Park, Delhi, around 400 meters south of Adham Khan’s Tomb.
- Build year: Built in 1506 CE by Daulat Khan Lodi, an official under Sikandar Lodi.
- Name Meaning: “Rajon ki Baoli” means “Stepwell of the Masons”, referring to raj mistris, not royalty.
- Structure: The stepwell is rectangular, covering 1,610 sq m, and is 13.4 meters deep.
- Design: It is a 4-level structure, with only the topmost tier visible from ground level.
- Architectural Features:
- Includes verandas, arched corridors, 12-pillared arcades, and stucco medallions.
- The complex also has a mosque, a tomb, and a chhatri (pavilion).
- Purpose: Served as a water source and resting place and had social-religious utility.
About the Lodi Dynasty:
- The Lodi Dynasty ruled the Delhi Sultanate from 1451 to 1526.
- Founder: Established by Bahlul Lodi, the first Afghan ruler of Delhi.
- Territorial Control: Dominated Punjab, Jaunpur, Gwalior, and the Upper Ganga Valley.
- Key Rulers:
-
- Bahlul Lodi (1451–1489): Annexed Jaunpur and solidified Afghan influence in northern India.
- Sikandar Lodi (1489–1517): Founded Agra, introduced agricultural reforms, standardised land with Gaz-i-Sikandari, and patronised literature and music. He imposed jizya and demolished temples in Mathura, reflecting intolerance.
- Ibrahim Lodi (1517–1526): Lost the First Battle of Panipat to Babur, ending the dynasty and the Sultanate.
- Successor: Their fall marked the shift from the Delhi Sultanate to the Mughal Empire in Indian history.
Tap to read more about Traditional Water Harvesting Systems in India.
| [UPSC 2006] Which one of the following is the correct chronological order of the Afghan rulers to the throne of Delhi?
(a) Sikandar Shah – Ibrahim Lodi – Bahlol Khan Lodi
(b) Sikandar Shah – Bahlol Khan Lodi – Ibrahim Lodi
(c) Bahlol Khan Lodi – Sikandar Shah – Ibrahim Lodi*
(d) Bahlol Khan Lodi – Ibrahim Lodi – Sikandar Shah |
ASI completes conservation work in Lodhi-era stepwell – The Hindu
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