Why in the News?
The RBI may transfer a record ₹2.5–₹3 lakh crore surplus for 2024–25 after its recent review of its Economic Capital Framework (ECF).
About Surplus Transfer by RBI:
- Legal Basis: Under Section 47 of the RBI Act, 1934, the RBI must transfer its net surplus from its income to the central government.
- Tax Exemption: As per Section 48, the RBI is exempt from income tax and direct taxes.
- Timeline: RBI has recently changed its accounting year from June-July to April-May.
- Recent Transfers: In 2023–24, RBI transferred a record ₹2.11 lakh crore; estimates for 2024–25 range between ₹2.5 and 3 lakh crore.
- Reserve Allocation: Some surplus may be set aside for contingency or asset development funds.
- Policy Debate: The government often seeks higher transfers, while the RBI stresses on maintaining financial stability and autonomy.
- Past Disagreements: Tensions have occurred but are usually resolved through mutual agreement.
How does the RBI generate its surplus?
- Foreign Investments: RBI earns returns from investing in foreign government bonds, treasury bills, and deposits with other central banks.
- Domestic Bonds: It receives interest on Indian government securities (G-secs) held in its portfolio.
- Bank Lending: Income is earned by lending short-term funds to commercial banks via repo operations.
- Commission Services: The RBI charges commissions for managing borrowings and public debt for the central and state governments.
- Main Expenditure: Costs include printing currency, staff salaries and pensions, bank commissions, and dealer fees.
- Net Surplus: The surplus is what remains after expenses, provisions, and reserves are accounted for.
Back2Basics: Economic Capital Framework (ECF)
- Purpose: The ECF guides how much capital RBI must retain and how much surplus can be transferred.
- Y.H. Malegam Committee (2013): It reviewed the adequacy of reserves and surplus distribution policy in 2013, recommended a higher transfer to the government.
- Introduction: Finalised in 2019, based on a committee led by Bimal Jalan.
- Goal: Seeks to balance government funding needs with RBI’s financial resilience.
- Reserve Components: Defines key buffers like the Contingency Risk Buffer (CRB), Revaluation Reserves, and Asset Development Fund.
- Minimum CRB: Requires at least 5.5% of RBI’s balance sheet to be held as contingency reserve.
- Transfer Stability: Allows for more consistent surplus transfers when RBI’s earnings are strong.
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| [UPSC 2021] In India, the central bank’s function as the ‘lender of last resort’ usually refers to which of the following:
1.Lending to trade and industry bodies when they fail to borrow from other sources.
2.Providing liquidity to the banks having a temporary crisis.
3.Lending to governments to finance budgetary deficits.
Select the correct answer using the code given below:
Options: (a) 1 and 2 (b) 2 only * (c) 2 and 3 (d) 3 only |
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Why in the News?
The onset of cool, moisture-laden monsoon winds offers not just relief but also a significant opportunity for wind energy generation.
About the Indian Monsoon:
- Origin: The word “monsoon” comes from Arabic ‘mausin’ or Malayan ‘monsin,’ meaning “season”.
- Seasonal Wind Shift: Monsoons are seasonal winds that reverse direction with changing seasons.
- Types:
-
- Southwest Monsoon: Blows from sea to land, bringing rainfall across most of India.
- Northeast Monsoon: Blows from land to sea, bringing rain mainly to southeast India.
- Role of Tibet: The Tibetan Plateau heats up in summer, creating low pressure that draws in moist winds.
- Ocean Influence: A high-pressure system in the southern Indian Ocean helps drive the southwest monsoon.
- Atmospheric Factors: Influencers include the Subtropical Jet Stream, Tropical Easterly Jet, and ITCZ.
- Other Drivers: The Somali Jet, Somali Current, Indian Ocean Dipole, and Walker Cell also affect monsoon behaviour.
How does monsoon impact wind variability?
- Changing Wind Speeds: Monsoon wind speeds vary in strength and direction over time and place.
- Energy Planning: Wind behaviour prediction is crucial for renewable power management, especially wind energy.
- Agricultural Demand: Kharif crops planted in June depend on monsoon, raising seasonal energy demand.
- Wind Energy Output: In areas like the Western Ghats, 70% of wind energy is generated June–September.
- Forecasting Tools: Numerical Weather Prediction (NWP) models provide high-resolution wind forecasts.
- AI Models: Tools like Google’s MetNet3 use satellite and radar data to predict wind in remote areas.
India’s Wind Energy: Capacity, Growth & Challenges
- India became the 3rd largest wind and solar producer in 2024, after China and the US.
- Installed wind capacity: 50 GW as of March 31, 2025.
- In 2024, wind and solar contributed 10% of electricity—solar 7%, wind 3%; hydro added 8%, totalling 22% from clean sources.
- Solar capacity grew by 24 GW in 2024, doubling 2023’s figure; wind grew by 3.4 GW.
- Leading wind additions: Gujarat (1,250 MW), Karnataka (1,135 MW), Tamil Nadu (980 MW).
- Top wind states: Tamil Nadu, Gujarat, and Maharashtra; targets: 140 GW wind and 500 GW non-fossil capacity by 2030.
- Land Use & Capacity Utilization Factor (CUF): Wind farms occupy just 2% of land, allowing agriculture on the rest; CUF ranges between 16%–19%, with peak generation during monsoon months.
|
| [UPSC 2014] The seasonal reversal of winds is the typical characteristic of:
Options: (a) Equatorial climate (b) Mediterranean climate (c) Monsoon climate * (d) All of the above climates |
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Why in the News?
Recently, the Ministry of Road Transport and Highways (MoRTH) has approved a 166.8-km four-lane highway from Shillong to Silchar. This highway will later be extended to Zorinpui in Mizoram and will link the Kaladan Multi-Modal Transit Transport Project (KMMTTP) with a fast road network running through the center of Northeast India.
What is the Kaladan project’s role in Northeast India’s connectivity?
- The Kaladan Multi-Modal Transit Transport Project (KMMTTP) offers a strategic alternative to the narrow and vulnerable Siliguri Corridor (“Chicken’s Neck”), currently the only land route connecting the Northeast to the rest of India. Eg: Direct Kolkata–Mizoram route via Myanmar.
- The project significantly shortens the transport distance (by around 1,000 km) and time (3–4 days), facilitating faster movement of goods and people, and promoting trade and investment in the resource-rich but infrastructure-poor Northeast.
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Why have India-Bangladesh ties worsened recently?
- Political Shift and Leadership Change: The ousting of pro-India Prime Minister Sheikh Hasina in August 2024 disrupted longstanding bilateral ties. Her party, the Awami League, was subsequently banned by the interim government led by Muhammad Yunus, raising concerns in India about democratic processes and political inclusivity.
- Strained Diplomatic Exchanges: Interim leader Muhammad Yunus made statements perceived as antagonistic by India, such as referring to Northeast India as “landlocked” and suggesting Bangladesh as the “only guardian of the ocean.” These remarks, especially during his visit to China, were viewed by India as a shift towards a more China-aligned stance, causing diplomatic unease.
- Trade Restrictions and Economic Tensions: In response to Bangladesh’s interim government’s approach, India imposed restrictions on Bangladeshi exports to its Northeast region.
Why has the Kaladan project been delayed?
- Security Concerns: Ongoing civil unrest in Myanmar, especially in Rakhine State, has disrupted construction and posed risks to workers. Eg: In 2024, the Arakan Army seized Paletwa, making the area unsafe for project activities.
- Incomplete Infrastructure: Critical segments of the project, especially the road link from Paletwa to Zorinpui, remain unfinished. Eg: The 109 km road stretch needed to connect the waterway to the Indian border is still under construction.
- Operational Hurdles: Difficult terrain, weak contractor coordination, and reliance on local sub-contracting have caused delays. Eg: Despite awarding the contract to IRCON in 2022, progress has been slow due to logistical difficulties.
How does the new Shillong-Silchar-Zorinpui highway enhance the connectivity of the Kaladan project?
- Strategic Redundancy: The highway provides an alternative route to the vulnerable Siliguri Corridor, ensuring uninterrupted access to the Northeast. Eg: In response to Bangladesh’s “landlocked” remark, India approved the ₹22,864 crore Shillong–Silchar highway to bypass Bangladesh.
- Integrated Multi-Modal Link: It seamlessly connects to the Kaladan Multi-Modal Transit Transport Project, facilitating efficient cargo movement between Kolkata and the Northeast. Eg: The Shillong–Silchar highway acts as a continuation of the Kaladan project, linking the Northeast to Kolkata via Myanmar.
- Economic Development: Enhanced connectivity boosts trade, tourism, and economic activities in the Northeast region. Eg: The new corridor is expected to spur economic development by improving road connectivity and reducing travel time.
- Reduced Transit Time: The highway shortens travel time between key cities, facilitating faster movement of goods and people. Eg: The 166.8 km highway will cut travel time between Shillong and Silchar from 8.5 hours to 5 hours.
Way forward:
- Strengthen Security and Coordination: Enhance cooperation with Myanmar and local stakeholders to ensure safe and timely completion of the Kaladan project’s remaining sections, addressing security challenges in Rakhine State.
- Expand Infrastructure Integration: Accelerate development of connecting highways and transport networks in Northeast India to fully leverage the Kaladan corridor for economic growth and strategic resilience.
Mains PYQ:
[UPSC 2013] The protests in Shahbag Square in Dhaka in Bangladesh reveal a fundamental split in society between the nationalists and Islamic forces. What is its significance for India?
Linkage: The political and social changes happening inside Bangladesh are important for India to understand, because they can affect India’s security and ties with its neighbour. Recently, Bangladesh’s sentiments (like cut the “Chicken’s Neck” of India) have raised concerns for India, especially around the narrow “Chicken’s Neck” – the only land link between mainland India and the Northeast. That’s why the Kaladan project is very important. It will give the Northeast a direct link to the Bay of Bengal, reducing dependence on Bangladesh.
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Why in the News?
During the tenure of Chief Justices D.Y. Chandrachud and Sanjiv Khanna, authorities appointed 15 out of 17 judges to the Madras High Court from BC, OBC, MBC, SC, or ST communities.
Why is BC/OBC/SC/ST representation highest in Madras High Court?
- Strong Social Justice Framework in Tamil Nadu: Tamil Nadu has a long history of affirmative action and reservation policies aimed at uplifting Backward Classes (BC), Other Backward Classes (OBC), Most Backward Classes (MBC), Scheduled Castes (SC), and Scheduled Tribes (ST), which creates a larger pool of eligible candidates from these communities.
- Better Educational Access and Mobility: The state contributes disproportionately to the OBC population in higher education—while Tamil Nadu has about 10% of India’s OBC population, it accounts for 13% of OBCs enrolled in higher education nationally. This leads to higher qualifications among BC/OBC candidates, increasing their chances of judicial appointments.
- Collegium Appointments Reflect State Demographics: The Supreme Court Collegium, while selecting judges, considers inputs from the state, and the Madras High Court appointments reflect this social reality, with 88.2% of recent appointees belonging to BC/OBC/MBC/SC/ST groups, the highest among all High Courts.
Why do Southern High Courts have more non-general category judges?
- Higher Social Mobility and Educational Access: Southern States like Tamil Nadu have better upward social mobility for BC/OBC groups, reflected in higher enrollment rates in higher education. Eg, Tamil Nadu has about 10% of India’s OBC population but accounts for 13% of OBCs in higher education nationally, which leads to greater representation in judicial appointments.
- Regional Political and Social Dynamics: Southern States often have political environments and social policies that encourage inclusion of non-general categories in key positions. Eg, Madras High Court had 88.2% of appointees from BC/OBC/SC/ST groups, the highest share among all High Courts.
What role do Chief Ministers and State Intelligence play in appointments?
- Chief Ministers’ Opinions Are Considered: The Supreme Court Collegium takes into account the views of Chief Ministers during the appointment process, which can subtly influence the selection of judges. Eg, this influence might explain variations in representation across States, though the exact extent of their impact is unclear.
- State Intelligence Inputs Are Used: The Collegium also reviews inputs from the State Intelligence Branch to assess candidates’ suitability and background. Eg, such inputs could affect appointments in States like Rajasthan, where political and security considerations might play a role.
How does BC social mobility affect judicial representation?
- Women from Non-General Categories Are Represented but in Small Numbers: Out of 34 women appointed, several belonged to BC, OBC, MBC, SC, or ST communities, showing some diversity in gender and social groups. Eg, at the Madras High Court, 5 women were appointed, including one from BC, one from MBC, and three from OBC categories.
- Other High Courts Also Appoint Women from Non-General Categories: States like Telangana, Kerala, Andhra Pradesh, Rajasthan, Guwahati, and Manipur have women appointees from various non-general groups, reflecting broader inclusivity. Eg, Telangana appointed women from BC and OBC categories, while Manipur had a woman appointee from the ST category.
Way forward:
- Institutionalize Diversity Criteria in Appointments: Formal guidelines should be introduced to ensure fair representation of BC/OBC/SC/ST and women in judicial appointments across all High Courts.
- Strengthen Educational and Legal Training Access: Expand scholarships, coaching, and mentorship programs for underrepresented communities to build a larger pool of eligible candidates for the judiciary.
Mains PYQ:
[UPSC 2021] Discuss the desirability of greater representation to women in the higher judiciary to ensure diversity, equity and inclusiveness.
Linkage: While the article focuses on social categories (caste/class), the underlying theme of ensuring diversity and representation in the judiciary is common. The article also provides data on women appointees, including their social categories in Madras HC.
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PYQ Relevance:
[UPSC 2024] Distinguish between gender equality, gender equity and women’s empowerment. Why is it important to take gender concerns into account in programme design and implementation?
Linkage: Gender concerns are important in programme design, aligning with the article’s argument that nutrition programmes like POSHAN have limited impact. |
Mentor’s Comment: India’s free foodgrain programme, which supports 800 million people, shows a harsh truth: hunger and malnutrition are still big problems. In this fight against malnutrition, women and girls are often ignored. Even though the economy is growing and many welfare schemes exist, nutrition is still very unequal, especially for women. The government started the POSHAN Abhiyaan in 2018 to make India free of malnutrition by 2022. This scheme focuses on improving nutrition for pregnant women, new mothers, teenage girls, and young children. But, big differences in nutrition levels still remain.
Today’s editorial discusses malnutrition among women and girls in India, despite government efforts like the POSHAN Abhiyaan. This topic is useful for GS Paper I (Women-related Issues) and GS Paper II (Welfare State).
_
Let’s learn!
Why in the News?
The government launched the POSHAN Abhiyaan to end malnutrition by 2022, but it has not achieved its goals.
How does malnutrition in India remain deeply gendered?
- Stark Anaemia Disparity: NFHS-5 reports 57% of women aged 15–49 are anaemic compared to 26% of men, highlighting deep nutritional inequality.
- Underweight Burden: Nearly 1 in 5 women is underweight, a sharp contrast to men and a sign of chronic deprivation.
- Entrenched Norms: In poorer households, women eat last and least, reinforcing invisible cultural biases that deny them basic nutritional rights.
- Economic Disempowerment: 49% of women lack control over their own earnings, which translates into less dietary agency and poor health outcomes.
- Nutrition as Justice: Malnutrition is framed not just as a health issue, but a social justice issue driven by patriarchal household structures.
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Why has POSHAN 2.0 failed to improve women’s nutrition significantly?
- Underutilization of Allocated Funds: Despite a large budget, only about 69% of funds were used by December 2022, limiting the programme’s reach and effectiveness. Eg: ₹24,000 crore allocated in 2022-23, but nearly one-third remained unspent.
- Rising Anaemia Rates Despite Investments: Anaemia prevalence among women increased from 53% to 57%between NFHS-4 and NFHS-5, showing no significant improvement. Eg: NFHS-5 data shows anaemia rates rose even after POSHAN 2.0’s interventions.
- Focus on Awareness Over Actual Nutrition: The programme has raised awareness (Jan Andolan) but awareness alone cannot address the root causes of malnutrition such as poverty and food scarcity.
- Ignoring Social and Economic Barriers: POSHAN 2.0 largely addresses food supply and supplementation but does not sufficiently tackle women’s economic dependence and decision-making power. Eg: 49% of women lack control over how their income is spent, limiting their ability to benefit from nutrition programmes.
How does women’s empowerment impact nutritional outcomes?
- Improved Spending on Nutrition: When women control income, they prioritize food and health for themselves and their families, leading to better nutrition. Eg: Nobel laureate Esther Duflo found that women’s control over extra income increases spending on children’s nutrition.
- Greater Decision-Making Power: Empowered women can make choices about their diet, healthcare, and food allocation, reducing malnutrition risks. Eg: NFHS-5 showed that women with decision-making power over finances had better nutritional status.
- Increased Access to Employment and Income: Economic empowerment through stable jobs helps women afford nutritious food and healthcare. Eg: Women with even modest independent income were found less likely to be undernourished in low-income communities.
- Enhanced Health Awareness and Education: Empowered women tend to have better knowledge of nutrition and health practices, improving family nutrition. Eg: Women participating in financial literacy and health workshops show better child feeding practices.
- Reduced Gender-Based Nutritional Inequality: Empowerment challenges social norms that deprioritize women’s nutrition, leading to more equitable food distribution. Eg: Households where women contribute economically often have less gender disparity in food consumption.
How can inter-scheme convergence tackle gendered malnutrition?
| Note: Inter-scheme convergence is the coordinated collaboration of multiple government programmes across sectors. |
- Integrated Service Delivery: Combining nutrition, health, and livelihood schemes ensures women receive comprehensive support addressing multiple malnutrition causes. Eg: Anganwadi centres providing food supplements along with skill training and job linkages.
- Efficient Resource Utilization: Coordination between departments reduces duplication and optimizes use of funds for women’s nutrition and empowerment. Eg: Joint budgeting for POSHAN Abhiyaan and women’s employment schemes leads to better fund utilization.
- Holistic Empowerment of Women: Linking nutrition programmes with economic and social empowerment schemes increases women’s ability to accessand afford nutritious food. Eg: Combining POSHAN 2.0 with financial literacy and credit schemes for women.
- Targeted Interventions in High-Risk Areas: Collaborative planning allows focused efforts in districts with severe malnutrition, addressing structural and social barriers. Eg: Health, nutrition, and livelihood departments working together in tribal districts to improve women’s nutrition.
- Multi-dimensional Monitoring and Evaluation: Integrated monitoring tracks progress on nutrition and women’s empowerment indicators simultaneously, improving accountability. Eg: Measuring both reduction in anaemia and increase in women’s decision-making power under joint schemes.
What steps can make women active agents in nutrition programmes? (Way forward)
- Enhance Economic Empowerment: Provide women with access to skill training, income opportunities, and financial literacy so they can afford nutritious food and make independent decisions. Eg: Linking Anganwadi centres with local skill development and credit schemes for women.
- Increase Decision-Making Power: Promote women’s participation in household and community decisions related to health, diet, and resource allocation. Eg: Community meetings where women lead discussions on nutrition and health interventions.
- Strengthen Awareness and Capacity Building: Use nutrition programmes to conduct health education, nutritional counselling, and leadership training, empowering women as knowledge bearers and change-makers. Eg: Financial literacy workshops and health awareness sessions at POSHAN Abhiyaan centres.
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Why in the News?
Permanent Lok Adalats in as many as 16 districts of Rajasthan have ceased functioning owing to the non-extension of tenure of their presiding officers and members.
About Permanent Lok Adalats (PLAs)
- Legal Basis: PLAs are statutory bodies established under Section 22-B of the Legal Services Authorities Act, 1987.
- Establishment: They were introduced in 2002 to offer speedy and affordable dispute resolution for public utility services.
- Disputes Handled: PLAs resolve issues related to transport (air, road, water), postal, telecom, electricity, water supply, sanitation, healthcare, and insurance.
- Composition: Each PLA has a Chairman (a current or retired District Judge or higher) and 2 members with experience in the relevant public utility sectors.
- Functioning: Unlike regular Lok Adalats, PLAs operate on a continuous basis and are always available for dispute resolution.
- Jurisdiction Limit: They can hear cases involving claims up to ₹1 crore but cannot take up non-compoundable criminal cases.
- Unique Power: If conciliation fails, the PLA has the authority to adjudicate the dispute and issue a final and BINDING award, just like a civil court.
Back2Basics: Lok Adalats vs Permanent Lok Adalats
|
Lok Adalats |
Permanent Lok Adalats |
| Nature |
Ad hoc, held occasionally |
Permanent, functional continuously |
| Jurisdiction |
Broad (civil, compoundable criminal, family, etc.) |
Limited to public utility service disputes |
| Dispute Stage |
Usually post-litigation |
Pre-litigation stage only |
| Panel Composition |
Judicial officers, lawyers, social workers |
Chairman (Judge) + 2 experts in utility services |
| Conciliation Role |
Only conciliatory; no decision if no settlement |
Can adjudicate if no settlement is reached |
| Decision |
Binding only if parties agree |
Award is final and binding, with no appeal |
| Legal Status |
Decree of a civil court |
Also a civil court decree, but with adjudication power |
| Appeal Provision |
No appeal, but fresh suit possible |
No appeal, but constitutional remedies may apply |
| [UPSC 2009] With reference to Lok Adalats, consider the following statements:
1. An award made by a Lok Adalat is deemed to be a degree of a civil court and no appeal lies against thereto before any court.
2. Matrimonial/Family disputes are not covered under Lok Adalat.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
Options: (a) 1 only * (b) 2 only (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2 |
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Why in the News?
The Archaeological Survey of India (ASI), in private collaboration, has successfully completed the restoration of Rajon ki Baoli, a 16th-century Lodi-era stepwell located in New Delhi.
About Rajon ki Baoli:
- Location: Situated in Mehrauli Archaeological Park, Delhi, around 400 meters south of Adham Khan’s Tomb.
- Build year: Built in 1506 CE by Daulat Khan Lodi, an official under Sikandar Lodi.
- Name Meaning: “Rajon ki Baoli” means “Stepwell of the Masons”, referring to raj mistris, not royalty.
- Structure: The stepwell is rectangular, covering 1,610 sq m, and is 13.4 meters deep.
- Design: It is a 4-level structure, with only the topmost tier visible from ground level.
- Architectural Features:
- Includes verandas, arched corridors, 12-pillared arcades, and stucco medallions.
- The complex also has a mosque, a tomb, and a chhatri (pavilion).
- Purpose: Served as a water source and resting place and had social-religious utility.
About the Lodi Dynasty:
- The Lodi Dynasty ruled the Delhi Sultanate from 1451 to 1526.
- Founder: Established by Bahlul Lodi, the first Afghan ruler of Delhi.
- Territorial Control: Dominated Punjab, Jaunpur, Gwalior, and the Upper Ganga Valley.
- Key Rulers:
-
- Bahlul Lodi (1451–1489): Annexed Jaunpur and solidified Afghan influence in northern India.
- Sikandar Lodi (1489–1517): Founded Agra, introduced agricultural reforms, standardised land with Gaz-i-Sikandari, and patronised literature and music. He imposed jizya and demolished temples in Mathura, reflecting intolerance.
- Ibrahim Lodi (1517–1526): Lost the First Battle of Panipat to Babur, ending the dynasty and the Sultanate.
- Successor: Their fall marked the shift from the Delhi Sultanate to the Mughal Empire in Indian history.
Tap to read more about Traditional Water Harvesting Systems in India.
| [UPSC 2006] Which one of the following is the correct chronological order of the Afghan rulers to the throne of Delhi?
(a) Sikandar Shah – Ibrahim Lodi – Bahlol Khan Lodi
(b) Sikandar Shah – Bahlol Khan Lodi – Ibrahim Lodi
(c) Bahlol Khan Lodi – Sikandar Shah – Ibrahim Lodi*
(d) Bahlol Khan Lodi – Ibrahim Lodi – Sikandar Shah |
ASI completes conservation work in Lodhi-era stepwell – The Hindu
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Why in the News?
The Department of Posts has released a commemorative postage stamp to mark 125 years of the Kodaikanal Solar Observatory (KoSO)—one of India’s oldest and most significant astronomical research centres dedicated to studying the Sun.
About the Kodaikanal Solar Observatory (KoSO):
- Founding: Established in the late 19th century, KoSO was established in 1899 after atmospheric surveys by Charles Michie Smith.
- Location: It is located in Kodaikanal, Tamil Nadu, in the Palani Hills, chosen for its excellent sky conditions.
- Early Observations: Initially focused on observing sunspots, solar prominences, and solar radiation.
- Modern Equipment: Now equipped with the H-alpha telescope (for flares and prominences) and WARM (for high-resolution sunspot imaging).
- Institutional Role: Became part of the Indian Institute of Astrophysics (IIA) in April 1971.
- Scientific Importance: KoSO contributes to understanding the Sun’s effect on Earth’s climate and space weather.
Important Observations / Discoveries:
- Evershed Effect (1909): Discovered by John Evershed, it was the first observation of radial gas outflows in sunspots, a key finding in solar physics.
- Historic Solar Archive (1904–2017): Created one of the world’s longest continuous solar datasets.
- Digitization: First Indian observatory to digitise solar data (since 1984); currently maintains a digital archive of 1.48 lakh images (~10 TB).
- Wider Scientific Work: Extended research into cosmic rays, radio astronomy, ionospheric physics, and stellar astrophysics over the decades.
| [UPSC 2016] Discuss India’s achievements in the field of Space Science and Technology. How the application of this technology has helped India in its socio-economic development? |
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Why in the News?
May 16 is observed annually as Sikkim Day, marking the historic occasion in 1975 when the Kingdom of Sikkim formally became a state of India.
About the Kingdom of Sikkim
- Foundation: The Kingdom of Sikkim was established in 1642, when three Tibetan lamas crowned Phuntsong Namgyal as the first Chogyal (monarch).
- Namgyal dynasty: It ruled Sikkim for 333 years, maintaining a Buddhist monarchy until 1975.
- Treaty of Tumlong (1861): It made Sikkim a British protectorate, where the Chogyals retained internal authority while the British handled external affairs.
- Other key treaties shaping Sikkim’s status: These included the Treaty of Titaliya (1817), Calcutta Convention (1890), and Lhasa Convention (1904), which defined borders and reaffirmed British influence.
How did Sikkim join India?
- Post-1947 Status: After India’s independence, Sikkim did not join India like other princely states, due to its unique British treaty status.
- Nehru’s Approach: While Sardar Patel and B.N. Rau wanted Sikkim to accede, Jawaharlal Nehru opted for a Standstill Agreement to preserve the status quo.
- Indo-Sikkim Treaty of 1950: This treaty made Sikkim an Indian protectorate, with India managing defence, foreign affairs, and communications.
- Role of Sikkim National Congress: Led by Kazi Dorji, the SNC became the key pro-democracy and pro-merger party.
- 1973 Agreement: After widespread protests, a tripartite agreement was signed between the Chogyal, the Government of India, and the Sikkimese parties.
- Democratic Transition: In 1974, elections were held, and a new constitution reduced the monarch’s powers.
- Referendum of 1975: In April 1975, over 97% of voters supported abolishing the monarchy and merging with India.
- Merger with India: In May 1975, the 36th Constitutional Amendment was passed, and Sikkim became the 22nd state of India. It added Article 371F to provide special provisions for the state of Sikkim.
Back2Basics: Article 371F of the Indian Constitution
- Constitutional Origin: Added by the 36th Amendment Act (1975) when Sikkim became the 22nd state of India.
- Objective: Protects Sikkim’s unique history, culture, and legal system during integration.
- Legislative Assembly: Sikkim must have at least 30 MLAs, fewer than other states under Article 170.
- Parliamentary Representation: Sikkim has 1 Lok Sabha and 1 Rajya Sabha seat, with the Assembly electing the MP.
- Governor’s Role: Governor holds special responsibility for peace, equity, and development.
- Pre-Merger Laws: Existing laws and judgments before 1975 remain valid unless changed by Parliament.
- Presidential Powers: President can modify laws and extend central laws to Sikkim within two years post-merger.
- Land and Job Rights: Only 1961-registered Sikkimese can own land or hold state government jobs.
- Tax Exemption: Original Sikkimese were exempt from income tax.
- Recent Controversy: The Finance Bill, 2023 expanded the term “Sikkimese”, raising concerns over erosion of indigenous rights.
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| [UPSC 2007] Which one of the following is the correct chronological order of the formation as full States of the Indian Union?
Options:
(a) Sikkim-Arunachal Pradesh-Nagaland-Haryana
(b) Nagaland-Haryana-Sikkim-Arunachal Pradesh *
(c) Sikkim-Haryana-Nagaland-Arunachal Pradesh
(d) Nagaland-Arunachal Pradesh-Sikkim-Haryana |
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Why in the News?
Recently, in Majitha, Amritsar district of Punjab, 21 people aged between 26 and 80 died and 10 others were critically hospitalised after allegedly drinking spurious liquor.
| Note: Hooch tragedies refer to incidents where people die or fall seriously ill after consuming illicit or spurious liquor. |
What systemic issues contribute to recurring hooch tragedies in India?
- Poverty and Social Vulnerability: Poor, daily wage earners often turn to cheap illicit liquor as a coping mechanism. Eg: Victims in the 2023 Punjab hooch tragedy were mostly from low-income backgrounds.
- Easy Availability and Misuse of Methanol: Methanol, an industrial chemical, is cheap, easily pilfered, and often used in spurious liquor despite being highly toxic. Eg: Bootleggers dilute methanol to create hooch, as seen in several mass poisoning incidents.
- Weak Regulatory Oversight and State Capacity: Lax control over methanol transport and lack of inter-state coordination enable theft and illegal use. Eg: No central framework exists to monitor methanol movement, despite repeated incidents.
- Corruption and Nexus Among Stakeholders: A deep-rooted nexus between bootleggers, local politicians, and police often shields the culprits. Eg: In many hooch cases, police are suspended post-tragedy, but no long-term accountability follows.
- Ineffective Legal Enforcement: Laws like the Poison Act are rarely used, and convictions are rare due to weak evidence or delayed trials. Eg: In the 2015 Malvani case, only 4 out of 14 accused were convicted after 9 years.
Who is primarily accountable for spurious liquor deaths?
- Bootleggers and Illicit Manufacturers: They produce and distribute toxic brews, often using dangerous chemicals like methanol for profit. Eg: In the 2023 Punjab hooch case, bootleggers used methanol-laced liquor that killed at least 23 people.
- Corrupt Law Enforcement Agencies: Police often ignore illegal activities due to bribes or political pressure, enabling the supply chain to flourish. Eg: After the Punjab incident, several police officers were suspended for negligence.
- Regulatory Authorities and State Governments: Weak oversight of methanol distribution, lack of tracking mechanisms, and poor implementation of prohibition laws lead to repeated failures. Eg: States lack robust frameworks to monitor industrial alcohol movement, allowing diversion.
- Local Politicians and Political Nexus: Some politicians support or protect bootleggers for electoral or financial gains, compromising public safety.
What are the legislations to regulate spurious liquor or illicit alcohol in India?
- The Poisons Act, 1919: Regulates the manufacture, possession, sale, and transport of poisonous substances like methanol, which is often diverted to make illicit liquor. Eg: Methanol is classified as a Class B poison under this Act, but its diversion is a key issue in hooch tragedies.
- The Essential Commodities Act, 1955: Controls the production and distribution of essential goods, including alcohol ingredients, to prevent hoarding and illegal diversion. Eg: Used to regulate methanol supply and prevent pilferage that fuels illicit liquor trade.
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Why has the legal framework failed to ensure convictions in illicit liquor cases?
- Weak Application of Existing Laws: Cases are often booked under prohibition laws or general criminal provisions, but not under stronger laws like the Poison Act or organized crime statutes, leading to weaker prosecution. Eg: In the 2015 Malvani hooch tragedy (Mumbai), 105 people died, but the court acquitted 10 out of 14 accusedafter 9 years; none was convicted under the Poison Act.
- Poor Evidence Collection and Investigation: Police often fail to collect scientific and documentary evidence, link the entire supply chain, or prove intent and causation beyond reasonable doubt. Eg: In multiple cases, including the 2023 Bihar hooch incident, forensic reports were delayed or inconclusive, weakening the case in court.
- Lack of Inter-State Regulatory Mechanism for Methanol: Methanol, used industrially, is not illegal in itself. Without a centralised tracking system, tracing its diversion becomes difficult, weakening the case against suppliers. Eg: Bootleggers source methanol from authorised dealers across states, making it hard to fix legal liability on any single actor.
What policy measures can prevent methanol diversion into the illicit liquor trade? (Way forward)
- Centralised Methanol Monitoring Framework: Establish a nationwide tracking system for methanol production, transport, and sale using barcoding or GPS tracking. Eg: Like the track-and-trace system for pharmaceutical drugs, methanol consignments can be monitored to prevent theft or leakage.
- Tighter Regulation and Licensing of Dealers: Enforce strict licensing norms for methanol dealers with regular audits and surprise inspections; cancel licences for non-compliance. Eg: Some states classify methanol as a Class B poison and regulate it under the Poison Act.
- Criminal Liability for Supply Chain Negligence: Amend laws to hold manufacturers and transporters accountable for diversion due to negligence or collusion, with higher penalties and jail terms. Eg: In the Punjab hooch tragedy (2020), weak action against upstream suppliers limited accountability—stronger legal deterrents can close such gaps.
Mains PYQ:
[UPSC 2024] Explain how narco-terrorism has emerged as a serious threat across the country. Suggest suitable measures to counter narco- terrorism.
Linkage: Criminal activities linked to trafficking dangerous substances for profit and the security threats they pose, similar in nature to the illicit methanol trade described in the article.
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Why in the News?
On April 22, a terrorist attack in Pahalgam, Kashmir, killed 26 civilians. In response, the Indian government took several diplomatic steps, including suspending the Indus Waters Treaty (IWT).
Why is the Indus Waters Treaty crucial for India-Pakistan ties?
- Framework for Water Sharing: The IWT provides a clear, legally binding agreement on how the Indus River and its tributaries are shared, reducing the risk of water conflicts between India and Pakistan. Eg: India controls the eastern rivers (Ravi, Beas, Sutlej), while Pakistan manages the western rivers (Indus, Jhelum, Chenab), helping avoid disputes over water access.
- Endurance Amid Political Tensions: Despite wars and terrorist attacks (e.g., 2008 Mumbai attacks, 2019 Pulwama attack), the treaty has endured for over six decades, maintaining a vital channel of cooperation between two hostile neighbors. Eg: Even after the 2019 Pulwama terror attack, the treaty remained a key framework for managing shared water resources.
- Diplomatic Leverage and Stability: The treaty serves as a strategic tool in diplomatic relations, with India occasionally using it as leverage while ensuring continued water flow, preventing escalation into broader conflict. Eg: After the 2023 Pahalgam attack, India announced suspension of some treaty provisions as a diplomatic response.
How does climate change affect the Indus Basin?
- Glacial Melt and Water Flow Variability: The Indus Basin depends heavily on glacier-fed rivers, with about 80% of water coming from glacial melt. Climate change accelerates glacier melting, causing short-term floods and long-term water shortages during dry seasons.
- Rising Water Demand and Scarcity: Growing population and agricultural needs increase pressure on limited water resources, worsening water scarcity in the basin, especially in Pakistan, where water availability has dropped below critical levels. Eg: Irrigation losses in Pakistan exceed 50% in some areas, threatening food security.
- Impact on Agriculture and Livelihoods: Reduced and unpredictable water flow due to climate change affects crop yields and fisheries, destabilizing rural economies dependent on the Indus Basin.
How did colonial irrigation projects influence post-independence water disputes?
- Extensive Canal Systems Built by British: The British developed large canal networks for irrigation, creating shared water infrastructure across regions. Eg: The 1915 Triple Canal Project linked major tributaries, affecting river flows between future India and Pakistan.
- Altered Natural River Flow: British dams and barrages controlled floods and irrigation but changed river courses, leading to downstream access issues. Eg: Barrages on the Indus and its tributaries shifted water availability patterns.
- No Formal Water Sharing Post-Partition: At independence, India and Pakistan inherited interconnected irrigation but lacked agreements on water distribution. Eg: This led to conflicts over the use of eastern and western rivers after 1947.
- Regional Water Imbalances: Colonial irrigation prioritized certain areas, creating uneven water distribution that fueled disputes. Eg: Punjab’s canal systems served both countries but became points of contention.
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What lessons can India draw from other river treaties? (Way forward)
- Promote Cooperative Water Management: Successful treaties often emphasize joint management and data sharing to build trust and avoid conflicts. Eg: The Mekong River Commission involves multiple countries collaborating on water usage and flood control.
- Include Climate Change Adaptation: Modern treaties factor in environmental changes and sustainable usage to address future water challenges. Eg: The Nile Basin Initiative incorporates climate resilience strategies for water-sharing among East African nations.
- Establish Dispute Resolution Mechanisms: Effective treaties have clear, impartial conflict resolution processes to handle disagreements peacefully. Eg: The Danube River Protection Convention includes mechanisms for arbitration and mediation among European countries.
Mains PYQ:
[UPSC 2020] In what way have the science-based technologies triggered off striking changes in agriculture?
Linkage: Genome editing is a science-based technology that represents a significant advancement capable of triggering changes in agriculture by developing improved crop varieties.
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PYQ Relevance:
[UPSC 2022] The Rights of Persons with Disabilities Act, 2016 remains only a legal document without intense sensitisation of government functionaries and citizens regarding disability. Comment.
Linkage: Welfare schemes for vulnerable sections of the population by the Centre and States and the performance of these schemes; mechanisms, laws, institutions and Bodies constituted for the protection and betterment of these vulnerable sections. |
Mentor’s Comment: On 30 April, 2025, the Supreme Court’s directive to revise digital KYC norms to ensure accessibility for persons with disabilities (PwDs), recognizing digital access as a fundamental right under Article 21. It highlights legal safeguards like the RPwD Act 2016, challenges faced by PwDs in current KYC processes, and the Court’s emphasis on inclusive, accessible digital infrastructure for marginalized groups.
Today’s editorial discusses the Supreme Court’s order to update digital KYC rules to make them accessible for persons with disabilities (PwDs). This topic is useful for GS Paper II (covering governance, the Supreme Court’s role, and issues related to vulnerable groups like PwDs).
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Let’s learn!
Why in the News?
Recently, the Supreme Court of India directed the revision of digital Know Your Customer (KYC) norms to ensure they are accessible to persons with disabilities (PwDs), especially the visually impaired.
What KYC changes did the Supreme Court direct for PwDs?
- Mandated Accessible Digital KYC Processes: KYC procedures must include accessible design features like screen-reader compatibility, audio cues, and simplified verification steps.
- Alternative Identity Verification Methods: KYC systems must allow thumb impressions, signatures in accessible formats, and alternative ways to verify identity without facial recognition or selfies. Eg: An acid attack survivor unable to use facial recognition can verify their identity using thumb impression linked with Aadhaar and OTP verification.
- Uniform Accessibility Standards Across Institutions: All regulated entities (banks, telecom, SEBI, etc.) must follow a standardized, inclusive KYC frameworkrather than creating their own tests Eg: Every bank and mobile provider must adopt unified, accessible KYC apps that meet 2021 and 2022 ICT Accessibility Standards, ensuring consistency and inclusion.
Which laws protect the rights of PwDs in India?
- Constitution provision: Guarantees equality, dignity, and non-discrimination through the Preamble, Fundamental Rights(Articles 14, 15, 21), and Directive Principles (Article 38). Eg: Under Article 21, the Supreme Court reinterpreted the right to life to include digital access for PwDs.
- Rights of Persons with Disabilities (RPwD) Act, 2016: Adopts a social-barrier model of disability and mandates measures for accessibility, inclusion, and equal opportunity. Eg: Section 42 requires the government to ensure accessible electronic media, including sign-language, audio descriptions, and captions.
- UN Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (UNCRPD): India is a signatory and is obligated to promote, protect, and ensure full human rights and freedoms of PwDs. Eg: The RPwD Act, 2016 was enacted to give domestic effect to the UNCRPD’s principles like accessibility, dignity, and non-discrimination.
- Information and Communication Technology (ICT) Accessibility Standards (2021, 2022): Prescribe technical standards for websites, apps, and digital services to be screen-reader friendly, with audio/video guidance. Eg: Despite these standards, most KYC platforms lack audio prompts or camera alignment assistance, which the SC directed to be rectified.
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Why do banks and other financial and government institutions mandate collecting KYC details?
- Ensures Security: KYC helps identify and verify customers, reducing risks of money laundering, fraud, and terrorism financing. Eg: Under the Prevention of Money-laundering Act, 2002, banks are required to verify identities and report suspicious transactions to the Financial Intelligence Unit.
- Availing Financial and Telecom Services: KYC is a regulatory requirement to access services like bank accounts, SIM cards, demat accounts, insurance, and pension schemes. Eg: A person must complete KYC to open a bank account or activate a mobile number.
- Enables Access to welfare schemes: Digital KYC links individuals to Aadhaar-based Direct Benefit Transfers (DBTs), ensuring targeted delivery of welfare schemes. Eg: Students must complete e-KYC to receive national scholarshcips or access Aadhaar-linked subsidieslike LPG or pensions.
How do current KYC methods exclude PwDs?
- Visual Verification Disadvantage: Steps like reading flashing codes, aligning for selfies, or signing on paper are inaccessible to those with visual impairments or disfigurements. Eg: A blind user cannot complete video-KYC if the app lacks screen-reader prompts or audio guidance for camera positioning.
- Lack of Alternative Biometric Methods: Common alternatives like thumb impressions are not accepted as valid signatures, and PAN cards aren’t issued with them. Eg: A visually impaired person using thumbprint verification may be denied KYC approval due to lack of signature or photo verification.
- Non-Compliant Digital Infrastructure: Most KYC apps and portals violate ICT Accessibility Standards by lacking features like text-to-speech, audio cues, or accessible form inputs. Eg: A KYC website without voice feedback or keyboard navigation makes it impossible for a person using assistive tech to complete the process independently.
Why did the SC link digital access to Article 21?
- Digital Access is Integral to the Right to Life and Dignity: The Court held that in today’s digital era, access to essential services through digital means is part of living with dignity and autonomy. Eg: Denying blind users the ability to complete KYC digitally affects their right to life under Article 21 by limiting access to banking or welfare services.
- Ensures Substantive Equality: The Court emphasized substantive equality, noting that equality is not just about treating everyone the same, but removing barriers for the disadvantaged. Eg: People with visual impairments face unique hurdles with video-KYC, which violates their equal access to services guaranteed under Articles 14 and 21.
- Bridges the Digital Divide: The judgment recognized that digital exclusion impacts not just PwDs, but also rural citizens, elderly people, and linguistic minorities, deepening socio-economic inequality. Eg: During COVID-19, the Court earlier ruled that digital vaccine portals must be accessible, reinforcing the idea that public digital infrastructure must be inclusive.
Way forward:
- Adopt Inclusive Digital Design Standards: Ensure all KYC platforms follow universal design principles with features like screen-readers, voice prompts, and alternative authentication methods.
- Mandate Regulatory Oversight and ComplianceRBI, SEBI, and DoT must monitor and enforce accessibility standards across all regulated entities to guarantee equal digital access for PwDs.
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Why in the News?
The Tamil Nadu CM has criticised the Presidential Reference under Article 143 as a “desperate attempt” to weaken State powers, following a Supreme Court ruling that set timelines for Governors and the President to act on State Bills.
Recent Invocation:
- The Presidential Reference asked whether the Supreme Court could impose timelines on:
- Governors under Article 200 (assent to State Bills)
- The President under Article 201 (Bills reserved for Presidential assent)
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What is Article 143 of the Indian Constitution?
- Article 143 empowers the President of India to seek the advisory opinion of the Supreme Court on any question of law or fact that is-
- of public importance
- Likely to arise or has already arisen
- This provision defines the Supreme Court’s advisory jurisdiction, exclusive to the President.
- Sub-clauses and Legal Operation:
- Article 143(1): The President may refer any matter to the Supreme Court for its opinion. In the first case, the Supreme Court may tender or may refuse to tender its opinion to the president.
- Article 143(2): Allows the President to refer disputes arising from pre-Constitution agreements, including state-related matters, for the Supreme Court’s opinion. The Supreme Court must tender its opinion to the President.
- Nature of the Reference: The Supreme Court’s opinion is advisory and NOT legally binding since it is NOT a judicial pronouncement.
- President’s Response: It is NOT binding on the President; he/she may follow or may not follow the opinion. However, it facilitates the government to have an authoritative legal opinion.
- Types of Questions Referred: Article 143(1) allows the President to refer questions of law or fact.
- Legal questions: Constitutional interpretation, rights, and executive powers.
- Factual questions: The 1993 Ram Janmabhoomi-Babri Masjid reference asked whether a temple existed at the disputed site.
- Judicial Interpretation: The Supreme Court has clarified that Article 143 is broad in scope and not limited to questions that have arisen; potential or likely questions can also be referred.
Executive’s Control of Presidential Reference:
- Although Article 143 vests the power in the President, the real decision to refer is taken by the Union Council of Ministers under Article 74(1).
- Article 74(2) bars the Court from inquiring whether such advice was given.
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| [UPSC 2010] Consider the following statements:
The Supreme Court of India tenders’ advice to the President of India on matters of law or fact
1. on its own initiative (on any matter of larger public interest).
2. if he seeks such an advice.
3. only if the matters relate to the Fundamental Rights of the citizens.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
Options: (a) 1 only (b) 2 only * (c) 3 only (d) 1 and 2 only |
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Why in the News?
Specialists from the Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) have successfully assembled the first-ever chromosome-level genome of the Indian yak (Bos grunniens).
About the Indian Yak (Bos grunniens):
- The Indian yak, often referred to as the ‘ship of the Himalayas’, plays a crucial role in the high-altitude economies of India.
- Features: It is known for its resilience and adaptability to extreme environments. It provides meat, milk, and manure and is a vital mode of transportation.
- Habitat: It inhabits the regions above 7,000 feet in Ladakh, Sikkim, Arunachal Pradesh, and Himachal Pradesh.
- Conservation Status: It is assessed as Vulnerable under the IUCN Red List and included in CITES Appendix I and Schedule I in the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972.
Significance of the Research:
- Mapping Method: The study used long-read sequencing and advanced bioinformatics to map yak genes with high precision.
- Feature Identification: The genome will help identify genes for cold tolerance, disease resistance, and milk production.
- Comparative Applications: It will allow comparative studies with other bovine species to discover valuable genetic traits (alleles).
- Breeding and Conservation: The data will support better breeding strategies and the creation of conservation plans for yaks.
- Livelihood Impact: This research supports sustainable development and could improve the livelihoods of Himalayan yak herders through targeted livestock improvements.
| [UPSC 2017] According to the Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972, which of the following animals cannot be hunted by any person except under some provisions provided by law?
1. Gharial 2. Indian wild ass 3. Wild buffalo
Select the correct answer using the code given below:
Options: (a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3* |
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Why in the News?
A team of researchers from top Chinese scientific institutions has reported a major breakthrough in the creation of atomically thin 2D metal sheets using a novel high-pressure sandwich method.
About the 2D Metal Created:
- Definition: 2D metals are only one or two atoms thick, so electrons can move in just two dimensions.
- Quantum Confinement: Electrons in 2D metals are restricted to specific energy levels, similar to how they behave in atoms.
- Scientific Interest: Metals like bismuth, tin, and lead in 2D form are being studied for their electrical, magnetic, and quantum properties.
- Applications: Their special properties make them useful for quantum computing, sensors, and advanced electronics.
Technologies Involved:
- Quantum Dots: These are tiny semiconductors where electrons are tightly confined, creating quantised energy states.
- Quantum Confinement: In quantum dots, electrons can’t move freely in any direction, leading to discrete energy levels.
- Link to 2D Metals: In 2D metals, electrons are confined in two dimensions, changing conductivity, magnetism, and optical behaviour.
- Process: Chinese scientists created 2D metals by sandwiching metal powder between two MoS₂-coated sapphire layers.
- Steps involved: The structure is heated, twisted, and pressed to form ultra-thin sheets, then cooled and peeled off.
- Material Choice: MoS₂ and sapphire were chosen for their strength, smoothness, and low chemical reaction with metal.
Note:
Quantum confinement occurs when a particle like an electron is trapped in an extremely small space, such as a nanoscale material. This restriction changes its energy levels, making them discrete instead of continuous. As a result, the material’s properties—like color and conductivity—can change with size. |
| [UPSC 2012] Graphene is frequently in the news recently. What is its importance?
1. It is a two-dimensional material and has good electrical conductivity.
2. It is one of the thinnest but strongest materials tested so far.
3. It is entirely made of silicon and has high optical transparency.
4. It can be used as ‘conducting electrodes’ required for touch screens, LCDs and organic LEDs.
Options: (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 3 and 4 only (c) 1, 2 and 4 only* (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4 |
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Why in the News?
India and Japan have begun the preliminary design phase of the Chandrayaan-5 mission, also known as LUPEX (Lunar Polar Exploration).
Back2Basics: Legacy of Chandrayaan Missions
- Chandrayaan-1 (2008): First mission, focused on mineral and chemical mapping.
- Chandrayaan-2 (2019): Orbiter mission with 98% success.
- Chandrayaan-3 (2023): Achieved a historic soft landing on the Moon’s south pole.
- Chandrayaan-4 (Upcoming, 2027):
- It is a planned lunar sample return mission by ISRO, expected to launch around 2027, with the landing site near Statio Shiv Shakti at the lunar south pole.
- The mission involves five modules launched on two LVM-3 rockets, later docked in Earth orbit to form an integrated spacecraft.
- A robotic arm and drill will collect 2–3 kg of surface and sub-surface lunar samples for return to Earth.
- The Re-entry Module (RM) will re-enter Earth’s atmosphere with the samples using ballistic re-entry, marking India’s first attempt at sample return.
- Chandrayaan-5 / LUPEX: Aimed at deeper exploration with global participation.
- Manned Lunar Mission: Prospected lunar landing by 2040.
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About Chandrayaan-5/LUPEX Mission:
- It is a collaborative mission between ISRO and JAXA.
- Approval: Cabinet approval for the mission was granted on March 10, 2025.
- Launch: It will carry a 6.5-tonne payload and launch aboard Japan’s H3 rocket in 2027–28.
- Collaboration: The lander is being developed by ISRO and the 350-kg rover by JAXA.
- Duration: The mission is expected to last 100 days, with a possible extension of one year.
- Mission Goals and Objectives:
-
- Explore water and regolith in the lunar south pole’s Permanently Shadowed Regions (PSRs).
- Drill into the Moon’s surface, analyse soil samples, and perform in-situ experiments.
- Assess water content, quality, and analyse surface volatiles using advanced instrumentation.
- Exploration of the far side of the Moon.
Scientific Collaboration and Instruments:
- A total of 7 scientific instruments will be onboard the mission.
- ISRO’s Contribution: Development of the lander; creation of one sensor in a major four-sensor instrument.
- JAXA’s Contribution: Development of the rover and three sensors in the same instrument; Rover is designed to climb 25° inclines and operate on a complex battery charging protocol.
- ESA (European Space Agency): Developing a mass spectrometer.
- NASA: Contributing neutron spectrometers.
| [UPSC 2009] In the context of space technology, what is Bhuvan, recently in the news?
Options: (a) A mini satellite launched by ISRO for promoting the distance education in India (b) The name given to the next Moon Impact Probe, for Chandrayaan-II (c) A geoportal of ISRO with 3D imaging capabilities of India* (d) A space telescope developed by India |
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Why in the News?
Recently, the United Kingdom (UK) has announced new plans to change its immigration rules to reduce the number of people moving to the country.
What are the key immigration reforms proposed to control net migration?
- Raising Skilled Worker Visa Threshold: The requirement for the ‘skilled worker’ visa will be raised from the senior secondary level (A-level) back to the degree level. (The previous Conservative government lowered it to A-level in 2020.)
- Ending Social Care Visas: The UK will no longer issue social care visas to foreign workers, reversing the post-COVID-19 expansion that allowed easier entry for care workers.
- Reducing Graduate Visa Duration: The graduate visa, which allows international students to stay and work after completing their studies, will be shortened from 2 years to 18 months (3 years for PhD holders).
- English Language Requirement for Dependents: Dependents of visa holders will now have to meet English language proficiency requirements to promote social integration.
- Increasing Settlement Period: The minimum qualifying period for ‘settlement’ (permanent residency) will be increased from 5 years to 10 years.
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Why has the UK decided to discontinue social care visas for foreign workers?
- Increased Migration and Pressure on Services: The rise in social care visas after COVID-19 led to a large influx of foreign care workers, which added strain to public services and housing. Eg: Over 114,000 additional health and care worker visas were issued between 2021 and 2023, mainly to South Asian and African nationals.
- Reducing Low-Skilled Migration: The government plans to reduce low-skilled migration by raising visa requirements, such as increasing the skill level from A-level to a degree. Eg: Social care sector.
- Promoting Domestic Workforce Development: There is a push to invest in training and apprenticeships for UK residents instead of relying on imported cheap labour. Eg: PM Starmer highlighted the need to focus on local skills development rather than importing workers in sectors like social care.
Who are the major beneficiaries of the UK’s visa ?
- South Asian Nationals: A large number of work visas were issued to workers from India, Pakistan, and Bangladesh. Eg: Many Indian care workers received health and care visas between 2021 and 2023.
- Sub-Saharan African Nationals: Significant numbers of care workers came from countries like Zimbabwe, Ghana, and Nigeria. Eg: The visa route helped fill care sector jobs with workers from these African nations.
How have Indian students and workers been affected by recent changes in UK visa policies?
- Shorter Post-Study Work Visa: Graduate visa reduced from 2 years to 18 months, limiting job opportunities for Indian students. Eg, many now have less time to build careers in the UK.
- Higher Skill Requirements: Skilled worker visas now require a degree-level qualification, excluding some mid-skilled jobs. Eg, Indian engineers and healthcare workers face stricter eligibility.
- English Language Rules for Dependents: Dependents must meet English proficiency requirements to promote integration. Eg, Indian families may find it harder to join relatives.
- Longer Residency for Settlement: Permanent residency eligibility increased from 5 to 10 years. Eg, Indians must wait longer to settle permanently.
- Increased Tuition Costs: Proposed 6% fee levy on international students raises study costs. Eg, this could discourage Indian students from studying in the UK.
Way forward:
- Enhance Domestic Skill Development: Invest significantly in vocational training and apprenticeships to reduce dependency on low-skilled foreign labour and create local employment opportunities.
- Balance Migration Policies: Implement targeted immigration reforms that maintain the UK’s competitiveness in attracting global talent while ensuring sustainable public service capacity and social integration.
Mains PYQ:
[UPSC 2023] Indian diaspora has scaled new heights in the West. Describe its economic and political benefits for India.
Linkage: The tightening of immigration rules in Western countries like the UK directly impacts the size, composition, and potential “scaling of new heights” of the diaspora, and thus implicitly affects the economic and political benefits for India.
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Why in the News?
Retail inflation dropped to 3.16% in April, marking its lowest level in nearly six years. This shows that prices are rising more slowly, bringing relief to consumers and policymakers.
What caused the recent fall in retail and wholesale inflation in April?
- Sharp Drop in Vegetable Prices: Retail inflation was driven down by a nearly 11% drop in vegetable prices. Eg: Wholesale potato prices fell by 24.3% compared to April last year.
- Falling Crude Oil and Fuel Prices: Crude oil and natural gas inflation hit a 22-month low of -15.55%. Eg: Petrol prices contracted by 7.7%, and diesel by 5.04% at the wholesale level.
- Government Measures to Control Prices: Actions like open market foodgrain releases, buffer stock management, and eased imports helped stabilize supply. Eg: These steps helped prevent food shortages and kept overall food inflation at 2.55%, a 22-month low.
Why is the contraction in vegetable prices considered partly due to the base effect?
- High Inflation Last Year (Base Effect): In April last year, vegetable inflation was very high, in the range of 27%-30%. Eg: A sharp rise last year creates a high base, making even stable or slightly falling prices this year appear like a large drop.
- Statistical Comparison Distortion: Inflation is measured year-on-year, so a high base can exaggerate the percentage fall in the current period.Eg: If tomato prices were ₹100 last year and are ₹90 now, it shows a 10% fall—but last year’s ₹100 was unusually high.
- Not Solely Due to Supply Improvement: The large fall in prices this year is not only because of better supply or government action but also due to last year’s spike. Eg: Last year’s shortages due to unseasonal rains had led to higher prices, inflating the base.
How have government actions helped in easing inflation?
- Strengthening Buffer Stocks: The government has maintained adequate buffer stocks of food items like rice, wheat, and pulses to manage supply shocks. Eg: Releasing pulses from buffer stocks during price spikes helped stabilise market supply and reduce inflationary pressure.
- Open Market Sales to Regulate Prices: Through open market operations, the government released surplus food items into the market to control prices. Eg: Open sale of onions and tomatoes by agencies like NAFED helped bring down retail prices during seasonal spikes.
- Relaxation of Import Restrictions: The government eased import norms and reduced import duties on key commodities during shortages. Eg: Reduction in import duties on edible oils and pulses led to higher supply and reduced food inflation.
What policy actions are expected from the RBI and the government based on the latest inflation data? (Way forward)
- Likely Cut in Interest Rates by RBI: With inflation easing, especially retail inflation falling for six consecutive months, the RBI’s Monetary Policy Committee (MPC) may cut policy rates to support growth. Eg: The RBI might reduce the repo rate in the upcoming June review to boost borrowing and investment.
- Reduction in Fuel Prices by Oil Marketing Companies: With crude oil inflation hitting a 22-month low, the government is expected to direct public sector oil companies to cut petrol, diesel, and LPG prices. Eg: Despite a 42% fall in global crude prices over three years, retail fuel prices remained almost unchanged; a correction is now anticipated.
Mains PYQ:
[UPSC 2024] What are the causes of persistent high food inflation in India? Comment on the effectiveness of the monetary policy of the RBI to control this type of inflation.
Linkage: “India’s Easing Inflation and Policy Implications” discusses the latest inflation data, noting the easing of both retail and wholesale inflation, largely driven by a contraction in vegetable and pulse prices.
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PYQ Relevance:
[UPSC 2021] How is S-400 air defence missile system different from any other system presently available in the world?
Linkage: Air defence systems are vital in modern warfare like Operation Sindoor for controlling the skies and protecting against enemy air strikes, including missiles. |
Mentor’s Comment: Operation Sindoor is no longer just a conflict between two countries. It shows how wars are now fought around the world, with new technology, smart strategies, and control of information changing the way military battles happen.
Today’s editorial explains how Operation Sindoor has changed the way military conflicts happen. This information is useful for preparing GS Paper II (International Relations) and GS Paper III (Defence).
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Let’s learn!
Why in the News?
The recent India-Pakistan standoff shows an important change in how wars are fought in today’s world.
How has Operation Sindoor reshaped the nature of military confrontation?
- Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs)/Drones: India used SkyStriker Kamikaze drones for precision strikes, while Pakistan deployed 300–400 Turkish-made Songar drones across 36 locations, marking a shift to unmanned, low-risk, and high-impact warfare.
- Swarm Drone Technology: The large-scale use of drone swarms by Pakistan showcased how mass deployment of inexpensive, expendable drones can overwhelm enemy defences and replace traditional air force formations.
- Layered Air Defence Systems: India’s defence relied on a combination of Akash, QRSAM, S-400 (Russia), and Barak-8 (India-Israel) systems, reflecting a transition from fixed missile platforms to multi-layered, dynamic defence networks.
- Real-time Digital Integration Systems: The Akashteer system allowed India to digitally integrate radar inputs for real-time threat assessment and response, enabling smarter and quicker decision-making in combat.
- Integrated Air Command and Control System (IACCS): IACCS enabled seamless coordination between the Army, Navy, and Air Force, turning joint operations from theory into an operational reality and enhancing battlefield synchronization.
How have drones transformed India’s aerial warfare strategy?
- Unmanned Combat: India has shifted from relying on costly manned fighter jets to using drones, enabling precision strikes with minimal risk to personnel. Eg: Deployment of SkyStriker Kamikaze drones for targeted attacks during Operation Sindoor.
- Swarm Warfare: The ability to deploy large numbers of inexpensive drones allows India to overwhelm enemy defences through swarm tactics, increasing operational effectiveness. Eg: Use of multiple expendable drones to saturate Pakistan’s air defence systems.
- Intelligence and Precision: Drones provide real-time reconnaissance and intelligence gathering, improving accuracy and reducing collateral damage in strikes. Eg: SkyStriker drones probing Pakistan’s air defence and conducting precise strikes with minimal human risk.
Why is information warfare crucial in the India-Pakistan standoff?
- Strategic Weapon Beyond Propaganda: Information warfare has evolved from mere propaganda to a powerful strategic tool that can influence perceptions and morale. Eg: Pakistan circulated doctored videos and fabricated claims to manipulate international and domestic opinions.
- Psychological Impact on Morale: It aims to weaken the enemy’s resolve by creating confusion, fear, and doubt among both military personnel and civilians. Eg: Disinformation campaigns targeting India’s morale during the standoff.
- Control of Narratives: Controlling information flow helps shape global and domestic narratives, influencing diplomatic support and international response. Eg: Both India and Pakistan using social media to project their respective versions of events.
- Creation of Strategic Ambiguity: Manipulating information can create uncertainty and complicate the opponent’s decision-making process. Eg: Use of conflicting reports and misinformation to keep adversaries guessing about actual military capabilities and intentions.
What are the three key doctrines outlined by the Prime Minister in his first speech on Operation Sindoor?
- Decisive Retaliation on India’s Terms: India will respond firmly and appropriately to any terrorist attack, delivering a befitting response strictly on its terms and taking action against all sources of terrorism.
- No Tolerance for Nuclear Blackmail: India will not tolerate nuclear blackmail and will strike precisely and decisively at terrorist hideouts operating under the shield of nuclear threats.
- No Distinction Between Terrorists and their Sponsors: India will treat the government sponsoring terrorism and the terrorist masterminds as the same, continuing decisive steps to counter state-sponsored terrorism and protect the nation.
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Way forward:
- Enhance Indigenous Innovation: Accelerate the development and deployment of homegrown advanced technologies like AI-enabled drone swarms, next-gen air defence, and electronic warfare to maintain a strategic edge over Chinese-origin systems.
- Strengthen Joint Operations & Intelligence Sharing: Improve seamless integration among armed forces and boost real-time intelligence to swiftly counter emerging threats from adversaries using sophisticated foreign defence platforms.
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Why in the News?
Recently, the Supreme Court of India gave an important decision in the case of Imran Pratapgarhi v. State of Gujarat (2025 INSC 410). The judgment focused on balancing the fundamental right to freedom of speech with the police’s duty to register a First Information Report (FIR).
What is the significance of procedural criminal law in ensuring principled criminalisation?
- Prevents Abuse of Power: Procedural criminal law enforces checks on state power by ensuring investigations, arrests, and prosecutions follow due process and protect fundamental rights (e.g., right to life and liberty under Article 21 of the Indian Constitution). Eg: In Imran Pratapgarhi vs State of Gujarat, the Supreme Court quashed the FIR because the police violated the procedural requirement under Section 173(3) of BNSS, thereby infringing upon the right to free speech.
- Filters Out Malicious Prosecutions: By setting guidelines (like preliminary inquiries), procedural law prevents unnecessary or politically motivated criminal cases from being registered and escalating into full investigations or arrests. Eg: Section 173(3) allows police to conduct a 14-day preliminary inquiry in certain cases before registering an FIR, thereby avoiding the criminalisation of non-serious or false complaints.
- Enhances Accountability: Police have significant discretion in the criminal process. Procedural law regulates this discretion, ensuring it is used transparently and fairly, preventing arbitrary or biased action. Eg: Without proper procedural checks, police may over-police minor infractions while ignoring more serious offences, leading to imbalanced enforcement of law.
Why did the Supreme Court quash the FIR against Imran Pratapgarhi?
- Violation of Procedural Safeguards: The police failed to conduct a mandatory preliminary inquiry before registering an FIR, as required under Section 173(3) for offences punishable with less than seven years. Eg: The alleged offence related to a poem posted on social media, which falls within this category. The police were required to first assess whether a prima facie case existed — they did not.
- Protection of Freedom of Speech: The FIR was filed for the alleged posting of an “inflammatory” poem, but the Court noted it was an exercise of free speech under Article 19(1)(a) of the Constitution. Eg: Criminal proceedings against protected speech must pass a higher threshold. The Court emphasized that misuse of law to curb free expression violates constitutional freedoms.
- Prevention from Frivolous Criminalisation: The Court found that the police had acted in a hasty and unjustified manner, triggering criminal law machinery for what could be a frivolous or politically motivated complaint. Eg: The judgment cited the intent of Section 173(3) — to avoid over-criminalisation in cases involving less serious offences, especially those entangled with fundamental rights.
How does Section 173(3) of the Bharatiya Nagarik Suraksha Sanhita aim to prevent unnecessary criminalisation?
- Section 173(3) of the Bharatiya Nagarik Suraksha Sanhita (BNSS) aims to prevent unnecessary criminalisation by allowing police to conduct a preliminary inquiry within 14 days before registering an FIR for cognisable offences punishable with 3 to less than 7 years.
- This ensures that only cases with prima facie merit proceed, acting as a safeguard against frivolous or politically motivated complaints and police overreach.
Who plays a central role in the actual implementation of criminalisation?
- The police play the central role in the practical application of criminalisation. They are the first responders—detecting crime, registering FIRs, investigating, and arresting suspects.
- The discretion exercised by the police significantly affects how criminal laws are enforced, and whether they lead to over-criminalisation or under-criminalisation. Therefore, how the police interpret and act under procedural law (e.g., Section 173(3)) directly influences the legitimacy and fairness of the criminal justice system.
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Way forward:
- Strengthen Police Training and Accountability: Enhance training on procedural law and human rights for police to ensure responsible use of discretion, coupled with strict accountability mechanisms to prevent misuse and overreach.
- Improve Legal Safeguards and Oversight: Institutionalise mandatory preliminary inquiries and judicial oversight in sensitive cases to protect fundamental rights and prevent frivolous or politically motivated criminalisation.
Mains PYQ:
[UPSC 2013] Discuss Section 66A of IT Act, with reference to its alleged violation of Article 19 of the Constitution.
Linkage: This reflects the broader theme of how laws that define behaviour as potentially punishable (part of the criminalisation process) are scrutinised based on their impact on fundamental rights, a dynamic echoed in the article discussion of the Imran Pratapgarhi case where police action (governed by procedural law) affecting freedom of speech was reviewed by the Supreme Court.
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