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  • India’s Population hits 146.39 Cr: UNFPA

    IOCRPrelims Only | Indian Society | Mains Paper 1: Population & Associated Issues

    Why in the News?

    According to the United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA) report titled “State of the World Population 2025: The Real Fertility Crisis”, India’s population has reached an estimated 146.39 crore, officially making it the world’s most populous nation.

    India’s Population hits 146.39 Cr: UNFPA

    About United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA):

    • Origin: The organisation was established in 1969 as the UN Fund for Population Activities and renamed in 1987 as the UN Population Fund.
    • Headquarters: Its global headquarters is located in New York.
    • Mission Statement: UNFPA works to ensure that every pregnancy is wanted, every childbirth is safe, and every young person’s potential is fulfilled.
    • Mandate: To promote sexual and reproductive health and rights, including family planning, safe motherhood, and gender equality.
    • Governance Structure: UNFPA reports to a 36-member Executive Board, with representation from all regions, and receives guidance from ECOSOC and the United Nations General Assembly (UNGA).
    • Global Presence: UNFPA operates in over 150 countries, in coordination with national governments and UN development partners.
    • Key Functions: It supports population censuses, family planning programs, and thematic health surveys, and engages in interagency frameworks like UN Development Group (UNDG) and UN Chief Executives Board (CEB).
    • Technical Role: UNFPA also provides research funding, technical assistance, and advocacy support to promote reproductive health and demographic planning.

    Key Population Trends from the UNFPA Report (2025):

    • Data Sources: The report draws on Demographic and Health Surveys (DHS), Multiple Indicator Cluster Surveys (MICS), and projections from the UN Department of Economic and Social Affairs (UN DESA).
    • India’s Population: As of 2025, India’s population is estimated at 146.39 crore (1.4639 billion), making it the most populous country in the world.
    • China’s Population: China’s population now stands at 141.61 crore (1.4161 billion), placing it second.
    • Total Fertility Rate: India’s TFR has declined to 1.9, which is below the replacement level of 2.1, indicating a trend toward population stabilisation.
    • Population Forecast: India’s population is expected to peak at around 170 crores in the coming decades and begin to decline within 40 years.
    • Life Expectancy: As of 2025, the average life expectancy is 71 years for men and 74 years for women.
    • Age Distribution: 68% of Indians are in the working-age group (15–64), while 7% are aged 65 and above, with life expectancy at 71 years (men) and 74 years (women).

    Back2Basics: Total Fertility Rate (TFR)

    • TFR measures the average number of children a woman would have over her reproductive lifetime.
    • A TFR of 2.1 is considered the replacement level, where each generation replaces itself without growing or shrinking.
    • According to the 2021 Sample Registration System by the Registrar General of India, the TFR had already reached 2.0, indicating that India had attained replacement level fertility nationally.

     

    [UPSC 2009] Consider the following statements:

    1. Between Census 1951 and Census 2001, the density of the population of India has increased more than three times.

    2. Between Census 1951 and Census 2001, the annual growth rate (exponential) of the population of India has doubled.

    Which of the statements given abova is/are correct ?

    Options: (a) 1 only (b) 2 only (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2*

     

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  • Innovations in Sciences, IT, Computers, Robotics and Nanotechnology

    KATRIN Experiment sets strongest Limit on Neutrino Mass

    Prelims Only | Science Tech | Mains Paper 3: Awareness in various sc and tech fields

    Why in the News?

    The Karlsruhe Tritium Neutrino Experiment (KATRIN) in Germany has achieved a major breakthrough in the search to measure the mass of the neutrino.

    What are Neutrinos?

    • Neutrinos are tiny, electrically neutral subatomic particles with an extremely small mass.
    • They come in 3 types (or “flavours”): electron, muon, and tau neutrinos.
    • Neutrinos are produced in nuclear reactions, such as those in the Sun, nuclear reactors, and supernovae.
    • They rarely interact with matter, making them very difficult to detect.
    • Their ability to change from one flavour to another (called oscillation) proves they have mass.
    • Neutrinos challenge the Standard Model of physics, hinting at undiscovered particles or forces.

    About KATRIN Experiment:

    • What is it: The KATRIN experiment is based at the Karlsruhe Institute of Technology in Germany and aims to measure the absolute mass of electron antineutrinos with unmatched precision.
    • Launch and Operation: It was inaugurated in 2018 and began data collection in 2019, with its latest results derived from 259 days of measurements.
    • Scientific Principle: KATRIN uses tritium beta decay, where tritium breaks into helium, an electron, and a neutrino, to study the energy spectrum of emitted electrons.
    • Focus Area: The experiment analyzes electrons near the energy endpoint, since they are most influenced by the neutrino mass.

    How KATRIN measures Neutrino mass?

    • KATRIN focuses on electrons that are emitted with energies close to the maximum limit (called the endpoint), which are most affected by the neutrino mass.
    • A retarding electric field filters out lower-energy electrons, allowing only the highest-energy ones to be measured precisely.
    • By analyzing millions of such decay events, KATRIN estimates the upper limit on the neutrino mass.

    India’s Achievements in Neutrino Observations:

    • Historical Detection: India was among the first countries to detect atmospheric neutrinos in 1965 at the Kolar Gold Fields (KGF), marking a pioneering achievement in neutrino physics.
    • INO Project: The India-Based Neutrino Observatory (INO) is under development in Tamil Nadu, set to become a premier underground research facility.
    • Flagship Detector: INO will house the Iron Calorimeter (ICAL), a 50,000-tonne magnetized detector, which will be the largest of its kind in the world.
    • Applications: INO will advance detector technologies, enable training in high-energy physics, and have potential applications in medical imaging and electronics.
    • Global Integration: India’s involvement in neutrino science positions it to contribute unique insights to global efforts, complementing projects like IceCube.
    [UPSC 2010] India-based Neutrino Observatory is included by the Planning Commission as a mega science project under the 11th five-Year Plan. In this context, consider the following statements:

    1. Neutrinos are chargeless elementary particles that travel close to the speed of light.

    2.Neutrinos are created in nuclear reactions of beta decay.

    3.Neutrinos have a negligible, but nonzero mass.

    4.Trillions of Neutrinos pass through human body every second.

    Which of the statements given above are correct?

    Options: (a) 1 and 3 only (b) 1,2 and 3 (c) 2,3 and 4 (d) 1,2,3 and 4 *

     

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  • Climate Change Negotiations – UNFCCC, COP, Other Conventions and Protocols

    [pib] Third United Nations Ocean Conference (UNOC3)

    PIBPrelims Only | Enviro & Biodiversity | Mains Paper 3: Conservation, Environmental Pollution & Degradation, Eia

    Why in the News?

    At the Third United Nations Ocean Conference (UNOC3) in Nice, co-hosted by France and Costa Rica, India made a powerful case for urgent international cooperation to protect the world’s oceans.

    About United Nations Ocean Conference (UNOC)

    • What is it: The UNOC is a major international forum dedicated to supporting Sustainable Development Goal 14 (SDG 14): Life Below Water.
    • Primary Focus: It promotes the conservation and sustainable use of oceans, seas, and marine resources.
    • Multi-Stakeholder Participation: UNOC brings together governments, NGOs, academia, intergovernmental organizations, private companies, and Indigenous communities to address ocean-related challenges.
    • Key Themes: The conference tackles issues like marine pollution, overfishing, climate change, and habitat degradation, and encourages policy coordination and financial pledges.
    • Timeline of Conferences:
      • 2017: First conference in New York, co-hosted by Fiji and Sweden
      • 2022: Second in Lisbon, co-hosted by Portugal and Kenya
      • 2025: Third in Nice, co-hosted by France and Costa Rica
      • 2028: Fourth conference to be hosted by Chile and South Korea (yet to be announced officially)
    • Legal Framework: UNOC operates within the UN Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS).
    • Financial and Policy Impact: Since 2014, UNOC has mobilized over $130 billion and generated 2,160+ voluntary commitments toward protecting ocean health.

    Major Indian Initiatives Showcased at UNOC3 (2025):

    • Deep Ocean Mission: India showcased progress on the ‘Samudrayaan’ mission, a deep-sea manned submersible targeting 6,000-meter depth by 2026.
    • Plastic Pollution Action: India emphasized the national ban on single-use plastics and the ‘Swachh Sagar, Surakshit Sagar’ campaign, which has cleaned 1,000+ km of coastline and removed over 50,000 tonnes of plastic waste. A draft Marine Litter Policy has been prepared and India strongly supports a Global Plastics Treaty.
    • Blue Economy Development: Under the Sagarmala Programme, $80 billion has been invested in port-led infrastructure. An additional $2.5 billion has been deployed under PM Matsya Sampada Yojana, leading to a 10% rise in fish production and creation of 1,000+ fish farmer producer organizations.
    • Marine Biodiversity Efforts: India expanded Marine Protected Areas to 6.6% of its Exclusive Economic Zone and restored over 10,000 hectares of mangroves.
    • Marine Data Transparency: India launched the SAHAV Portal, a digital ocean governance platform for science-based and transparent decision-making.
    • International Leadership: India co-led the ‘Blue Talks’ with France and Costa Rica, participated in high-level panels, and advocated for equitable ocean data access and capacity-building in developing nations.

    Back2Basics: United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS)

    • UNCLOS is a global treaty that regulates all maritime activities and ocean space.
    • It defines maritime zones such as: Internal Waters (within the baseline), Territorial Sea (up to 12 nautical miles), Contiguous Zone (up to 24 nautical miles), Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) (up to 200 nautical miles), High Seas, which lie beyond national jurisdiction.
    • It came into force in 1994 and has 169 parties (as of 2024), including India, but not the U.S.
    • It established the International Seabed Authority and declared the deep seabed as the “common heritage of mankind.”
    • India ratified UNCLOS in 1995 and uses it to claim maritime rights, including its extended continental shelf.
    • It supports freedom of navigation and advocates for a rules-based maritime order under UNCLOS.

     

    [UPSC 2022] With reference to the United Nations Convention on the Law of Sea, consider the following statements:

    1. A coastal state has the right to establish the breadth of its territorial sea up to a limit not exceeding 12 nautical miles, measured from baseline determined in accordance with the convention.

    2. Ships of all states, whether coastal or land-locked, enjoy the right of innocent passage through the territorial sea.

    3. The Exclusive Economic Zone shall not extend beyond 200 nautical miles from the baseline from which the breadth of the territorial sea is measured.

    Which of the statements given above are correct?

    Options: (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3*

     

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  • Women empowerment issues – Jobs,Reservation and education

    [10th June 2025] The Hindu Op-ed: Empowering women in agriculture for food security

    op-ed snap | Indian Society | Mains Paper 3: Role Of Women & Women Organization

    PYQ Relevance:

    [UPSC 2024] Distinguish between gender equality, gender equity and women’s empowerment. Why is it important to take gender concerns into account in programme design and implementation?

    Linkage: Women’s empowerment and the critical need to incorporate gender concerns into programme design and implementation. The article extensively discuss how empowering women in agriculture is fundamental to achieving food security. For instance, the United Nations General Assembly declared 2026 as the International Year of the Woman Farmer to recognize, support, and enhance the role of women in ensuring food security, fostering economic prosperity, and promoting sustainability.

     

    Mentor’s Comment:  The United Nations has declared 2026 as the International Year of the Woman Farmer to recognise the important but often overlooked role women play in growing food around the world. Over 100 countries supported this move, which highlights a major issue: while women produce up to 80% of food in developing countries, they are still left out when it comes to owning land. For example, in India, although 80% of working women are in farming, only 14% own land.

     Today’s editorial talks about the problems faced by women farmers, which is an important topic for GS Paper I (women-related issues), GS Paper II (social justice), and GS Paper III (agriculture).

    _

    Let’s learn!

    Why in the News?

    The International Year of the Woman Farmer in 2026 should focus on supporting strong, sustainable farming and ensuring equal rights and opportunities for women in agriculture.

    What challenges do women farmers face in land and credit access?

    • Low Land Ownership Limits Entitlements: Despite forming nearly 80% of the economically active female workforce in agriculture, only 14% of landowners in India are women, and just 8.3% according to NFHS data. Eg: A woman working her family’s farmland may still lack legal ownership, preventing her from claiming government subsidies or schemes like PM-KISAN.
    • Difficulty Accessing Credit: Without land titles, women are often denied collateral-based loans from banks and formal financial institutions. Eg: A woman farmer in rural Bihar cannot access a loan for irrigation equipment because she doesn’t hold a land deed, pushing her to rely on informal moneylenders.
    • Inadequate Access to Financial Technology and Information: Women have limited access to mobile phones and agricultural advisories, which are crucial for credit applications and crop planning. Eg: In Assam, women supported by the ENACT project lacked timely access to climate forecasts, making it harder to plan credit usage for flood-resistant crop seeds.

    Why is 2026 declared the International Year of the Woman Farmer?

    • To Recognise Women’s Vital Role in Agriculture: Women contribute to 60–80% of food production in developing countries and nearly 39% of the agricultural labour force in South Asia.  
    • To Raise Awareness About Structural Challenges: The declaration aims to highlight barriers women face such as limited land ownership, market access, and credit availability. Eg: Only 14% of agricultural landowners in India are women, restricting their ability to access loans and government schemes.
    • To Promote Gender Equality and Empowerment: It seeks to promote gender-transformative agricultural development by encouraging inclusive policies, technology access, and self-help group participation. Eg: The ENACT project in Assam supports women farmers by linking them with agri-experts and providing mobile-based advisories to adapt to climate change.

    What is the ENACT project?

    The ENACT project stands for Enhancing Climate Adaptation of Vulnerable Communities through Nature-based Solutions and Gender-Transformative Approaches. Supported by the World Food Programme (WFP), the Government of Assam, and funded by Norway, it empowers women farmers in Nagaon

    How does the ENACT project help women farmers adapt to climate change?

    • Access to Climate-Resilient Agricultural Information: ENACT provides weekly agricultural and climate advisories through mobile phones, enabling informed decision-making. Eg: Over 300 women farmers in 17 villages of Assam’s Nagaon district receive timely updates on weather and crop planning.
    • Promotion of Flood-Resistant Crop Varieties: The project introduces flood-tolerant rice varieties and promotes livelihood diversification to reduce climate-related risks. Eg: In Roha village, new rice varieties introduced by the project can survive underwater, helping farmers secure better yields during floods.
    • Strengthening Institutional and Technical Support: ENACT facilitates collaboration with local institutions, including agri-departments, universities, and meteorological agencies. Eg: Climate Adaptation Information Centres offer video conferencing tools for expert guidance and community meetings.

    What policies support women farmers in India?

    • Mahila Kisan Sashaktikaran Pariyojana (MKSP): Enhances skills, capacity building, and promotes sustainable agriculture among women farmers. Eg: MKSP supports self-help groups (SHGs) in improving agricultural practices and income generation.
    • Sub-Mission on Agricultural Mechanisation: Provides 50% to 80% subsidies on farm machinery and equipment to reduce drudgery and improve productivity. Eg: Women farmers receive subsidised tools for sowing, weeding, and harvesting, enabling more efficient farm operations.
    • National Food Security Mission (NFSM) – Women’s Component: Allocates 30% of the budget for women farmers in select States and Union Territories to improve food production. Eg: Women beneficiaries receive support in seed distribution, training, and input provision under NFSM.

    How does climate change impact women farmers?

    • Increased Domestic Burden and Agricultural Risk: Climate variability forces women to juggle household responsibilities with unpredictable farming conditions. Eg: In Assam, women like Nirmali Bora Hazarika report increased workload due to erratic weather and flood-prone crops.
    • Limited Access to Climate Information and Resources: Women have less access to weather updates, advisory services, and resilient crop technologies. Eg: Many women farmers lack mobile phones or connectivity to receive timely climate advisories.
    • Greater Vulnerability to Crop Loss and Livelihood Disruptions: Floods, droughts, and extreme weather events hit women-led farms harder due to lack of land rights and insurance. Eg: Without land ownership, women cannot claim compensation or loans to recover from climate-induced losses.

    Way forward: 

    • Enhance Land Rights and Legal Ownership: Governments must promote joint land titles, ensure inheritance rights, and simplify land registration processes for women. Eg: Initiatives like the Digital India Land Records Modernization Programme (DILRMP) can help ensure legal recognition of women’s land ownership.
    • Expand Financial and Technological Access: Strengthen women’s inclusion in formal credit systems, promote mobile-based agricultural advisories, and invest in climate-resilient infrastructure. Eg: Scaling up programs like ENACT can equip women with timely climate information, insurance, and input support.

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  • Electoral Reforms In India

    Tighten the process: On the Election Commission of India, election processes

    Explained | Polity | Mains Paper 2: Representation Of People’s Act

    Why in the News?

    After the 2024 Maharashtra Assembly elections, Rahul Gandhi, the Leader of the Opposition in the Lok Sabha, raised serious concerns about the fairness and transparency of how the elections were conducted.

    What are the concerns about voter roll changes in Maharashtra?

    • Abnormal Increase in Voter Numbers: Over 39 lakh new voters were added within just six months after the general election. Eg: The Hindu’s analysis revealed similar spikes before Assembly polls in 2014 as well, suggesting a pattern of inflated rolls.
    • Lack of Transparency and Verification: The Election Commission of India (ECI) has not released machine-readable data to allow public or party-level verification. Eg: Without verifiable voter roll data, political parties cannot check for duplication or manipulation.
    • Insufficient Involvement of Political Parties: The voter roll update process often excludes timely input from political parties, reducing scrutiny and accountability. Eg: Parties raise objections post-election rather than being involved during roll revision, weakening trust in the process.

    Why is restricting CCTV access controversial?

    • Reduces Transparency in the Voting Process: Limiting access to CCTV footage raises suspicion about irregularities or malpractice. Eg: The Centre’s amendment to the Conduct of Election Rules, 1961 restricts access, despite demands by political parties like Congress.
    • Hinders Complaint Verification: Without footage, it’s difficult to verify allegations of booth-level misconduct. Eg: Parties cannot validate anomalies in voter turnout after 5 p.m. or respond effectively to irregularities.
    • Undermines Democratic Accountability: Lack of access is viewed as eroding public trust and weakening institutional checks. Eg: Denial of footage suggests the Election Commission is avoiding scrutiny instead of ensuring electoral integrity.

    How did the ECI address late voting allegations?

    • Dismissed Claims of Abnormal Turnout Post 5 PM: The Election Commission of India (ECI) clarified that there was no significant spike in voter turnout after 5 p.m. during the 2024 Maharashtra Assembly elections. Eg: Analysis showed that the voting pattern was consistent with past trends, not unusually high after 5 p.m.
    • Clarified Nature of Provisional Turnout Data: ECI stated that provisional turnout figures, especially those shared via apps, are based on manual inputs and may contain discrepancies. Eg: App-based data can differ from final turnout due to delays and entry errors during polling day.
    • Relied on Final Booth-Level Data (Form 17C): The ECI emphasized that accurate data comes from Form 17C, which is compiled after polling ends and includes machine-verified figures. Eg: Final turnout is based on actual vote counts from EVMs and VVPATs, not manual estimates.

    What was the recommendation of supreme court? 

    The Supreme Court, in a 2023 judgment, recommended that the Chief Justice of India (CJI) be part of the selection committee for appointing Election Commissioners, to ensure independence and neutrality. Eg: The Court proposed a 3-member panel comprising the Prime Minister, Leader of Opposition, and CJI to prevent unilateral government control.

    Way forward: 

    • Ensure Transparent Electoral Roll Management: Involve all political parties in the electoral roll revision process, with machine-readable public data access for verification and accountability.
    • Implement Supreme Court’s Recommendations: Reconstitute the Election Commissioner selection panel to include the Chief Justice of India, ensuring impartiality and strengthening public trust in electoral institutions.

    Mains PYQ:

    [UPSC 2018] In the light of recent controversy regarding the use of Electronic Voting Machines (EVM), what are the challenges before the Election Commission of India to ensure the trustworthiness of elections in India?

    LInkage: The “trustworthiness of elections in India” and the challenges faced by the Election Commission of India (ECI) in this regard, which is a core concern behind the need to “tighten the process.” The article highlight various issues that challenge election trustworthiness, such as questions raised by the Leader of the Opposition, Rahul Gandhi, concerning “abnormal increase in voters listed in electoral rolls,” “higher turnout numbers after 5 p.m. on voting day,” and the Centre’s amendment to rules restricting “access to CCTV footage of the polling process.

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  • Innovations in Sciences, IT, Computers, Robotics and Nanotechnology

    How extracting and producing nickel can be made more sustainable 

    Explained | Science Tech | Mains Paper 3: Awareness in various sc and tech fields

    Why in the News?

    A new study by the Max Planck Institute for Sustainable Materials has introduced a new method to extract nickel using hydrogen plasma instead of carbon. This cleaner, carbon-free process is being seen as a major breakthrough.

    What is the new hydrogen plasma method? 

    • Hydrogen gas is converted into plasma using an electric arc furnace. This plasma reacts with nickel oxide to produce pure nickel and water, instead of carbon dioxide.
    • The method is particularly effective for laterite ores, which are abundant in tropical regions like Odisha’s Sukinda belt, making it economically viable for India’s low-grade nickel resources.

    How is it different from traditional methods?

    Aspect Traditional Method Hydrogen Plasma Method
    Process Type Multi-step: calcination, smelting, reduction, refining Single-step metallurgical process using hydrogen plasma
    Reducing Agent Carbon (produces CO₂ as a byproduct) Hydrogen plasma (produces water as a byproduct)
    Environmental Impact High energy use and CO₂ emissions Up to 84% lower CO₂ emissions and ~18% more energy-efficient

    What is the importance of nickel? 

    • Crucial for Clean Energy Technologies: Nickel is essential in manufacturing lithium-ion batteries, used in electric vehicles (EVs) and renewable energy storage systems. Eg: High-nickel batteries like NMC (Nickel Manganese Cobalt) offer higher energy density and longer life for EVs like Tesla or Tata Nexon EV.
    • Used in Stainless Steel Production: Over 60% of global nickel is used in making stainless steel, providing strength, corrosion resistance, and durability. Eg: Used in construction materials, kitchenware, medical instruments, and infrastructure.
    • Strategic Industrial Metal: Plays a key role in the aerospace, defence, and electronics industries due to its ability to withstand extreme temperatures. Eg: Used in jet engines, turbines, and superalloys.
    • Supports Green Infrastructure Goals: Nickel-based technologies support the transition to net-zero and green economy targets. Eg: Solar panels, wind turbines, and grid-scale battery storage use nickel-based components.
    • Economic and Strategic Resource for Countries: Nations with nickel reserves gain economic and geopolitical advantage, especially in the energy transition era. Eg: India’s reserves in Odisha (Sukinda region) can reduce import dependency and boost Atmanirbhar Bharatgoals.

    Where are India’s nickel reserves found?

    • Odisha – Sukinda Region: Major nickel laterite reserves are located in Sukinda valley, Jajpur district, Odisha. Eg: Found as nickeliferous limonite in chromite mine overburden with 0.4–0.9% nickel content.
    • Jharkhand and Chhattisgarh: Smaller deposits are also reported in parts of Jharkhand (e.g., Singhbhum) and Chhattisgarh, although less exploited.

    What are the steps taken by the Indian Government?

    • National Critical Mineral Mission: Launched in January 2025 with ₹16,300–34,300 crore outlay to enhance domestic exploration, mining, processing, and recycling of minerals like nickel, lithium, and cobalt.
    • Policy Reforms & Incentives: Amendments to the Mines and Minerals Act and the PLI scheme for Advanced Chemistry Cell batteries promote private sector participation and domestic EV battery manufacturing.
    • Global Partnerships & Block Acquisition: India is securing overseas mineral assets via the Mineral Security Partnership and Khanij Bidesh India Ltd (KABIL), while also auctioning critical mineral blocks domestically.

    Way forward: 

    • Promote R&D and Industrial Scaling of Hydrogen Plasma Technology: India should invest in pilot projects and public-private partnerships to test and scale the hydrogen plasma method domestically, especially in regions like Odisha with abundant low-grade laterite nickel ores.
    • Strengthen Renewable Energy Integration in Mining Processes: To ensure true carbon neutrality, the electricity used in nickel extraction (especially in electric arc furnaces) must be sourced from renewables like solar, wind, or green hydrogen-based grids.

    Mains PYQ:

    [UPSC 2023] How do electric vehicles contribute to reducing carbon emissions and what are the key benefits they offer compared to traditional combustion engine vehicles?

    Linkage: Nickel is an important metal used in Electric Vehicles (EVs), which are seen as a cleaner alternative to fossil fuel-powered vehicles. However, the article highlight that while EVs reduce operational emissions, the manufacturing of their lithium-ion batteries, particularly the carbon-intensive extraction of nickel, creates hidden environmental costs.

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  • Zoonotic Diseases: Medical Sciences Involved & Preventive Measures

    HKU5 Bat Viruses pose potential Pandemic Risk

    Prelims Only | Science Tech | Mains Paper 3: Conservation, Environmental Pollution & Degradation, Eia

    Why in the News?

    A new study warns that HKU5 bat coronaviruses, closely related to Middle East Respiratory Syndrome coronavirus (MERS-CoV), are just one mutation away from infecting humans.

    Back2Basics: Middle East respiratory syndrome (MERS)

    • Middle East respiratory syndrome (MERS) is a viral respiratory disease caused by Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus (MERS‐CoV) that was first identified in Saudi Arabia in 2012.
    • It is a species of coronavirus which infects humans, bats, and camels.

    About HKU5 Virus and Its Characteristics:

    • Classification: HKU5 is a bat coronavirus that belongs to the merbecovirus subgenus, which also includes the MERS-CoV (Middle East Respiratory Syndrome coronavirus).
    • Origin: It was first identified in the Japanese pipistrelle bat in Hong Kong. “HKU” in the name refers to the University of Hong Kong, where the virus was identified.
    • Virology: HKU5 is an enveloped, positive-sense, single-stranded RNA virus, structurally similar to other high-risk coronaviruses.
    • Spread: The virus has been detected in bats across Asia, Europe, Africa, and the Middle East, indicating widespread natural reservoirs.
    • Cell Entry Mechanism: Like SARS-CoV-2, HKU5 uses the ACE2 receptor to infect cells, but current strains bind effectively only to bat ACE2, not human ACE2.
    • Recent Developments: In 2025, a new variant called HKU5-CoV-2 was isolated in China, and lab studies show it can infect human airway and gut cells, though less efficiently than SARS-CoV-2.
    • Genetic Similarity: HKU5 is genetically close to both MERS-CoV and SARS-CoV-2, though it has not yet been detected in humans.

    Threats and Risks Associated with HKU5 Virus:

    • Near-Human Infectivity: HKU5 is considered just one mutation away from gaining the ability to infect humans via the ACE2 receptor.
    • Cross-Species Transmission: Certain HKU5 strains have already jumped into minks, demonstrating its capacity to cross species barriers.
    • Pandemic Potential: If HKU5 acquires mutations allowing efficient use of human ACE2, it could pose a significant zoonotic pandemic threat.
    • Relation to Deadly Viruses: Its structural similarity to MERS-CoV, which has a 34% fatality rate, places HKU5 in a high-risk category if human infection occurs.
    [UPSC 2015] H1N1 virus is sometimes mentioned in the news concerning which one of the following diseases?

    Options: (a) AIDS (b) Bird flu (c) Dengue (d) Swine flu*

     

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  • New Species of Plants and Animals Discovered

    Species in news: Himalayan long-tailed myotis

    Species | Enviro & Biodiversity | Mains Paper 3: Conservation, Environmental Pollution & Degradation, Eia

    Why in the News?

    Researchers have identified a new-to-science bat species, the Himalayan long-tailed myotis (Myotis himalaicus), from the Western Himalayas.

    Species in news: Himalayan long-tailed myotis

    About Himalayan Long-Tailed Myotis:

    • New Species: It is a newly described bat species from the Western Himalayas.
    • Discovery: It was first recorded in Chamoli district, Uttarakhand, in 2021 and matched with an earlier specimen collected in Pakistan in 1998.
    • Class: It belongs to the Myotis frater complex, which includes bats found across East and Central Asia.

    Key Features:

    • Habitat: Found in high-altitude forests such as deodar, pine, and cedar.
    • Distribution: Likely found across India, Pakistan, and Nepal.
    • Tail: Notably features a long tail, setting it apart within the Myotis genus.
    • Rarity: Considered uncommon, with limited sightings.
    • Identification: Confirmed through morphological traits and genetic analysis.
    • Scientific Significance: Enhances understanding of bat diversity in the Himalayas and supports transboundary biodiversity research.
    [UPSC 2009] In the context of Indian wildlife, the flying fox is a:

    Options: (a) Bat* (b) Kite (c) Stork (d) Vulture

     

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  • Innovations in Biotechnology and Medical Sciences

    Kashmir Merino: India’s First Gene-Edited Sheep

    Prelims Only | Science Tech | Mains Paper 3: Awareness in various sc and tech fields

    Why in the News?

    Researchers at Sher-e-Kashmir University of Agricultural Sciences and Technology (SKUAST) have successfully created India’s first gene-edited sheep—a Kashmir Merino breed.

    Kashmir Merino: India's First Gene-Edited Sheep

    About Kashmir Merino Sheep:

    • Overview: Kashmir Merino is a high-quality domestic sheep breed known for its fine wool and ability to thrive in cold climates.
    • Genetics: It was developed by crossbreeding exotic Merino rams with local sheep breeds in Jammu and Kashmir.
    • Characteristics: The breed produces soft, dense wool with high fibre quality, making it valuable for the textile industry.
    • Resilience: It is well-adapted to high-altitude Himalayan conditions, including extreme cold and low oxygen levels.
    • Significance: It plays a key role in regional livestock economies, contributing significantly to wool and mutton production in Jammu and Kashmir.

    Gene-Editing Breakthrough in Kashmir Merino:

    • Gene Targeted: Researchers used CRISPR-Cas9 technology to edit the myostatin gene, which normally inhibits muscle growth.
    • Impact: Disabling this gene led to a 30% increase in muscle mass, resulting in higher meat yield and improved economic returns for farmers.
    • Lab-to-Field Success: The edited embryo was developed in a laboratory and then successfully implanted into a surrogate mother, marking a full-cycle gene-editing achievement.
    • Biotech Significance: This success represents a major advancement in India’s livestock biotechnology, opening new paths for research in disease resistance, wool quality enhancement, and production of transgenic proteins.
    [UPSC 2017] What is the application of somatic cell nuclear transfer technology?

    Options: (a) Production of biolarvicides (b) Manufacture of biodegradable plastics (c) Reproductive cloning of animals* (d) Production of organisms free of diseases

     

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  • International Space Agencies – Missions and Discoveries

    NASA captures image of Mars’ Arsia Mons Volcano 

    Prelims Only | Science Tech | Mains Paper 3: Awareness in various sc and tech fields

    Why in the News?

    NASA’s Mars Odyssey orbiter has captured a spectacular image of Arsia Mons, one of Mars’ largest volcanoes.

    mons

    About Arsia Mons Volcano:

    • Location: Arsia Mons is a massive shield volcano on Mars, located in the Tharsis region near the planet’s equator.
    • Volcanic Chain: It is part of the Tharsis Montes trio, which includes Pavonis Mons and Ascraeus Mons.
    • Size and Structure: The volcano rises about 20 km (12 miles) in height and spans 450 kilometres in diameter, making it one of the largest in the Solar System.
    • Summit Caldera: Arsia Mons has an enormous caldera, or summit crater, measuring 120 kilometres across, which is much wider than most Earth volcanoes.
    • Volcano Type: It is a shield volcano, characterised by gentle slopes formed through successive lava flows.
    • Surface Features: Signs of lava channels, landslides, and possible ancient glaciers have been observed on its flanks.
    • Cloud Activity: Known as the cloudiest volcano on Mars, Arsia Mons regularly develops water-ice clouds near its summit, especially at sunrise and during aphelion, when Mars is farthest from the Sun.

    Its Significance:

    • Recent Imaging: A new image released by NASA shows Arsia Mons piercing through morning haze, offering scientists a horizon-level view of Martian terrain.
    • Scientific Importance: Observations help researchers analyse Martian weather, seasonal climate patterns, and atmospheric behaviour.
    • Mission Relevance: Arsia Mons plays a key role in understanding Mars’ volcanic history, dust storm formation, and identifying future landing zones.
    • Exploration Support: Data from this region improve planetary weather models and assist in safe mission planning for upcoming robotic and human missions.

    Back2Basics: NASA’s Mars Odyssey Orbiter  

    • Launch: Mars Odyssey was launched in 2001, making it NASA’s longest-operating spacecraft at Mars.
    • Technology: The orbiter captured the Arsia Mons image using the THEMIS (Thermal Emission Imaging System) camera.
    • Capabilities: This instrument detects both visible and infrared light, allowing scientists to study surface temperatures, mineral compositions, and atmospheric properties.
    • Unique Technique: To photograph Arsia Mons against the Martian horizon, the orbiter rotated its camera 90 degrees, deviating from its usual ground-facing orientation.
    • Contributions: It continues to monitor climate changes, study volcanoes and dust storms, and assist with landing site selection.
    • Support Role: It also serves as a communication relay for other active Mars missions, enabling data transfer and navigation for landers and rovers.

     

    [UPSC 2016] Consider the following statements:

    The Mangalyaan launched by ISRO 1. is also called the Mars Orbiter Mission 2. made India the second country to have a spacecraft orbit the Mars after USA 3. made India the only country to be successful in making its spacecraft orbit the Mars in its very first attempt

    Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

    Options: (a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 1 and 3 only * (d) 1, 2 and 3

     

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