Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Agriculture related schemes
Mains level: Doubling Farmers income, challenges and way ahead
Central Idea
- Recently, Prime Minister shared his dream of doubling farmers’ incomes in the year when India completes 75 years of Independence and enters Amrit Kaal. Now that we have entered Amrit Kaal, it is a good time to revisit that dream and see if it has been fulfilled, and if not, how best it can be done. It was a noble dream because unless the incomes of farmers go up, we cannot have sustained high growth of overall GDP.
- Doubling farmers’ income is a target set by the government of India in February 2016 to be achieved by 2022-23.
- To promote farmers’ welfare, reduce agrarian distress and bring parity between income of farmers and those working in non-agricultural professions.
- Doubling Farmers Income can directly have a positive effect on the future of agriculture.
Doubling Farmers Income: A Noble Vision
- Improved Farm Machinery and Advanced Technologies: If the income earned by the farmer is doubled, they will have access to better farm machinery and advanced technologies, leading to increased productivity, better quality of seeds, and improved farming techniques.
- Increased Agricultural Productivity: Doubling farmers’ income means increasing agricultural productivity, which is essential for meeting the growing demand for food in the country.
- Improved Quality of Crops: Increasing the income of farmers will not only increase agricultural production but also improve the quality of crops, which is crucial for ensuring food security and meeting quality standards for exports.
- Growth of Indian Economy: Doubling farmers’ income will contribute to the growth of the Indian economy by increasing rural demand for goods and services, creating employment opportunities, and boosting overall economic growth.
- Reduced Incidents of Farmer Suicides: Financial stress is one of the leading causes of farmer suicides in India. Doubling farmers’ income will provide them with financial security, which will reduce the incidents of farmer suicides and improve their overall well-being.
Government efforts in this direction
- Fertilizer subsidy: Fertilizer subsidy budget crosses Rs 2 lakh crore. Even when global prices of urea crossed $1,000/metric tonne, the Indian price of urea remained flat at around $70/tonne. This is perhaps the lowest price in the world.
- PM-Kisan: The government has allocated Rs 60,000 crore to its flagship PM Kisan Samman Nidhi Yojana for the financial year 2023-24.
- PM Garib Kalyan Anna Yojana: Further, many small and marginal farmers also get free ration of at least 5 kg/person/month through the PM Garib Kalyan Anna Yojana.
- Subsidies and crop insurance: There are also subsidies for crop insurance, credit and irrigation (drip). States also dole out power subsidies in abundance, especially on irrigation. Even farm machinery for custom hiring centres is being subsidised by many states.
Evaluation: Impact of all these policies on farmers’ incomes and on environment
- Impact of Input Subsidies and Output Trade Policies on Farmers’ Income: While Input subsidies help raise farmers’ incomes by reducing the cost of inputs such as seeds, fertilizers, and irrigation. Output trade and marketing policies adopted by the government, such as the ban on exports of wheat or the 20% export tax on rice, can suppress farmers’ incomes.
- Pro-Consumer Approach: The current policy approach is pro-consumer rather than pro-farmer, which is a fundamental problem with our policy framework.
- Environmental Damage Caused by Subsidized Inputs and Uncontrolled Procurement Policies: The excessive subsidization of inputs like fertilizers and power, coupled with uncontrolled procurement of paddy and wheat in certain states, is causing severe environmental damage. There is a growing need to rationalize these policies.
Way ahead
- It is crucial to assess the net impact of input subsidies and output trade policies on farmers’ income to understand where they stand.
- Realign the support policies keeping in mind environmental outcomes.
- Millets, pulses, oilseeds, and much of horticulture could perhaps be given carbon credits to incentivise their cultivation. They consume less water and fertilisers. We need to make subsidies/support crop-neutral.
- It is crucial to adopt policies that are pro-farmer and promote their interests, support income growth, and enhance overall economic growth.
- Agriculture today needs innovations in technologies, products, institutions and policies for more diversified high-value agriculture that is also planet friendly.
Notes for Good marks
Agriculture: Crucial sector of the Indian Economy
- Employment: Agriculture engages the largest share of the workforce (45.5 per cent in 2021-22 as per PLFS). Agriculture provides direct employment to around 50% of the Indian population, and it indirectly supports the livelihoods of millions more in allied industries such as agro-processing, transportation, and marketing.
- Food and nutritional security: Agriculture is essential for meeting the food requirements of the country. India is one of the largest producers of rice, wheat, and other cereals, and it is also a significant producer of fruits, vegetables, and spices.
- Contribution to GDP: Agriculture is a significant contributor to India’s Gross Domestic Product (GDP), accounting for around 17% of the country’s total GDP.
- Foreign exchange earnings: India is a leading exporter of agricultural products such as Basmati rice, spices, tea, and cotton. The export of these products earns valuable foreign exchange for the country.
- Rural development: Agriculture plays a vital role in the development of rural areas by providing employment and income opportunities, promoting entrepreneurship, and improving the standard of living in these areas.
- Environmental sustainability: Agriculture is closely linked to the environment, and sustainable agricultural practices can help conserve natural resources, reduce carbon emissions, and promote ecological balance.
Conclusion
- On the question of doubling farmers’ income, we must realize it is going to take time. It can be done by increasing productivity through better seeds and better irrigation. It will have to be combined with unhindered access to the markets for their produce. Further, diversifying to high-value crops, and even putting solar panels on farmers’ fields as a third crop will be needed. It is only with such a concerted and sustained effort we can double farmers’ incomes.
Mains Question
Q. What do you understand by Doubling famers income? Enumerate the efforts taken by the government and what needs to be done to achieve the target?
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Crops, climate change impact and Green Revolution
Mains level: State of the Indian Agriculture
Central Idea
- The statement made by the then viceroy, George Curzon in the early 20th century, that the Indian economy, particularly agriculture, is a gamble on the monsoon, may need to be rephrased in modern times. More than the monsoon, it is temperatures that are emerging as a greater source of uncertainty for farmers. Today, what India needs is Green Revolution 2.0.
The fact today: Rising Temperatures Threaten Winter-Spring Harvest in India
- Irrigation Prevents Winter-Spring Drought: The country now produces more foodgrains during the winter-spring season than in the post-monsoon season shows how irrigation has helped to prevent drought.
- Rising Temperatures Threaten Winter-Spring Harvest: However, the rising temperatures in February and March pose a threat to the winter-spring harvest, which was previously considered safe from rainfall-related problems.
- Shorter Winters, Earlier Summers Increase Crop Risks: Although thunderstorms and hail have always been a risk for winter-spring crops, they are now overshadowed by the risks from shorter winters and earlier summers.
Heat Waves and wheat yield at present
- Surge in temperature last year: The impact of temperature surge was seen in March 2022, when the wheat crop had just entered its final grain formation and filling stage. The heat stress led to early grain ripening and reduced yields.
- Record-high temperatures in February this year: In February of this year, the maximum temperatures recorded were the highest ever seen. This is attributed to the absence of active western disturbances that bring rain and snowfall over the Himalayas, whose cooling effect percolates into the plains.
- Rising Temperatures in Wheat-Growing Areas: Currently, minimum and maximum temperatures in most wheat-growing areas are ruling 3-5 degrees Celsius above normal. The next couple of weeks or more are going to be crucial. As long as the maximum remains within 35 degrees, there should be no danger of March 2022 repeating itself.
Green Revolution in India
- In India, the Green Revolution was mainly led by M.S. Swaminathan.
- In 1961, M.S. Swaminathan invited Norman who suggested a revolution like what has happened in Mexico, Japan, etc in Indian agriculture.
- Green Revolution was introduced with the Intensive Agriculture District Program (IADP) on an experimental basis in 7 districtin India.
- In 1965-66 the HYV program was started which is the starting point of the Green Revolution in India.
- The Green Revolution, spreading over the period from 1967-68 to 1977-78, changed India’s status from a food-deficient country to one of the world’s leading agricultural nations.
- The Green Revolution resulted in a great increase in production of food grains (especially wheat and rice) due to the introduction into developing countries of new, high-yielding variety seeds, beginning in the mid-20th century.
Why India Need another Green Revolution?
- Climate change and food insecurity: Climate change poses a significant risk to Indian agriculture. The changing weather patterns, extreme temperatures, and rainfall variations are causing unpredictability in crop production, leading to food insecurity and farmer distress.
- Declining Soil Fertility: Soil degradation and depletion of nutrients have affected the productivity of the land. It is necessary to develop crops that require less water and fertilizers and are disease-resistant.
- For example: The development of genetically modified (GM) cotton has led to higher yields, less pesticide use, and improved soil health.
- Price volatility: In addition to climate change, Indian farmers are also struggling with price volatility, as seen in the recent crash of onion and potato prices. This dual risk of climate and prices requires urgent attention from policymakers, farmers, and scientists to develop resilient crop varieties and effective crop planning and management.
- Sustainable crop varieties: The need of the hour is to develop crop varieties that can withstand extreme temperature and rainfall variations while yielding more with less water and nutrients.
- For instance: The use of precision agriculture techniques can help farmers manage their crops efficiently and minimize losses due to climate and price fluctuations.
- Coordinated efforts: Improving market intelligence and access to markets is also crucial to ensure that farmers receive fair prices for their produce. This will require a coordinated effort from both the government and private sector to create efficient supply chains and distribution networks.
- Success of the First Green revolution: The success of the first Green Revolution in India was built on scientific research, policy support, and effective implementation. Similarly, addressing the current challenges facing Indian agriculture will require a comprehensive approach that involves research, policy, and implementation at all levels of government and society.
Prelims Shot: All you need to know about “Wheat”
- Climate: It is a crop of temperate climate. It can be grown in the drier areas with the help of irrigation.
- Temperature: 15°-20°C
- Rainfall: 25-75 cms.
- Soil: Well drained loamy and clayey soils are ideal.
- Cultivation: On about 14% of the total arable area of the country.
- Two important wheat producing zones in the country: The Ganga-Satluj plains in the north-west and the black soil region in the Deccan.
- In north India: wheat is sown in October –November and harvested in March – April.
- In south India: It is sown in September-October and harvested in December – January.
- Uttar Pradesh (highest producer), Punjab (highest yield per hectare), Madhya Pradesh, Haryana, Rajasthan, Bihar, Gujarat, Maharashtra, West Bengal, Uttarakhand.
- Important varieties: Sonalika, Kalyan, Sona, Sabarmati, Lerma, Roso, Heera, Shera, Sonara-64.
- “Wheat takes lesser time in ripening in south India than that in the north because of hotter climatic conditions in the south.”
Conclusion
- India needs a new agricultural transformation to overcome the challenges it faces. Green Revolution 2.0 can help develop crops that are climate-resilient, require less water and fertilizers, and are disease-resistant. By investing in research and development of new technologies, India can achieve a more sustainable and profitable agriculture sector. Farmers must know what to plant, how to manage their crop at various stages under different stress scenarios, and when to sell. Agriculture for today and tomorrow cannot be the same as it was yesterday.
Mains Question
Q. Indian agriculture is under stress due to rising temperatures and climate change. In this light discuss why India need green revolution 2.0?
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: NA
Mains level: India- SL fisherman issue
Sri Lanka’s northern fishermen fiercely oppose the government’s plan to issue licenses to Indian fishermen to enter Sri Lankan waters, terming the move a “serious setback” to their nearly 15-year-long struggle.
Recent development
- The Sri Lankan government has proposed issuing fishing licenses to Indian fishermen to fish in Sri Lankan waters.
- The proposal has been met with fierce opposition from Northern Province fishermen who view it as a threat to their livelihoods and an infringement on their fishing rights.
- Indian fishermen have been accused of using illegal fishing methods and damaging the marine ecosystem, which has further fueled tensions between the two groups.
- The conflict over fishing rights has led to violence and arrests on both sides.
Issues for Sri Lanka
- Proliferation of Trawlers: The overuse of mechanized trawlers in Palk Bay is damaging the marine ecosystem in SL waters.
- Breach of sovereignty: There were many favorable reasons too for Indian fishermen as their access to Sri Lankan waters was easier at the time of Sri Lankan civil war.
- Porous borders: Maritime boundaries were never tightly guarded as a result, Indian trawlers continue to routinely enter Lankan waters for fishing.
- End of Civil War: Everything changed in 2009 with the end of civil war. Arrests and attacks increased on Indian fishermen as they continued entering Lankan waters because of depletion of marine resources on the Indian side.
Fishermen’s concern:
(1) Depletion of fisheries
- There is a depletion of fisheries on the Indian side, so Indian fishermen cross into Sri Lankan waters thus denying the livelihood of their counterparts.
- They deliberately cross the territorial waters even at the risk of getting arrested or shot dead by the Sri Lankan Navy.
- Sri Lankan fishermen across Palk Bay are concerned over similar depletion on their side (where there is a ban for trawlers) because of poaching by Indian fishermen.
(2) Rights over Katchatheevu Island
- Tamil fishermen have been entering Sri Lankan waters nearby Katchatheevu island, where they had been fishing for centuries.
- In 1974, the island was ceded to Sri Lanka after an agreement was signed by Indira Gandhi between the two countries without consulting the Tamil Nadu government.
- The agreement allows Indian fishermen “access to Katchatheevu for rest, for drying of nests and for the annual St Anthony’s festival” but it did not ensure the traditional fishing rights.
(3) Hefty fines
- After some respite in the last couple of years, Sri Lanka introduced tougher laws banning bottom-trawling and put heavy fines for trespassing foreign vessels.
- SL has increased the fine on Indian vessels found fishing in Sri Lankan waters to a minimum of LKR 6 million (about ₹25 lakh) and a maximum of LKR 175 million (about ₹17.5 Crore).
- Quiet often, the fishermen are shot dead by SL marines.
Fishermen issue in TN politics
- It has been often a sensitive political issue in Tamil Nadu in the past one decade.
- In a defiant speech in 1991, late CM Jayalalitha had called on the people of Tamil Nadu to retrieve the Katchatheevu Island.
Way forward
- Leasing: Two courses of action exist: (1) get back the island of Katchatheevu on “lease in perpetuity” or (2) permit licensed Indian fishermen to fish within a designated area of Sri Lankan waters and vice versa.
- Licensing: The second course of action would persuade Colombo to permit licensed Indian fishermen to fish in Sri Lankan waters for five nautical miles from the IMBL.
- Reconsidering old agreements: The 2003 proposal for licensed fishing can be revisited.
- Looping in fishermen themselves: Arranging frequent meetings between fishing communities of both countries could be systematized so as to develop a friendlier atmosphere mid-seas during fishing.
Conclusion
- The underlying issues of the fisheries dispute need to be addressed so that bilateral relations do not reach a crisis point.
- Immediate actions should be taken to begin the phase-out of trawling and identify other fishing practices.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: BBNJ Treaty
Mains level: Read the attached story
For the first time, United Nations members have agreed for an early conclusion of the International Legally Binding Instrument of BBNJ under the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS).
Background
- The UN Convention on the Law of the Sea was established in 1994 before marine biodiversity became a well-established concept
- An updated framework to protect marine life in the high seas had been in discussions for over 20 years.
- BBNJ is an agreement that aims to protect marine biodiversity in areas beyond national jurisdiction (ABNJ).
- ABNJ refers to the high seas, which are not governed by any country but are still important for global biodiversity.
What is the BBNJ treaty?
- The BBNJ Treaty also called the Treaty of the High Seas, is an international agreement that aims to preserve and sustainably use the marine biodiversity of areas beyond national jurisdiction.
- This includes the high seas, which are outside of countries’ exclusive economic zones and makeup nearly half of the Earth’s surface.
- These areas are currently poorly regulated and only 1% of them are protected.
- The High Ambition Coalition on BBNJ was launched in February 2022 to negotiate and achieve a comprehensive and ambitious outcome.
Key areas of agreement
The negotiations focus on elements agreed upon such as the-
- Conservation and sustainable use of marine genetic resources,
- Area-based management tools like marine protected areas,
- Environmental impact assessments, and
- Capacity-building and technology transfer
Consensus reached
- A new body will be created to manage the conservation of ocean life and establish marine protected areas in the high seas
- The treaty establishes ground rules for conducting environmental impact assessments for commercial activities in the oceans
- Several marine species, including dolphins, whales, sea turtles, and many fish, make long annual migrations, crossing national borders and the high seas
What is the significance of this treaty?
- Beyond jurisdiction coverage: BBNJ refers to the areas beyond the jurisdiction of any single country, such as the high seas, the deep sea floor, and the international seabed area. These areas are critical for the health of the ocean, the well-being of coastal people, and the overall sustainability of the planet.
- Covers entire oceans: BBNJ comprises 95% of the ocean and provides invaluable ecological, economic, social, cultural, scientific, and food-security benefits to humanity.
- Hard-arrived consensus: BBNJ is governed by a patchwork of international agreements, conventions, and bodies, but there is no single comprehensive framework that regulates activities in these areas.
Various threats
- BBNJ, despite its resilience in the past, is currently at risk due to several emerging dangers such as pollution, overexploitation, and the observable consequences of climate change.
- In the future, the escalating need for marine resources, whether for food, minerals, or biotechnology, may intensify these issues.
- For example, deep-sea mining, where valuable metals are extracted from the ocean floor, is becoming more prevalent despite the fact that little is known about the biodiversity in these areas.
Why protect deep seas?
- The deep seafloors, believed to be the harshest habitat, are also facing the extinction process.
- A recent study assessed 184 species of Molluscs in the deep sea and found that 62% are listed as threatened: 39 are critically endangered, 32 are endangered and 43 are vulnerable.
- Yet, the International Seabed Authority, a Jamaica-based intergovernmental body, is allowing deep-sea mining contracts.
Way forward
Ans. Create legally binding instrument
- To address these threats, there is a need for a legally binding instrument for BBNJ.
- The instrument would provide a framework for the conservation and sustainable use of BBNJ and would address gaps in the current international legal regime.
- The legally binding instrument would establish a mechanism for the conservation and sustainable use of BBNJ, including measures to protect biodiversity, manage human activities, and ensure the equitable sharing of benefits.
- It would also provide for capacity-building and technology transfer to support the implementation of these measures.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Bio-Computers
Mains level: Not Much
Central idea: Johns Hopkins University scientists have proposed creation of Bio-Computers’ using a new area of research called “organoid intelligence”.
Background
- JHU scientists will harness the processing power of the brain and help understand the biological basis of human cognition, learning, and neurological disorders.
- Traditional methods of studying the human brain involve using rat brains, which are structurally and functionally different from human brains.
Building brain organoids in the lab
- Scientists are building 3D cultures of brain tissue in the lab, called brain organoids, using human stem cells.
- Brain organoids capture many structural and functional features of a developing human brain and are being used to study human brain development and test drugs.
- However, brain organoids developed in the lab lack sensory inputs and blood circulation, which limits their growth and sophistication.
Transplanting brain organoids
- Scientists have transplanted human brain organoid cultures into rat brains, where they formed connections with the rat brain and were functionally active.
- However, human brain organoids are still nested in the rat-brain microenvironment, which limits their relevance to humans.
What is the new “bio-computer”?
- The JHU researchers’ scheme combines brain organoids with modern computing methods to create “bio-computers”.
- Brain organoids will be grown inside flexible structures affixed with multiple electrodes to record the firing patterns of neurons and deliver electrical stimuli.
- Machine-learning techniques will be used to analyze the response patterns of neurons and their effect on human behavior or biology.
Opportunities for “bio-computers”
- Brain organoids can be developed using stem cells from individuals with neurodegenerative diseases or cognitive disorders to reveal the biological basis of human cognition, learning, and memory.
- “Bio-computers” could help decode the pathology of and develop drugs for neurodevelopmental and degenerative diseases such as Parkinson’s disease and microcephaly.
Challenges for bio-computers
- Brain organoids have a diameter of less than 1 mm and have fewer than 100,000 cells on average, limiting their computing capacity.
- Researchers will have to develop microfluidic systems to transport oxygen and nutrients and remove waste products.
- The hybrid systems will generate large amounts of data that will need to be stored and analyzed using “Big Data” infrastructure and advanced analytical techniques.
- An ethics team is proposed to identify, discuss, and analyze ethical issues as they arise in the course of this work.
Conclusion
- Biocomputers will harness the processing power of the brain and help understand the biological basis of human cognition, learning, and various neurological disorders.
- Scaling up brain organoids and developing microfluidic systems and analytical techniques are the key challenges.
- Ethical issues arising from the development of biocomputers will be analyzed by an ethics team.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: SWAMIH Fund
Mains level: Not Much
The Special Window for Affordable and Mid-Income Housing (SWAMIH) Investment Fund I has raised Rs 15,530 crore so far.
What is the SWAMIH investment fund?
- The SWAMIH Investment Fund I is a social impact fund specifically formed for completing stressed and stalled residential projects.
- The Fund is sponsored by the Ministry of Finance and is managed by SBICAP Ventures Ltd., a State Bank Group company.
- The Fund is considered as the lender of last resort for distressed projects.
Who are eligible for this fund?
It considers-
- First-time developers,
- Established developers with troubled projects,
- Developers with a poor track record of stalled projects,
- Customer complaints and NPA accounts, and even
- Projects where there are litigation issues.
Significance of the funds
- The Fund’s presence in a project often acts as a catalyst for better collections and sales primarily in projects that were delayed for years.
- According to the Finance Ministry, SWAMIH Fund has one of the largest domestic real estate private equity teams focused only on funding and monitoring the completion of stressed housing projects.
How many projects so far have been financed by the Fund?
- SWAMIH has so far provided final approval to about 130 projects with sanctions worth over Rs 12,000 crore.
- The Fund has completed 20,557 homes and aims to complete over 81,000 homes in the next three years across 30 tier 1 and 2 cities.
- The Fund has been able to complete construction in 26 projects and generate returns for its investors.
- It has also played a critical role in the growth of many ancillary industries in real estate and infrastructure sector having successfully unlocked liquidity of more than Rs. 35,000 crore.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: One Nation, One Challan Initiative
Mains level: Not Much
The Gujarat Govt. informed High Court that it’s setting up virtual traffic courts under ‘One Nation One Challan’ initiative while hearing a PIL on the matter.
What is the One Nation, One Challan initiative?
- One Nation, One Challan is an initiative of the Ministry of Road Transport and Highways.
- It aims to bring all related agencies, such as the traffic police and the Regional Transport Office (RTO), on one platform, to enable seamless collection of challans as well as data transfer.
- The integrated system uses the CCTV network to detect traffic violations and retrieve the registration number of the offending vehicle from applications like VAHAN and SARATHI.
- An e-Challan is then generated with the relevant penalty amount, and sent to the mobile number linked with the vehicle.
What did the Gujarat govt inform?
- In Gujarat, the initiative is operational in three commissionerate areas of Ahmedabad, Rajkot and Surat since January this year and implementation at Vadodara is underway.
How does the integration help?
- Prior to the integration, details of vehicle ownership from a different state could not be accessed through the CCTV network for penalization.
- Integration of all states’ RTO data and traffic police data with the support of NIC servers allows access to vehicle registration and related data for violators from different states.
- Challans will be sent directly to the mobile number registered with the vehicle.
- NIC is set to launch its own application for e-Challan delivery.
How do virtual traffic courts work?
- Virtual courts are aimed at eliminating the presence of litigants in the court.
- An accused can search their case on the virtual court’s website. Upon successful payment of the fine, the case will be shown as disposed of.
- For now, one court is in the process of being designated as a virtual court for the whole of Gujarat.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Charaideo Maidams, Ahom Kingdom
Mains level: Not Much
Assam’s pyramid-like structures known as moidams or maidams have met all the technical requirements of UNESCO’s World Heritage Centre.
Charaideo Maidams
- The Charaideo maidams represents the late medieval (13th-19th century CE) mound burial tradition of the Tai Ahom community in Assam.
- The Ahoms preferred to place the departed family members at Charaideo where the first king Sukapha was laid to rest.
- The historical chronicles inform that wives, attendants, pet animals and huge quantity of valuables were buried with the departed kings.
- The Charaideo Maidams enshrine the mortal remains of the members of the Ahom royalty, who used to be buried with their paraphernalia.
- After the 18th century, the Ahom rulers adopted the Hindu method of cremation and began entombing the cremated bones and ashes in a Maidam at Charaideo.
- Out of 386 Maidams explored so far, 90 royal burials at Charaideo are the best preserved, representative of and the most complete examples of mound burial tradition of the Ahoms.
Architecture details
- Architecturally it comprises a massive underground vault with one or more chambers having domical superstructure.
- It is covered by a heap of earthen mound and externally it appears a hemispherical mound.
- At the top of the mound a small open pavilion chow-chali is provided.
- An octagonal dwarf wall encloses whole maidam.
Ahoms Dynasty
- The Ahom, also known as the Tai-Ahom, are an ethnic group from Assam and Arunachal Pradesh in India.
- This ethnic group is made up of interbred descendants of the Tai people, who first came to Assam’s Brahmaputra valley in 1228, and indigenous people who later joined them.
- Sukaphaa, the Tai group’s leader, and his 9000 supporters founded the Ahom empire (1228–1826 CE), which ruled over part of modern-day Assam’s Brahmaputra Valley until 1826.
- Charaideo, more than 400 km east of Guwahati, was the first capital of the Ahom dynasty founded by Chao Lung Sukaphaa in 1253.
- The current Ahom people and culture are a mix of the ancient Tai people and culture, as well as indigenous Tibeto-Burman people and cultures that they assimilated in Assam.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Foldscope
Mains level: NA
Researchers from the Indian Institute of Science (IISc), Bengaluru, have developed a cheap paper microscope (foldscope) connected to a smartphone camera that could find wider application in a variety of research areas, and in some cases potentially replace more expensive equipment.
What is Foldscope?
- The Foldscope is a handheld microscope made mostly of paper that can be easily linked to a smartphone camera.
- It has a magnification of around 140x and can identify objects just 2 micrometres wide.
- It was first created by researchers at Stanford University in 2014.
- IISc version of Foldscope costs around Rs 400, much cheaper than that of Stanford’s one.
How is Foldscope comparable to electron microscope?
- The researchers found that Foldscope could capture the roundness and aspect ratio of an object to within 5% of those imaged by a state-of-the-art instrument called a scanning electron microscope (SEM).
- SEM costs more than Rs 50 lakh each.
- Preparing a sample for study through a Foldscope takes less than an hour, whereas the same process for an SEM was “tedious and time-consuming”.
Potential applications
- Foldscopes can be used in pharmaceuticals (to inspect drug products), environmental science (to observe pollutants), and cosmetics (to observe powders and emulsions), among other fields.
- They can also be used to study “soil particles’ morphology,” which can “help understand soil structure, nutrient availability, and plant growth” in agriculture.
- It allows for in-field soil analysis and visualisation of soil structure per Indian Standard Soil Classification System which earlier required bulky microscopes with high resolution.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: CAPEX
Mains level: Capital Expenditure by the Centre and states
Central Idea
- The budget’s clear thrust towards capital expenditure is evident in the 33% increase in its allocation. The primary goal of this allocation is to bolster aggregate demand in the short term and enhance the economy’s productive capacity in the long term. This strategy is widely regarded as beneficial, especially considering the crucial role that infrastructure plays in the growth and development of any economy.
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Capital Expenditure of the states
- Capex of the states exceed than the central govt: The combined spending of Indian states on capital expenditure now exceeds that of the central government.
- For example: In 2021-22, this figure combined for states and Union territories, according to budget estimates, was ₹10.5 trillion. The Centre’s effective capital expenditure that year was ₹8.4 trillion, including ₹2.5 trillion as grant for creation of assets.
What is Capital Expenditure (CAPEX)?
- Capital expenditure refers to investments in upgrading existing or building new physical assets by the government or private businesses.
- As businesses expand, capex has a multiplier effect on the economy, creating demand and unleashing animal spirits.
Main types of Capex
- Infrastructure development: This includes building and upgrading public infrastructure such as roads, highways, railways, ports, airports, power plants, and water supply systems.
- Defence and security: This involve the acquisition and maintenance of defence equipment, weapons systems, and other security-related investments.
- Social sector spending: This includes investment in areas such as education, healthcare, and social welfare programs to improve the quality of life of the citizens.
- Rural development: This includes spending on agricultural and rural infrastructure such as irrigation systems, rural electrification, and rural housing.
- Capital investments in public sector enterprises: The government may also invest capital in public sector enterprises to improve their efficiency and profitability
Key reasons why the Indian government emphasizes Capex?
- Promoting economic growth: Capital expenditure is critical for promoting economic growth by creating demand for goods and services, boosting private sector investment, and increasing employment opportunities. By investing in infrastructure, the government can provide the necessary framework for businesses to grow and thrive.
- Improving public services: Capital expenditure is required to build and upgrade public facilities such as hospitals, schools, and water supply systems, and provide necessary equipment and supplies. This investment in public services is crucial for improving the quality of life of citizens and promoting social and economic development.
- Infrastructure development: It is critical for promoting trade, commerce, and investment, and improving the country’s overall competitiveness. By investing in infrastructure, the government can create new economic opportunities, support the growth of existing industries, and attract foreign investment.
- Creating employment opportunities: Capital expenditure creates employment opportunities in the short term through the construction of infrastructure projects and in the long term by supporting economic growth and promoting private sector investment.
- Attracting private sector investment: The government’s emphasis on Capex can also help attract private sector investment by providing the necessary infrastructure and a favourable business environment.
What are the concern over State capex?
- Uneven capacity CAPEX: One general macro-economic challenge is to address this uneven inclination of states or capacity for capital expenditure, which adds uncertainty to the impact of an expansionary fiscal policy led by capex, thus weakening its potential benefits.
- The ultimate aim of all CAPEX is to enhance the productive capacity of the economy: The nature of state capital expenditure drawn in is also vitally important. Ideally, the nature of state capital expenditure drawn in by central capital expenditure should be such that it dovetails with the latter to optimize long-term enhancements of economic capacity.
- States have tendency to postpone capex: The Union budget for 2023-24 encourages states to make reforms in urban local bodies to become creditworthy for municipal bond issuance. However, states have a tendency to postpone capital expenditure until revenue streams firm up.
- States need to improve their execution capacity and establish an enabling regulatory environment to ensure quality and speed of expenditure.
- The planning and budgeting cycle of states should also be aligned with fund releases to fully utilize resources within the available time.
- States play a crucial role in capital expenditure and must not only budget more but also spend fully and uniformly throughout the year.
Conclusion
- States need to prioritize timely and efficient execution of capital expenditure and fully utilizing budgeted capital amounts uniformly throughout the year. The RBI report, while acknowledging that Indian states made higher capital outlays in 2022-23, notes that states would do well to mainstream capital planning rather than treating them as residuals and first stops for cutbacks in order to meet budgetary targets.
Mains Question
Q. What do you understand by Capital Expenditure (CAPEX)? Highlight the concerns over capex by the states and suggest a way ahead.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Constituent assembly
Mains level: Women participation in constituent assembly
Central idea
- The process of drafting our Constitution during Partition and after a long period of colonization was a magnificent and dynamic process. Despite being part of the Assembly, voices and contributions of women have been neglected and overshadowed. The riveting work by Achyut Chetan,” The Founding Mothers of the Republic” published by Cambridge University Press in 2022 serves as a means of rectifying this historical omission and giving due credit to the women who played a crucial role in shaping India’s democracy.
Women In constitutional Assembly
- When the Constitution was completed, there were 11 women members of the Constituent Assembly who signed onto it.
- These drafters were G Durgabai, Ammu Swaminathan, Amrit Kaur, Dakshayani Velayudhan, Hansa Mehta, Renuka Ray, Sucheta Kripalani, Purnima Banerjee, Begum Qudsiya Aizaz Rasul, Kamala Chaudhri and Annie Mascarene.
- The Constituent Assembly first met on December 11, 1946 and had 169 sessions before all its members signed the document on January 24, 1950
How do we know what happened in the Constituent Assembly?
- Constituent Assembly Debates (CAD) is the only source: A rich but by no means the only source is the 12 volumes of the Constituent Assembly Debates (CAD), consisting of speeches made by members and the amendments to the draft articles.
- CAD misses no. of reports and notes pf various committes: However, what the CAD does not have are the reports and notes of the various committees of the CA.
- For instance: Much groundbreaking work was done in the Advisory Committee (chaired by Vallabhbhai Patel), which in turn had two sub-committees the Fundamental Rights Sub Committee and the Minorities Sub-Committee.
Role of Women in the constituent assembly
- Hansa Mehta and Amrit kaur: Hansa Mehta and Amrit Kaur were on the Advisory Committee, with both being members of the Fundamental Rights Sub Committee and Kaur serving also on the Minorities Sub-Committee.
- G Durgabai: G Durgabai occupied effective positions on two important committees on procedural affairs The Steering Committee and the Rules Committee.
- Women were highly active: Women members were present and highly active on almost all significant committees and subcommittees.
- Women members often faced disrespect and discrimination: For instance, Renuka Ray opposed the clause on the Right to Property which put the compensation given within the purview of courts. During the debates on the floor of the Assembly too she was constantly interrupted and heckled even by the men of the eminence and tried to deride their amendments
- Women members made their opinions known and stood firm: In the settings of the committees they wrote notes of dissent, Amrit Kaur and Hansa Mehta wrote notes of dissent against decisions that relegated the uniform civil code to the non-justiciable rights, allowed the state to impose conscription for compulsory military service, at each stage when the committees made their official recommendations to the higher bodies of the Assembly
For Instance: Views of Dakshayani Velayudhan on reservation
- Dakshayani Velayudhan, the only woman member from the Scheduled Castes communities, argued against reservations.
- She refused by saying “to believe that 70 million Harijans are to be considered as a minority and argued that reservations would not be in the best interests of them.
- She also argued that “the working of the Constitution will depend upon how the people will conduct themselves in the future, not on the actual execution of the law. When this Constitution is put into practice, what we want is not to punish the people for acting against the law, but for the state to take on the task of educating citizens for a transformation.”
- Representative governments increased but women count remains low: According to UN Women, as of September 2022, there were 30 women serving as elected heads of state and/or of government in 28 countries (out of a total of 193 UN member states).
- Dichotomy in active participation: There is the dichotomy between the rapid increase of women’s participation as voters in elections and other political activities, and the slow rise of female representation in Parliament.
- Global average women representation: As of May 2022, the global average of female representation in national parliaments was 26.2 percent.
- Above average representation: The Americas, Europe, and Sub-Saharan Africa have women’s representation above the global average;
- Below average representation: Asia, the Pacific region, and the Middle East and Northern Africa (MENA) region, are below average.
- Varied representation within Asian countries:
- The South Asian countries faring worse than the others.
- IPU data of May 2022 showed that women’s representation in Nepal, for example, was 34 percent, in Bangladesh 21 percent, in Pakistan 20 percent, in Bhutan 17 percent and in Sri Lanka 5 percent.
- For India, women’s representation in the Lok Sabha (the Lower House) has remained slightly below 15 percent.
- The study does not include Afghanistan, but World Bank data of 2021 stated that female representation in the country’s last parliament was 27 percent.
Conclusion
- As we approach 75 years of our Constitution, it’s time for scholars, teachers, students, lawyers, judges and all others who engage with our constitution-making efforts to look to sources that tell a more complete story of our drafters. The quiet women and the more visible men should both be recalled, for their roles and their contributions. That would be an accurate telling of how our founding document came to be.
Mains Question
Q. The role of women in constitution making has often been neglected. In light of this illustrate the participation of women during India’s constitution making process.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Renewable Energy
Mains level: Distributed Renewable Energy and women , advantages and challenges
Central Idea
- Women from rural India are adopting clean energy-based livelihood technologies to catalyse their businesses. From solar refrigerators to silk-reeling machines and biomass-based cold storage to bulk milk chillers, distributed renewable energy (DRE) is transforming women’s livelihoods at the grassroots.
What is Distributed Renewable Energy (DRE)?
- DRE refers to the generation and distribution of electricity from renewable energy sources, such as solar, wind, hydro, geothermal, and biomass, through small-scale, decentralized systems.
- These systems are often installed in remote or rural areas where it is difficult or expensive to connect to a centralized power grid.
- DRE systems can range from individual rooftop solar panels to small-scale wind turbines, mini-hydro systems, and biomass generators.
- They are typically designed to serve a single household or community, rather than a large urban or industrial center.
- DRE systems are also known as off-grid or mini-grid systems, and they can be standalone or connected to a larger power grid.
Recent Statistics
- More than 80% are women: A recent Council on Energy, Environment and Water (CEEW) study has shown that out of the 13,000 early adopters of clean tech livelihood appliances, more than 80% are women.
- Future projection: By 2030, India is expected to see 30 million women-owned micro, small and medium enterprises (MSMEs) employing around 150 million people. DRE livelihood technologies a $50 billion market opportunity in India alone have the potential to transform rural livelihoods, with women at the core of this transition.
Advantages of DRE systems
- Several advantages: They are more resilient to natural disasters and grid failures, they can reduce energy costs for communities and households, and they can increase energy access in areas that are not served by the main power grid.
- Reduce carbon emissions: Additionally, DRE systems can reduce carbon emissions and help to mitigate the impacts of climate change.
- DRE advantages for women: DRE-powered technologies provide an additional advantage to women farmers and microentrepreneurs by enhancing income opportunities through mechanization. They also free women from several gender-assigned manual activities that are laborious.
Steps to scale up this impact
- Leverage the experience of early women adopters: The technology providers must leverage early users to share their experiences with potential customers, becoming demo champions/sales agents to market these products, based on their first-hand product experience and local credibility.
- For example: Kissan Dharmbir, an energy-efficient food processor manufacturer, engaged Neetu Tandan, an Agra-based micro-entrepreneur using the processor to produce fruit squashes and jams, as a demo champion. Her demonstrations are generating sales leads.
- Organise hyperlocal events and demos: These events also create spaces for women to network, become aware of the product and connect with people who can help them procure, finance and use these machines.
- For example: At an event in Hamirpur, Uttar Pradesh, more than 200 women booked seven appliances on the spot, including solar sewing machines and multi-purpose food processors.
- Enable easy finance to purchase products: Limited avenues to avail financing for these clean technology products remain a bottleneck. Financiers supporting women farmers and microentrepreneurs should consider the technologies themselves as collaterals while easing the loan application process.
- For example: Samunnati Finance, a financier in the agri-value chain, availed an 80% first-loan default guarantee to support six women-led FPOs in Andhra Pradesh that purchased 100-kg solar dryers.
- Support backwards and forward market linkages: Only technology provision is not enough in all cases. Many rural products have larger market potential. Thus, finding and connecting producers to consumption hubs in urban areas are equally important to generate higher incomes.
- Ensure adequate after-sales services buy backs: Technology manufacturers and promoters should also ensure adequate after-sales services and buy-backs. To build financiers’ confidence, evidence on the economic viability of these technologies should be shared and promoters must offer partial default guarantees.
- Enable policy convergence: No private sector entity has the kind of reach and scale government institutions have, so leveraging their reach is imperative to exponentially scale up. Multiple Ministries are working towards promoting livelihoods for women from State rural livelihood missions, horticulture and agriculture departments, Ministry of Micro, Small and Medium Enterprises, to the Ministry of Textiles. They should embrace clean energy solutions to further their respective programmes and outcomes.
- Perception of high risk: The high starting price and newness of DRE appliances can create a perception of high risk, particularly for women users who may have a lower risk appetite due to socio-economic factors.
- Low belief: Due to historical limitations on women’s access to new information, people tend to want to physically touch and see high-tech, high-priced DRE products before believing in their ability and promised benefits.
- Limited network: Women often struggle with established market linkages because of their limited mobility and networks outside their villages.
Conclusion
- Much like it takes a village to raise a child, scaling the impact of clean energy solutions on women’s livelihoods needs a village of policymakers, investors, financiers, technology promoters and other ecosystem enablers. Only then can we truly unlock the potential of rural women and clean technologies simultaneously.
Mains question
Q. What do you understand by Distributed Renewable Energy (DRE)? What is to be done scale up this impact from thousands of women to millions of them?
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Tertiary Sector, PMI
Mains level: India's services economy
The Purchasing Managers Index (PMI) for the services sector in India rose to 55.3 in February. This marks the highest level of the PMI in the services sector in 12 years, driven by an increase in new business orders and employment.
Service Sector
The service sector, also known as the tertiary sector, includes a wide range of economic activities that are focused on providing intangible goods and services to customers.
Some examples of activities that fall under the service sector include:
- Hospitality and tourism: This includes activities such as hotels, restaurants, travel agencies, and tour operators.
- Retail and wholesale trade: This includes businesses that buy and sell goods, such as supermarkets, department stores, and online retailers.
- Financial services: This includes banks, insurance companies, and investment firms.
- Professional and business services: This includes activities such as legal services, accounting, consulting, and advertising.
- Information and communication technology: This includes activities such as software development, telecommunications, and data processing.
- Healthcare and social assistance: This includes activities such as hospitals, clinics, nursing homes, and social services.
- Education and training: This includes activities such as schools, colleges, universities, and vocational training.
- Transportation and logistics: This includes activities such as shipping, warehousing, and distribution.
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Purchasing Managers’ Index
- PMI is an indicator of business activity — both in the manufacturing and services sectors.
- The S&P Global India Services PMI is compiled by S&P Global from responses to questionnaires sent to a panel of around 400 service sector companies.
- It is a survey-based measure that asks the respondents about changes in their perception of some key business variables from the month before.
- It is calculated separately for the manufacturing and services sectors and then a composite index is constructed.
How is the PMI derived?
- The PMI is derived from a series of qualitative questions.
- Executives from a reasonably big sample, running into hundreds of firms, are asked whether key indicators such as output, new orders, business expectations and employment were stronger than the month before and are asked to rate them.
How does one read the PMI?
- A figure above 50 denotes expansion in business activity. Anything below 50 denotes contraction.
- Higher the difference from this mid-point greater the expansion or contraction. The rate of expansion can also be judged by comparing the PMI with that of the previous month data.
- If the figure is higher than the previous month’s then the economy is expanding at a faster rate. If it is lower than the previous month then it is growing at a lower rate.
Recent trends in Services PMI
- For the 19th straight month, the headline figure was above the neutral 50 mark, denoting expansion.
- There was substantial moderation in cost pressures as input prices increased at the slowest pace in almost two-and-a-half years and output charge inflation softened to a 12-month low.
- Still, capacity pressures remained mild and jobs rose only marginally.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: World Bank Index on the Life Cycle of Working Women
Mains level: Women in workforce
Central idea: The article reports on India’s score in the World Bank Index on the life cycle of working women.
World Bank Index on the Life Cycle of Working Women
- It is a tool developed by the World Bank to measure and track the progress of women’s economic participation and opportunities over their lifetimes.
- It is based on a set of indicators that measure factors such as laws and regulations affecting women’s employment, access to finance, and gender-based violence and harassment in the workplace.
The index is divided into three categories:
- Starting a job,
- During employment, and
- After employment.
- Each category includes a set of indicators that measure the specific challenges and opportunities faced by women at different stages of their careers.
- The purpose of the index is to provide policymakers and stakeholders with data and insights that can be used to inform policies and programs aimed at improving women’s economic opportunities and outcomes.
- The index is updated periodically to track progress over time and identify areas where more action is needed.
India’s performance
- India has scored 74.4 out of 100 in the World Bank Index on the life cycle of working women, which measures factors like laws, regulations, and practices affecting women’s economic participation.
- This score places India at 140th out of 190 countries surveyed in the index.
Issues highlighted
- India has made progress in certain areas, such as maternity benefits and anti-discrimination laws.
- There are still significant gaps in areas like equal pay and access to finance.
- The report also highlights the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on women’s economic participation, with many women facing job losses and reduced hours of work.
Key recommendations
- The report concludes by recommending actions that can be taken to improve women’s economic participation, such as-
- Increasing access to childcare
- Promoting flexible work arrangements and
- Addressing gender-based violence and harassment in the workplace
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Pyramids of Giza, Cosmic-Ray Muon Radiography
Mains level: Not Much
A hidden corridor has been unearthed by scientists inside the Great Pyramid of Giza using a non-invasive technique called cosmic-ray muon radiography.
What is Cosmic-Ray Muon Radiography (CMR)?
- CMR is a technique used to study the density and composition of materials hidden within large and dense objects, such as geological formations, archaeological sites, and industrial facilities.
- The technique involves using muons, a type of cosmic-ray particle, to generate images of the interior of such objects.
- Muon particles are created when cosmic rays, mostly protons and atomic nuclei, collide with atoms in the Earth’s upper atmosphere.
- These muons travel through the atmosphere and penetrate deep into the ground, passing through objects along their path.
- Muons are highly penetrating particles that can penetrate several meters of rock or other materials, making them ideal for imaging the internal structure of objects.
Working principle
- The principle behind CMR is to measure the flux of muons passing through an object and compare it to the expected flux based on the object’s geometry and composition.
- Differences in the measured and expected flux indicate variations in the object’s density or composition, which can be used to create an image of the object’s internal structure.
Applications
Some key applications of cosmic-ray muon radiography include:
- Volcano monitoring: By using muon radiography to create images of the interior of volcanoes, scientists can better understand their structure and potential eruption hazards.
- Archaeology: Muon radiography can be used to explore the interior of pyramids and other ancient structures without damaging them.
- Nuclear reactor monitoring: Muon radiography can be used to detect the presence of nuclear materials within reactors and to monitor their condition over time.
Great Pyramid of Giza
- The Great Pyramid is the largest of the three pyramids in Giza, originally standing roughly 147 m above the Giza plateau.
- Construction was started in 2550 BC, during the reign of Khufu, often considered the greatest pharaoh of Egypt’s old kingdom.
- It is estimated that the pyramid was built using 2.5 million stone blocks, each weighing between 2.5 and 15 tonnes.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Yellowstone NP
Mains level: Not Much
Yellowstone National Park, which celebrated its 151st anniversary earlier this week, is widely considered to be the first national park in the world.
Yellowstone National Park
- It is a large protected area located primarily in the U.S. state of Wyoming, although it also extends into Montana and Idaho.
- It was established in 1872 and is widely considered to be the first national park in the world.
- It spans an area of over 9,000 sq. km comprising lakes, canyons, rivers, iconic geothermal features such as the Old Faithful geyser, and mountain ranges.
Some key features and attractions of Yellowstone National Park include:
- Geothermal features: Yellowstone is famous for its geothermal features, including geysers, hot springs, mud pots, and steam vents. The most famous of these is Old Faithful, a geyser that erupts on a regular schedule.
- Wildlife: Yellowstone is home to a diverse array of wildlife, including grizzly bears, wolves, bison, elk, and moose. Visitors can see these animals in their natural habitats throughout the park.
- Scenic drives: The park has several scenic drives, including the Grand Loop Road, which takes visitors to many of the park’s major attractions.
- Fishing: The park has many rivers and lakes that offer excellent fishing opportunities, including the Yellowstone River.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Artificial Intelligence, Update: AI tools
Mains level: AI future and challenges, AI arms race
Central Idea
- Hosting the G20 leaders’ summit later this year is an excellent opportunity for India to demonstrate its capabilities and contributions to information technology and the digital economy. The newest weapons will not be the biggest bombs, tanks or missiles but AI-powered applications and devices which will be used to wage and win wars. India must wake up to the challenge to protect itself against the potential consequences of an AI war.
(Source: Indian Express, Article is written by Aasif Shah, a fellow from IIT Madras and winner of the Young Researcher Award 2022 from Indian Commerce Association)
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Interesting: Message from Robot
- Recalling the conversation between the world’s first human robot Sophia and CNBC’s Andrew Ross, in which he voiced his concerns about advancements in Artificial intelligence (AI), We all want to prevent a bad future where robots turn against humans,
- Sophia retorted, don’t worry if you’re nice to me, I will be nice to you.
- The message was clear: It is up to humans and nations how they utilise AI and appreciate its advantages.
- The astonishing AI advancements are nothing but a warning to prepare for the unexpected.
What is Artificial Intelligence (AI)?
- AI is a constellation of technologies that enable machines to act with higher levels of intelligence and emulate the human capabilities of sense, comprehend and act.
- The natural language processing and inference engines can enable AI systems to analyze and understand the information collected.
- An AI system can also take action through technologies such as expert systems and inference engines or undertake actions in the physical world.
- These human-like capabilities are augmented by the ability to learn from experience and keep adapting over time.
- AI systems are finding ever-wider application to supplement these capabilities across various sectors.
- AI has grown significantly in recent times: There is widespread fear that as the usage of AI increases, both blue- and white-collar workers may be replaced and rendered unemployed. But despite criticism in some parts of the world, AI has grown significantly in recent times.
- Global Market size: The global AI market size was estimated at $65.48 billion in 2020 and is expected to reach $1,581.70 billion by 2030, according to a recent Bloomberg report.
- Applications and global impact: The growing impact of AI on banking and financial markets, e-commerce, education, gaming and entertainment is changing the world order.
- Driving forces: The driving forces behind the evolution of AI growth are greater availability of data, higher computing power and advancements in AI algorithms.
- Many people believe that AI has little bearing on their daily lives: In actuality, we all interact with AI through social media, transportation, banking, cell phones, smartwatches, and other devices.
The Real AI threat: AI arms race
- An Iranian nuclear scientist was hit by machine gun fire in 2020.
- It was later discovered that the scientist was actually targeted and killed by an Israeli remote-controlled machine gun using AI.
- There are a series of similar adverse incidents that spark moral discussions regarding the potential benefits and drawbacks of AI.
- The AI arms race between countries like the US, China and Russia, points to the possibility that AI can escalate global conflict and pose significant security risks.
- Smaller countries like Israel and Singapore are also in the lead.
Where does India stand in the AI ecosystem?
- Investments in India is increasing: According to a Nasscom report, investments in AI applications in India are expected to increase at a compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of 30.8 per cent and reach $881 million during 2023.
- Contribution of India: The report further added that although there is a massive increase in global investments in AI, the contribution of India has remained at 1.5 per cent.
- Centres of Excellence for artificial intelligence (AI): In the Budget 2023-24 speech, finance minister made an announcement about the government’s intent to establish three Centres of Excellence for artificial intelligence (AI) in prestigious educational institutions in India.
Conclusion
- Of late India has made considerable strides in digital technology. It is currently the third-largest startup hub in the world and is home to many leading technology companies. However, India still lags behind China in terms of overall AI capabilities. China is leading the way in terms of research, development and AI applications, including development of intelligent robots, autonomous systems, and intelligent transportation systems. The current trend of AI development suggests that it will determine future economies and national security to influence world politics.
Mains Question
Q. The newest weapons will not be the biggest bombs, tanks or missiles but AI-powered applications and devices which will be used to wage and win wars. Discuss.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Election Commission
Mains level: Executive and judiciary, Election Commission, appointments and issues
Central Idea
- The Supreme Court of India (SC) remains the most powerful centre of political power in the country at a time when almost every political issue is a matter of adjudication before the Court. A neutral body for the selection of the Chief Election Commissioner (CEC) and other Election Commissioners was the principal relief sought in Anoop Baranwal v. Union of India, which has been granted by the Court as per Thursday’s verdict. The judgment revives the era of judicial activism.
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Anoop Baranwal v. Union of India: The chronology
- PIL: Current system of appointing Election Commissioners is unconstitutional: In January 2015, Anoop Baranwal filed a PIL on the ground that the current system for appointing members of the Election Commission of India (ECI) is unconstitutional. Currently, the Executive enjoys the power to make appointments.
- Pleads for Independent system: The PIL pleads for the Court to issue directions to set up an independent, Collegium-like system for ECI appointments.
- Article 324:
- Article 324 specifies that while the Chief Election Commissioner and Election Commissioners will be appointed by the President, this is subject to Parliamentary law (if such law exists).
- While this provision places an expectation on Parliament to draft a relevant a law, it has not done so up until now. In the absence of such a law, the President has been making appointments as per the recommendations of the Prime Minister.
- Union government’s defence: The Union has defended the current mechanism of appointments, citing the honest record of all past Chief Commissioners.
- Urged court not to intervene: It has urged the Court to not intervene, submitting that the matter falls within the executive domain.
- Recent verdict: The Supreme Court held that a committee comprising the Prime Minister, the Leader of the Opposition and the Chief Justice of India will advise the President on appointments to the Election Commission of India until Parliament enacts a law on the subject.
- The bone of contention: Petitioners argued that as per Article 324(2), CEC and ECs appointments must be based on a law, but no law was enacted. Taking advantage of this scenario, the dispensation at the Centre chooses the CEC and ECs, who are often seen to act in tune with those in power and those who select them. Therefore, the petitioners pleaded for an independent body for appointments.
- Immunity for CEC and Susceptibility of ECs: Article 324(5) provides immunity to CEC but not to other ECs. CEC can only be removed like a Supreme Court judge. Other ECs may be more susceptible to the executive due to lack of security of tenure.
- CEC and EC’s autonomy is linked to their selection process. In an electoral autocracy, executive control undermines fair elections.
Back to Basics: What is judicial activism and judicial overreach?
- Judicial Review: It is the process by which a court reviews the constitutionality of a statue or the application of a statute, and rules either for it or against it on that basis.
- Judicial Activism: It is the view that courts make political rather than legal decisions to further some agenda, rather than strictly reviewing the legality of a law under the letter of the law and prior precedent. It refers to the process in which judiciary steps into the shoes of legislature and comes up with new rules and regulations, which the legislature ought to have done earlier.
- Judicial Overreach: It refers to an extreme form of judicial activism where arbitrary, unreasonable and frequent interventions are made by judiciary into the legislature’s domain, often with the intention of disrupting the balance of powers between executive, legislature and judiciary.
Supreme court’s Judgement: A great leap
- Great leap towards a sustainable democracy: An independent committee consisting of the prime minister, leader of the opposition in the Lok Sabha or the leader of the largest party in opposition and the Chief Justice of India for selecting the CEC is a great leap towards a sustainable democracy.
- Total Independence: The far-reaching verdict also means the Election Commission will have an independent secretariat, rule-making powers, an independent budget, and equal protection from impeachment.
- Bench remarks: Democracy can succeed only if all stakeholders work on it to maintain the purity of the election process, so as to reflect the will of the people.
Conclusion
- The recent SC verdict regarding the selection of the commission is not a cure-all solution for electoral democracy. However, it corrects an unjust method of selection and significantly improves the legitimacy of the process.
Mains Question
Q. A Constitution Bench of the Supreme Court has ordered that the election commissioners will be appointed on the advice of a committee. Discuss what led to this judgment?
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: South Asian region
Mains level: South Asia, Human capital, economic growth and challenges
Central Idea
- The last few years have ushered in a harsh new reality where crises are the norm rather than the exception. Pandemics, economic slumps and extreme weather events were once tail-end risks, but all three have hit South Asia in rapid succession since 2020. To strengthen resilience and protect the well-being of future generations, governments across South Asia need to take urgent policy action and invest in human capital.
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South Asia Overview
- Countries: Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan, and Sri Lanka.
- Population: The region has a total population of over 1.8 billion people, making it the most populous region in the world.
- Geography: South Asia has a diverse geography, with mountain ranges such as the Himalayas and Hindu Kush, major rivers like the Ganges, Indus, and Brahmaputra, and coastal areas along the Arabian Sea, Bay of Bengal, and Indian Ocean.
- Economy: India is the largest economy in the region, accounting for more than 70% of the region’s total GDP. Agriculture is a major employer in most countries, with rice and wheat being staple crops. The manufacturing sector is also a significant contributor to the region’s economy, with textiles, garments, and leather products being major exports
- Climate: The climate of South Asia is varied, with the monsoon season bringing heavy rainfall to much of the region and causing flooding in some areas. The region’s geography and size also result in varying climate patterns. In general, the region experiences hot and humid summers and mild winters.
- Climate Change Risks: Climate change poses significant risks to the region, with some areas, such as the Maldives, at risk of sea level rise. Other risks include increased frequency and severity of extreme weather events, such as floods and droughts. The region is also vulnerable to the impacts of climate change on health, including increased incidence of heat-related illness and infectious diseases.
- Biodiversity and Environmental Threats:
- South Asia is home to several biodiversity hotspots, such as the Western Ghats in India and the Eastern Himalayas.
- However, the region faces significant environmental threats, such as deforestation, air and water pollution, and climate change.
- Deforestation is a major problem in the region, with logging and land use change leading to habitat destruction and loss of biodiversity.
An underutilized asset of South Asia: Analysis
- South Asia’s people are its biggest asset but remain wastefully underutilized:
- With nearly half its population under the age of 24 and over one million young people set to enter the labour force every month until 2030, the region could reap an enviably high demographic dividend.
- Stunting one of the significant challenges: South Asia is also home to over one third of the world’s stunted children. And a child born in the region today can, by the age of 18, expect to attain only 48% of their full productive potential.
- Governments spending on Health and education: South Asian governments on average spend just 1% of GDP on health and 2.5% on education. In comparison, the global average is 5.9% on health and 3.7% on education.
- COVID-19 pandemic, a blow to regions human capital: The COVID-19 pandemic, which pushed an additional 35 million people across South Asia into extreme poverty, dealt an unprecedented blow to the region’s human capital. Among its most woeful impacts is a rise in learning poverty, or the inability to read and understand a simple text by age 10. Ineffective remote instruction, during the pandemic increased South Asia’s learning poverty from 60% to 78%.
- The poorest and most vulnerable people fell further behind: For example, in Bangladesh, the poorest students lost 50% more in terms of learning than the richest students. Several countries still show little to no signs of recovery, and South Asia’s students could lose up to 14.4% of their future earnings.
- Affordable education: Recent evidence suggests that even simple and low-cost education programmes can lead to sizable gains in skills.
- For instance:
- In Bangladesh attending a year of additional pre-school through two-hour sessions significantly improved literacy, numeracy, and social-development scores.
- In Tamil Nadu, six months of extra remedial classes after school helped students catch up on about two-thirds of lost learning linked to 18 months of school closures.
- In Nepal, government teachers ran a phone tutoring programme that helped increase students’ foundational numeracy by 30%.
- Robust systems for crisis management: The need for countries to have robust systems in place to support individuals and families during times of crisis. Such systems, which can include social safety nets, health care, and education programs, can help to mitigate the impact of crises like the pandemic, protect vulnerable populations, and promote resilience. By investing in these systems before a crisis strikes, countries can better prepare themselves to respond to the challenges that may arise.
- Use data and technology: Effective systems are needed to respond to crises quickly and maintain vital services like healthcare and education. Coordination across sectors is important. Data and technology play a crucial role in the delivery of services, human development systems should ensure they are effectively used.
World Bank study: Interdependence of health, education and skills for human development
- A new World Bank study, Collapse and Recovery: how COVID eroded human capital and what to do about it, analyses the pandemic’s impacts on young people, stresses the multi-dimensional and complementary nature of human development.
- The health, education, and skills people acquire at various stages of their lives, build and depend on each other.
- To be effective, human development systems must recognise and exploit these overlapping connections. In other words, they should be agile, resilient and adaptive.
Conclusion
- The road ahead for South Asia is rocky. The next crisis may be just around the corner. A robust human development system would not only mitigate the damage but also help ensure lives and livelihoods are protected. It could provide the resilience South Asia needs to prosper in an increasingly volatile world. While the outlook is grim, it is important to remember that well-designed and implemented interventions can make a difference if governments act fast.
Mains question
Q. South Asia possesses remarkable human capital, but it remains underutilized and has been further impacted by the COVID-19 pandemic. Discuss and suggest what can be done to address the issues?
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Election Commissioner, ECI
Mains level: Read the attached story
Central idea: The Supreme Court has directed the central government to form a permanent selection committee consisting of consist of the Prime Minister, Leader of the Opposition, and the Chief Justice of India or his nominee to recommend the appointment of Election Commissioners.
Supreme Court Ruling
- The Supreme Court ruled that the appointment of the CEC should be made through a transparent and participatory process.
- It directed the government to set up a permanent selection committee to recommend names for the appointment of the CEC.
- The committee will consist of the Prime Minister, Leader of Opposition, and Chief Justice of India or his nominee.
- The court emphasized that the appointment process should ensure the independence of the Election Commission and be free from executive interference.
Why such move?
- The ruling will bring more transparency and accountability to the appointment process of the CEC.
- It will prevent any undue influence by the ruling government in the appointment of the CEC.
- The ruling also reinforces the importance of an independent Election Commission in ensuring the fairness of the democratic process in India.
Why did the SC debate the issue?
- In 2015, a PIL was filed challenging the constitutional validity of the practice of the Centre appointing members of the Election Commission.
- In October 2018, a two-judge bench of the SC referred the case to a larger bench since it would require a close examination of Article 324 of the Constitution.
What is the challenge?
Article 324(2) states that the President appoints the Chief Election Commissioner and other Election Commissioners, subject to any law made by Parliament.
- Absence of law: The crux of the challenge is that since there is no law made by Parliament on this issue.
- Urge for judicial intervention: The Court must step in to fill the constitutional vacuum, urges the PIL.
- Question of executive non-interference: This examination also leads to the larger question of separation of powers and if the judiciary is overstepping its role in filling this gap in the law.
About Election Commission of India
- The ECI is a constitutional authority whose responsibilities and powers are prescribed in the Constitution of India under Article 324.
- In the performance of its functions, the Election Commission is insulated from executive interference.
- It is the Commission that decides the election schedules for the conduct of elections, whether general elections or by-elections.
- ECI decides on the location of polling stations, assignment of voters to the polling stations, location of counting centres, arrangements to be made in and around polling stations and counting centres and all allied matters.
Litigations against EC
- The decisions of the Commission can be challenged in the High Court and the Supreme Court of India by appropriate petitions.
- By long-standing convention and several judicial pronouncements, once the actual process of elections has started, the judiciary does not intervene in the actual conduct of the polls.
Why is EC under lens these days?
- Executive interference: ECs are expected to maintain distance from the executive — a constitutional safeguard to insulate the commission from external pressure and allow it to continue as an independent authority.
- Violating official channels: The EC’s communication with the Government on election matters is through the bureaucracy — either with its administrative ministry — the Law Ministry or the Home Ministry.
- Breach of protocol: The Law Ministry spells the fine print on law for the country and is expected not to breach the constitutional safeguard provided to the commission to ensure its autonomy.
Recent incidence of criticisms
Ans. Partiality in Elections
- Over the last couple of years, several actions and omissions of the commission have come in for criticism.
- Nearly 66 former bureaucrats in a letter addressed to the President, expressed their concern over the working of the Election Commission.
- They felt was suffering from a credibility crisis, citing various violations of the model code of conduct during the 2019 Lok Sabha Elections.
Importance of ECI for India
- Conduction of Election: The ECI has been successfully conducting national as well as state elections since 1952.
- Electoral participation: In recent years, however, the Commission has started to play a more active role to ensure greater participation of people.
- Discipline of political parties: It had gone to the extent of disciplining the political parties with a threat of derecognizing if the parties failed in maintaining inner-party democracy.
- Upholds federalism: It upholds the values enshrined in the Constitution viz, equality,
equity, impartiality, independence; and rule of law in superintendence, direction, and control over electoral governance.
- Free and fair elections: It conducts elections with the highest standard of credibility, freeness, fairness, transparency, integrity, accountability, autonomy and professionalism.
Issues with ECI
- Flaws in the composition: The Constitution doesn’t prescribe qualifications for members of the EC. They are not debarred from future appointments after retiring or resigning.
- No security of tenure: Election commissioners aren’t constitutionally protected with the security of tenure.
- Partisan role: The EC has come under the scanner like never before, with increasing incidents of breach of the Model Code of Conduct in the 2019 general elections.
- Political favor: The opposition alleged that the ECI was favoring the ruling party by giving a clean chit to the model code of conduct violations made by the PM.
- Non-competence: Increased violence and electoral malpractices under influence of money have resulted in political criminalization, which ECI is unable to arrest.
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