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  • Foreign Policy Watch: India-China

    India, China reach deal on easing LAC tensions 

    Explained | International Relations | Mains Paper 2: India & Its Neighborhood – Relations

    Why in the News?

    India and China announced an agreement on patrolling arrangements, resolving the military standoff along the Line of Actual Control (LAC), as per government officials.

    What are the key components of the agreement between India and China?

    • Patrolling Arrangements: The agreement includes the resumption of patrolling along the Line of Actual Control (LAC) in previously disputed areas, where patrolling had been stopped since 2020.
    • Disengagement and Buffer Zones: The agreement aims to complete the disengagement process by restoring the situation to pre-2020 levels, including addressing issues at friction points like Demchok and Depsang.
      • The existence or adjustment of buffer zones, which were established to prevent clashes, remains undisclosed.
    • Diplomatic and Military Dialogue: The resolution is a result of multiple high-level meetings and negotiations, involving Foreign Ministers, the Working Mechanism for Consultation and Coordination (WMCC), and military commanders from both sides.
    • Return to Pre-2020 Status: Indian officials have indicated that the situation at the LAC will revert to what it was before 2020, although further steps like deinduction and demobilization of troops still need to be undertaken.

    How does this agreement impact the broader geopolitical landscape in the region?

    • Regional Stability: The agreement could contribute to stability along the India-China border and help reduce military tensions in the region, especially at sensitive points like the Galwan Valley, where past clashes occurred.
    • Influence on China-India Relations: It marks a potential thaw in India-China relations, creating a conducive atmosphere for high-level diplomatic engagements, possibly including a meeting between Prime Minister Modi and President Xi Jinping during the BRICS summit.
    • Implications for Multilateral Forums: The agreement preceding the BRICS summit indicates a strategic effort to avoid bilateral friction overshadowing multilateral diplomacy. A peaceful resolution along the border could bolster cooperation within BRICS and other regional platforms.
    • Signal to Neighboring Countries: The resolution may influence the perception of China’s border policies among other neighboring countries in Asia, possibly setting a precedent for dispute resolution.

    What are the implications for India’s national security strategy?

    • Shift Towards Dialogue and Diplomacy: The agreement underscores India’s willingness to resolve border issues through diplomatic means while maintaining a strong defense posture.
    • Strategic Focus on LAC Management: Although disengagement is underway, continued monitoring and readiness at the LAC will remain crucial. The agreement may lead to a recalibration of India’s military deployments and infrastructure development along the border.
    • Enhanced Security Coordination: With border tensions easing, India can refocus on comprehensive security strategies involving cooperation with allies and partners in the Indo-Pacific region, addressing broader challenges such as maritime security and countering China’s influence.
    • Preparedness for Future Contingencies: The completion of disengagement does not eliminate future risks. India will likely continue to strengthen its border infrastructure and military capabilities as a precaution against any future incursions.

    Way forward: 

    • Strengthen Diplomatic Engagements: India should prioritize continuous diplomatic dialogues with China to solidify the agreements reached and prevent future misunderstandings.
    • Enhance Border Infrastructure and Defense Preparedness: India should invest in improving border infrastructure and logistics to support troop mobility and supply lines.

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  • International Space Agencies – Missions and Discoveries

    Moonlight Programme

    Prelims Only | Science Tech | Mains Paper 3: Achievements Of Indians In S&T

    Why in the News?

    The European Space Agency (ESA) launched its Moonlight Lunar Communications and Navigation Services (LCNS) Programme.

    About Moonlight Programme

    Details
    Agency European Space Agency (ESA)
    Purpose To establish a communications and navigation infrastructure around the Moon to support future lunar missions by space agencies and private companies.
    Planned Missions Supports over 400 moon missions planned over the next 20 years.
    Satellite Constellation Deployment of 5 lunar satellites to provide communication and navigation services.
    Data Transfer Range Enables data transfer between Earth and the Moon over a distance of 400,000 km.
    First Satellite Lunar Pathfinder, a communications relay satellite built by Surrey Satellite Technology Ltd, is set to launch in 2026.
    Operational Timeline Initial services expected to begin by 2028, with full operational capability by 2030.
    Primary Focus Area Coverage around the Moon’s South Pole, an area of high interest due to favorable lighting conditions and potential water ice presence in permanently shadowed craters.
    Global Collaboration Collaboration with NASA and JAXA (Japanese Space Agency) as part of LunaNet for standardizing lunar mission communications and navigation.
    Significance – Enables over 400 lunar missions
    – Supports NASA’s Artemis programme
    – Provides continuous all-weather connectivity for lunar missions
    – Focuses on the South Pole for ice deposits
    – Reduces costs by sharing infrastructure
    – Technological advancements for Mars missions (MARCONI)
    Strategic Advantage Enhances ESA’s role in global lunar exploration and contributes to the future of commercial lunar activities.

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  • Roads, Highways, Cargo, Air-Cargo and Logistics infrastructure – Bharatmala, LEEP, SetuBharatam, etc.

    Z-Morh Tunnel Project

    Prelims Only | Economics | Mains Paper 3: Infrastructure: Energy, Ports, Roads, Airports, Railways Etc.

    Why in the News?

    Some militants attacked workers building the Z-Morh tunnel on the Srinagar-Sonamarg highway, killing seven people.

    What is the Z-Morh Tunnel?

    • The Z-Morh tunnel is a 6.4-kilometer tunnel located near Gagangir village, connecting the Sonamarg health resort to Kangan town in the Ganderbal district of central Kashmir.
      • It is part of the larger Zojila tunnel project, which aims to provide year-round road connectivity between Srinagar and Ladakh.
    • It is part of the Srinagar-Sonamarg-Leh highway.
    • It is being constructed at an altitude of over 8,500 feet.
    • It derives its name from the Z-shaped road stretch where it is being built.
    • The project was originally conceived by the Border Roads Organisation (BRO) in 2012.
    • A soft opening of the tunnel was held in February 2024, although the full inauguration has been delayed.

    Significance of the Z-Morh Tunnel

    • The tunnel provides all-weather road connectivity to the Sonamarg health resort, ensuring that the popular tourist destination remains accessible year-round.
    • It is essential for maintaining all-weather connectivity to Ladakh, a region of strategic importance for India, particularly due to the military presence along the border with Pakistan and China.
    • The tunnel is strategically important for the Indian Army, as it provides quick and safe access to forward areas in Ladakh, reducing the dependence on air transport for the movement of troops and supplies.
    • It will also reduce expenditure on air maintenance of forward locations, thereby increasing the lifespan of Indian Air Force aircraft.
    • The tunnel will boost economic growth by improving accessibility to Sonamarg, thereby supporting tourism in the region.

    PYQ:

    [2016] Border management is a complex task due to difficult terrain and hostile relations with some countries. Elucidate the challenges and strategies for effective border management.

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  • Judicial Reforms

    New ‘Lady Justice’ Statue

    Prelims Only | Polity | Mains Paper 2: Executive & Judiciary

    justice

    Why in the News?

    • The Chief Justice of India unveiled a new ‘lady justice’ statue at the Supreme Court.
      • This new statue replaces the previous version and is clothed in a saree, holds scales in one hand, and the Indian Constitution in the other, with its eyes uncovered—symbolizing that justice sees all equally.

    About the Lady Justice Statue:

    Details
    History
    • Introduced during colonial rule, becoming a common feature in Indian courthouses.
    • Depicted in the Calcutta High Court (1872) and the Bombay High Court, with variations in blindfold status.
    Modern Depiction In 2024, a new 6-foot statue was unveiled by the Supreme Court of India, created by Vinod Goswami.
    Symbolism Absence of the blindfold signifies that “law is not blind,” promoting the idea of equality in justice.
    Origins Traces back to Greek mythology with Themis and Roman mythology with Justitia, traditionally depicted with a blindfold, scales, and a sword.
    Notable Changes
    • Symbolizes that “the law is not blind,” emphasizing equality in justice.
    • Adorned in a Saree, reflecting Indian heritage and tradition.
    • Holds a copy of the Indian Constitution instead of a sword, representing rights and fairness.
    • Continues to hold scales, emphasizing the need for balance in weighing evidence and arguments.
    • Breaks free from colonial influences, aligning with contemporary Indian values.
    • Signifies a justice system that is aware, inclusive, and rooted in constitutional principles.
    • Positioned in the Judges’ Library of the Supreme Court, highlighting its significance in Indian jurisprudence.

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  • Minority Issues – SC, ST, Dalits, OBC, Reservations, etc.

    Minority Institutions

    Prelims Only | Polity | Mains Paper 2: Indian Constitution – historical underpinnings, evolution, features, amendments, significant provisions and basic structure

    Why in the News?

    • The Supreme Court stated that laws regulating institutions run by religious or linguistic minorities do not inherently violate the principle of secularism.
      • The CJI made this observation while hearing a challenge to the Allahabad High Court’s decision to strike down the Uttar Pradesh Board of Madrasa Education Act, 2004.

    Why do we need to discuss this?

    • The 2004 Act regulated madrasas in Uttar Pradesh, and the High Court concluded that it violated secular principles.
    • It had ordered the transfer of madrasa students to regular schools, which affected nearly 17 lakh students across 16,000 madrasas in the state.
      • Petitioners pointed out that the High Court believed that madrasas violated Article 28 of the Constitution, which prohibits religious instruction in institutions fully funded by the State.

    Key Observations made by the SC:

    • A law regulating a minority institution does not, by itself, violate secularism.
    • The CJI referred to the Hindu Religious Endowments and Charitable Institutions Act, which regulates the administration of religious institutions in many states, from Maharashtra to Tamil Nadu.
    • The CJI emphasized that the State has the right to legislate to improve the quality of education in government-aided minority-run institutions.
    • He noted that children attending madrasas need a broad-based education to learn essential subjects required to lead a proper life and become worthy citizens.

    About Minority Educational Institutions in India:

    Details
    Constitutional Provision Article 30(1) of the Constitution of India grants linguistic and religious minorities the right to establish and administer educational institutions of their choice.
    Legislative Framework National Commission for Minority Educational Institutions Act, 2004 safeguards the educational rights of minorities as per Article 30(1).
    Definition A “Minority Educational Institution” is defined as a college or institution established or maintained by a person or group from amongst the minorities (Section 2(g) of the Act).
    Judicial Precedent In T.M.A. Pai Foundation vs. State of Karnataka (2002), the Supreme Court ruled that minority status is determined by state demographics, not national population.
    Rights of Minority Institutions Article 29 protects the interests of minorities by allowing them to conserve their distinct language, script, or culture.

    • Minority institutions do not have an absolute right to appoint staff;
    • This was upheld in the context of the West Bengal Madrasah Service Commission Act, 2008.
    Recognized Minority Communities Muslims, Sikhs, Christians, Buddhists, Jains, and Zoroastrians (Parsis) are recognized as minority communities under the National Commission for Minorities Act of 1992.
    Significance Minority educational institutions play a crucial role in preserving the cultural and linguistic heritage of minority communities while providing access to education.

     

    PYQ:

    [2011] In India, if a religious sect/community is given the status of a national minority, what special advantages it is entitled to?

    1. It can establish and administer exclusive educational institutions.

    2. The President of India automatically nominates a representative of the community to Lok Sabha.

    3. It can derive benefits from the Prime Minister’s 15-Point Programme.

    Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

    (a) 1 only

    (b) 2 and 3 only

    (c) 1 and 3 only

    (d) 1, 2 and 3

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  • Citizenship and Related Issues

    SC upholds Section 6A of Citizenship Act as valid

    Explained | Polity | Mains Paper 2: Indian Constitution – historical underpinnings, evolution, features, amendments, significant provisions and basic structure

    Why in the News?

    On October 17, 2024, political parties widely welcomed the Supreme Court’s decision upholding Section 6A of the Citizenship Act, addressing citizenship under the Assam Accord.

    What is Section 6A?

    • Section 6A of the Citizenship Act, added in 1985, grants citizenship to immigrants in Assam who entered between January 1, 1966, and March 25, 1971, under the Assam Accord provisions.

    What are the implications of upholding Section 6A for citizenship in Assam?

    • Legal Recognition of the Assam Accord: The verdict reinforces the Assam Accord’s legal status, acknowledging the cut-off date of March 25, 1971, for granting citizenship to immigrants. This solidifies the Accord’s role as a foundational legal document addressing the state’s citizenship issues.
    • Clarifying Citizenship Status: The ruling provides legal clarity on the citizenship status of individuals who entered Assam between January 1, 1966, and March 25, 1971. They are granted citizenship if they comply with specific conditions, while those arriving post-1971 are deemed illegal immigrants.
    • Impact on the NRC Process: The decision may influence the National Register of Citizens (NRC) process in Assam by determining who is eligible for inclusion. The cut-off date could guide the verification of citizenship claims, potentially affecting those at risk of being declared stateless.

    How does this ruling interact with existing immigration laws and policies?

    • Consistency with the Foreigners Act: The ruling aligns with existing immigration policies under the Foreigners Act, where illegal immigrants are identified and potentially deported.
    • Implications for Deportation and Detection: The verdict mandates continued efforts to detect and deport illegal immigrants who arrived post-March 25, 1971.
      • This may intensify identification and deportation processes, requiring robust legal and administrative mechanisms.
    • Role in NRC and Citizenship Amendment Act (CAA) Debate: The ruling interacts with ongoing discussions about the CAA, which grants citizenship to non-Muslim migrants from neighboring countries who entered before December 31, 2014.

    What are the broader constitutional implications of this decision?

    • Federalism and Regional Autonomy: The judgment upholds Assam’s unique historical and cultural context, recognizing the state’s special legal provisions under the Assam Accord.
    • Right to Equality and Non-discrimination: By validating different cut-off dates for citizenship determination in Assam compared to the rest of India, the ruling raises questions about equal treatment and the uniformity of laws across the country.
    • Judicial Endorsement of Accord-based Legislation: The ruling sets a precedent for upholding legislation based on historical accords or regional agreements.

    Way forward: 

    • Full Implementation of the Assam Accord: Ensure the complete execution of all clauses of the Accord, including detecting, deleting, and deporting illegal immigrants, while providing support to those recognized as citizens to integrate smoothly into society.
    • Strengthen Legal and Administrative Frameworks: Enhance the infrastructure for the NRC process, deportation mechanisms, and border management to maintain consistency in immigration policies, while addressing humanitarian concerns for affected individuals.

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  • Climate Change Impact on India and World – International Reports, Key Observations, etc.

    Climate change impact harsher on poorer farmers in India: FAO report

    Explained | Enviro & Biodiversity | Mains Paper 3: Conservation, Environmental Pollution & Degradation, Eia

    Why in the News?

    On October 16, 2024, the FAO said that poor households around the world lose 5% of their income each year due to heat stress and 4.4% due to floods.

    About FAO: 

    • The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) is indeed a specialized agency of the United Nations (UN), established to lead international efforts aimed at combating hunger and improving food security and nutrition globally.
    • It founded on October 16, 1945, FAO operates from its headquarters in Rome, Italy, and comprises 195 members, including 194 countries and the European Union.

    Key Objectives of the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO):

    • Eradicate Hunger and Malnutrition: The FAO aims to eliminate hunger, food insecurity, and malnutrition worldwide by promoting sustainable agricultural practices and increasing food availability.
    • Promote Sustainable Agriculture: The organization encourages sustainable management of natural resources and resilient agricultural systems to combat climate change and preserve biodiversity.
    • Reduce Rural Poverty: FAO works to improve the livelihoods of rural populations through economic development, social protection measures, and improved access to markets.
    • Enhance Food Systems: It focuses on improving food production, distribution, and consumption to ensure the global population has access to nutritious, safe, and affordable food.
    • Respond to Crises: The FAO assists countries in addressing food-related emergencies and building resilience against future shocks, such as natural disasters and conflicts.

    Key Highlights of the Present Report by FAO:

    • Economic Losses from Climate Stress: The report highlighted that poor households globally lose 5% of their income due to heat stress and 4.4% due to floods annually, compared to better-off households.
    • Impact on Rural Poor in India: It found that rural poor households in India are affected by climate stress differently, with reduced off-farm employment opportunities during droughts, forcing them to allocate more resources to agriculture.
    • Structural Inequalities: The report noted that poor households’ vulnerability to climate stressors is rooted in structural inequalities, calling for policy measures such as expanding social security.
    • Recommendations for Livelihood Support: Suggested scaling up anticipatory social protection programs and improving off-farm employment opportunities to reduce reliance on negative coping strategies.
    • Gender and Employment Barriers: The report urged addressing gender disparities in non-farm employment through gender-transformative approaches to tackle discriminatory norms.

    What is NITI Aayog’s Response?

    • Efforts to Combat Climate Change: NITI Aayog highlighted India’s proactive measures, such as the National Innovations on Climate Resilient Agriculture (NICRA) project, which supports farmers’ adaptation to severe climate conditions.
    • Social Safety Nets: Emphasized India’s implementation of a nationwide employment guarantee scheme and extensive food distribution efforts during the pandemic as evidence of social protection measures.
    • Women’s Workforce Participation: Cited data from the Periodic Labour Force Surveys showing increased female participation in the workforce, indicating progress in addressing gender issues.
    • Open to FAO Suggestions: Acknowledged the value of considering the FAO’s recommendations for further policy improvement while emphasizing India’s existing initiatives.

    Way forward: 

    • Strengthen Social Protection: Expand anticipatory social protection programs and climate-resilient agricultural practices to support vulnerable households, reducing income losses from climate stress.
    • Address Structural Inequalities: Enhance off-farm employment opportunities, tackle gender disparities, and implement policies targeting the root causes of vulnerability to climate-related risks.

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  • Economic Indicators and Various Reports On It- GDP, FD, EODB, WIR etc

    India’s SDG focus and its Human Development issues 

    Explained | Indian Society | Mains Paper 1: Poverty & Development Issues

    Why in the News?

    On September 9-10, 2023, New Delhi hosted the G-20 Summit, where participants committed to enhancing the implementation of the UN Agenda 2030 for Sustainable Development.

    How effectively is India progressing towards achieving the SDGs by 2030?

    • Current Status: India is classified in the “medium human development” category, with an HDI value of 0.644 and a rank of 134 out of 193 countries.
    • Improvement Over Time: India saw an increase of 48.4% in HDI value from 1990 (0.434) to 2022 (0.644), indicating positive long-term trends despite recent stagnation and slight declines due to factors such as the COVID-19 pandemic.
    • SDG Interconnections: India’s HDI dimensions directly align with several SDGs, including SDG-3 (good health), SDG-4 (quality education), and SDG-5 (gender equality). Progress in these areas is critical for achieving broader SDG targets.
    • Rank Improvements: From 2015 to 2022, India improved its HDI ranking by four places, while neighboring countries such as Bangladesh and Bhutan improved their rankings by 12 and 10 places, respectively, highlighting the need for India to enhance its efforts.

    What are the key human development challenges that India faces?

    • Gender Inequality: India has one of the largest gender gaps in the Labor Force Participation Rate (LFPR), with a stark difference of 47.8 percentage points between women (28.3%) and men (76.1%). The GDI indicates significant disparities in HDI achievements between genders, which undermines development.
    • Income Inequality: India experiences high income inequality, with the richest 1% holding 21.7% of total income, significantly higher than many neighboring countries and above global averages. This poses a barrier to sustainable development and equitable growth.
    • Education and Health: The impact of the COVID-19 pandemic has negatively affected education and health sectors, leading to increased vulnerabilities among poorer and marginalized populations.
    • Urban-Rural Divide: There is a notable disparity in female labour force participation between rural (41.5%) and urban areas (25.4%), suggesting that urban policy initiatives may not adequately support women’s employment.

    What strategies can be implemented? (Way forward)

    • Strengthening Gender Equality: Implement gender-transformative approaches to enhance women’s participation in the labour force and address systemic barriers. This includes policies promoting work-life balance, flexible work arrangements, and targeted skill development programs.
    • Enhancing Education and Skill Development: Invest in quality education, vocational training, and lifelong learning opportunities that cater to both genders, particularly in rural areas.
    • Promoting Social Protection: Expand social safety nets and anticipatory social protection programs that target vulnerable populations, particularly women and marginalized groups.
    • Reducing Income Inequality: Implement progressive taxation and wealth redistribution policies to address the concentration of income.
    • Multi-Stakeholder Engagement: Foster collaboration between government, civil society, and the private sector to implement sustainable development initiatives.

    Mains PYQ:

    Q National Education Policy 2020 isin conformity with the Sustainable Development Goal-4 (2030). It intends to restructure and reorient education system in India. Critically examine the statement. (UPSC IAS/2020)

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  • Zika Virus Outbreak

    West Nile Virus

    Prelims Only | Science Tech | Mains Paper 3: Awareness in various sc and tech fields

    Why in news?

    Ukraine is currently dealing with a serious outbreak of West Nile virus (WNV), with health officials raising alarms as the death toll rises.

    About West Nile Virus

    Details
    Virus Type Member of the flavivirus genus, family Flaviviridae
    First Isolated 1937 in a woman in the West Nile district of Uganda
    Geographical Distribution Commonly found in Africa, Europe, Middle East, North America, and West Asia
    Transmission Primarily transmitted through infected mosquito bites; mosquitoes become infected by feeding on infected birds. Can also spread through infected animal tissues.
    Symptoms – Asymptomatic: ~80% of infected individuals show no symptoms
    – West Nile Fever: ~20% develop symptoms like fever, headache, fatigue, body aches, nausea, vomiting, and occasional skin rash.
    Peak Infection Period Typically spikes between June and September (summer to autumn)
    Reported Outbreaks 19 countries have reported outbreaks, including Albania, Austria, Bulgaria, Croatia, Cyprus, Czechia, France, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Italy, North Macedonia, Romania, Serbia, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain, Türkiye, and Kosovo.
    Treatment No vaccine available; supportive treatments provided for neuroinvasive WNV patients

     

    PYQ:

    [2017] Consider the following statements:

    1. In tropical regions, Zika virus disease is transmitted by the same mosquito that transmits dengue.

    2. Sexual transmission of Zika virus disease is possible.

    Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

    (a) 1 only

    (b) 2 only

    (c) Both 1 and 2

    (d) Neither 1 nor 2

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  • Pharma Sector – Drug Pricing, NPPA, FDC, Generics, etc.

    Drugs Technical Advisory Board (DTAB)

    Prelims Only | Science Tech | Mains Paper 3: Awareness in various sc and tech fields

    Why in the News?

    The Drugs Technical Advisory Board (DTAB), the highest statutory body on technical drug-related matters in India, has recommended including all antibiotics under the definition of ‘New Drugs’ in the New Drugs and Clinical Trial (NDCT) Rules, 2019.

    What are ‘New Drugs’?

    • According to Rule 122 E of the Drugs and Cosmetics Rules, 1945, a new drug is one that:
      • Has not been used in the country.
      • Has not been recognized as effective and safe by the licensing authority.
      • May also be an already approved drug with modified claims such as new indications, dosages, or routes of administration.

    Implications of Including Antibiotics in the New Drug Category:

    • If antibiotics are classified as new drugs:
      • Their manufacturing, marketing, and sale will be documented.
      • Clearance for manufacturing and marketing will need to be obtained from the Central government instead of State drug administrations.
      • Antibiotics will only be sold to patients on prescription.

    Additional Recommendations:

    • The board is considering amending the labelling rules under the Drugs Rules, 1945, by adding a blue strip or box for antimicrobial products.
    • It has recommended that antimicrobials should not be sold to non-pharmaceutical industries unless they have the necessary licences.

    About the Drugs Technical Advisory Board:

    Details
    Authority Highest statutory decision-making body on technical matters related to drugs in India
    Establishment Constituted under the Drugs and Cosmetics Act, 1940
    Affiliation Part of the Central Drugs Standard Control Organization (CDSCO)
    Nodal Ministry Ministry of Health and Family Welfare
    Functions – Advises the Central and State Governments on technical matters related to the Drugs and Cosmetics Act
    – Carries out functions assigned by the Act
    Role of CDSCO – Approval of drugs
    – Conduct of clinical trials
    – Establishing standards for drugs
    – Quality control of imported drugs
    – Coordination with State Drug Control Organizations
    Specialized Licenses Responsible for granting licenses for critical categories of drugs, including blood products, IV fluids, vaccines, and sera
    Decision-Making Provides expert advice and technical recommendations to ensure drug safety, efficacy, and quality

     

    PYQ:

    [2019] Which of the following are the reasons for the occurrence of multi-drug resistance in microbial pathogens in India?

    1. Genetic predisposition of some people
    2. Taking incorrect doses of antibiotics to cure diseases
    3. Using antibiotics in livestock farming
    4. Multiple chronic diseases in some people

    Select the correct answer using the code given below.

    (a) 1 and 2
    (b) 2 and 3 only
    (c) 1, 3 and 4
    (d) 2, 3 and 4

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