The J&K Reorganisation Act was passed in Parliament on August 6, 2019. It gave the Centre, through the Lieutenant Governor, a heightened legislative role in J&K, and put the bureaucratic apparatus in the UT under the Union Home Minister.
Importance of the topic:
The demand for restoring J&K’s statehood is central to ongoing political discourse, federalism, and Centre–State relations. It involves constitutional questions about autonomy, democratic representation, and legislative authority. Understanding this issue is essential for both Indian Polity and Governance sections of GS Paper II and current affairs-based Mains questions. Six years after the abrogation of Article 370 and the passage of the Jammu and Kashmir Reorganisation Act, 2019, the question of restoring full statehood to J&K is back in political and judicial discourse. While the Supreme Court upheld the abrogation in December 2023, it also urged the Union Government to restore statehood at the earliest, ideally before the next Assembly elections.
Understanding the Jammu & Kashmir Reorganisation Act, 2019
The J&K Reorganisation Act, passed in August 2019, radically altered the political geography of India by:
- Bifurcating the former state into two Union Territories (UTs): Jammu & Kashmir (with a legislative assembly) and Ladakh (without a legislative assembly)
- Repealing Article 370, which had conferred special status to J&K.
- Ending the state’s Constitution, flag, and autonomy in various matters.
How Was the Act Passed?
It was passed under Article 3 of the Constitution, which empowers Parliament to change the boundaries or status of any state. The Constitution (Application to J&K) Order, 2019 extended all provisions of the Indian Constitution to J&K. A Presidential Order, followed by resolutions in Parliament, enabled the effective nullification of Article 370.
This method has been legally contentious, with debates about: Whether Article 370 could be abrogated without the consent of the erstwhile State Assembly and Whether a UT can be created out of a full-fledged state without a constitutional amendment.
Why Restoration of Statehood is Important:
- Democratic Legitimacy: A Union Territory is governed by the Centre, with limited powers to the local legislature (like Delhi). Statehood would return full legislative powers and autonomy to the elected J&K government.
- Political Participation and Stability: Full statehood may encourage wider participation in elections and a return to mainstream politics in the Valley.
- Judicial Recommendation: The Supreme Court (2023) noted that UT status must be temporary and urged a time-bound plan for restoration.
- Rebuilding Trust: Statehood is seen as a step to win back the confidence of the local population, especially after internet shutdowns, detentions, and security clampdowns.
Challenges in Restoring Statehood
- Security Concerns: Terror threats and infiltration risks persist. The government may delay full devolution until there is a more stable security environment.
- Geopolitical Tensions: China and Pakistan continue to contest India’s sovereignty over J&K and Ladakh. Strategic concerns may shape decisions.
- Administrative Realignment: The reorganisation involved restructuring administrative units, services, and legal frameworks. Reversing some of those may create bureaucratic hurdles.
- Political Control by the Centre: The current arrangement allows the Centre direct control. Restoring statehood might reduce this control, especially if opposition parties dominate the future assembly.
- Need for Election Readiness
Value Addition:
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Article 3 of the Constitution of India:
- Article 3 of the Indian Constitution grants the Parliament significant powers related to the internal reorganization of the states and union territories within the Union of India.
- Under Article 3, Parliament can:
- Form new states by combining or separating territory from existing states or union territories.
- Increase or decrease the area of any state.
- Alter the boundaries or change the name of any state
- For Parliament to exercise these powers, a Bill must be introduced with the President’s prior recommendation. If the Bill impacts a state’s area, boundaries, or name, the President must seek the state legislature’s views within a specified timeframe. However, these views are not binding on Parliament. Bills under Article 3 are passed by a simple majority and are not considered constitutional amendments under Article 368.
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With such a levy on high-end goods, spending on luxury will become a visible public act of support for the armed forces. In an era of evolving warfare, from stealth jets to AI-driven drones, India’s defence preparedness is no longer optional, it is existential. This article proposes a ‘Defence Cess’ on luxury goods and services, offering a creative, emotionally resonant, and fiscally sustainable mechanism to ring-fence funds for military modernisation. This issue links directly to GS Paper II (Governance), GS Paper III (Security and Economy), and GS IV (Ethics, especially public accountability and duty).
The Strategic Urgency: Why Modernisation Can’t Wait
India is increasingly surrounded by hostile neighbours with fast-upgrading military capacities:
- Pakistan may soon induct stealth fighters like J-20 or J-35 from China.
- China is testing sixth-generation aircraft and has strong cyber and drone warfare capabilities.
- The Indian Air Force (IAF), by contrast, operates only 32 squadrons vs the sanctioned strength of 42 — leaving India strategically exposed in contested airspace.
Key Quote: “Capability alone is not enough. The country cannot afford to be vulnerable.”
Modernisation is Existential, Not Aspirational
India’s military modernisation roadmap is ambitious but underfunded. It includes:
- Fifth-generation fighter aircraft development (AMCA)
- Indigenous jet engine programmes
- Strategic unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs)
- Electronic warfare (EW) and cyber-capacity enhancement
But while intent exists, execution suffers from fragmented schemes, budgetary limitations, and lack of dedicated long-term funding.
The Defence Cess Proposal: Key Features
- A 5–10% surcharge on ultra-luxury goods and services like High-end cars, Private jets, Imported luxury watches, Premium liquor, etc.
- Clearly itemised on invoices as “Raksha Cess”
- Funds are non-lapsable, targeted, and traceable
- Exclusively for capital expenditure in Procurement, R&D, Infrastructure for defence
Global Parallels and Precedents
|
Defence/Strategic Taxation Model |
| Italy |
Luxury tax on yachts and helicopters during Eurozone crisis |
| Sweden |
Long-standing luxury taxation for social balance |
| China |
Anti-extravagance drive redirected elite consumption toward strategic sectors |
These countries have used fiscal mechanisms not just to fund strategy but to shape public narratives, blending consumption with national responsibility.
Why a Defence Cess Works for India
- Psychological and Symbolic Impact: The idea of contributing directly to the betterment of Indian defence through luxury spending has strong emotional appeal. It creates a moral linkage between indulgence and national duty converting private consumption into public solidarity. Naming it “Raksha Cess” makes it resonate with patriotism and responsibility.
- Fiscal Innovation Without Burdening the Masses: India’s direct tax base is relatively narrow, and increasing defence funding through general taxation could hurt the middle class or poor. This cess targets only high-end consumers, ensuring that additional fiscal pressure is placed on those most capable of bearing it. Luxury spending has grown significantly with India’s rising affluent class, this captures a booming sector for national good.
- Transparency and Traceability: Since the cess is itemised separately on invoices, it allows greater transparency. It increases trust in government utilisation and may lead to greater tax compliance if people know exactly where their money goes. With digitised billing and GST-era infrastructure, monitoring and reporting mechanisms already exist to track such surcharges.
- Dedicated, Ring-Fenced Defence Fund: Current defence allocations are diluted across revenue expenses and pensions. It helps bypass routine bureaucratic delays and ensures directed capital spending. A defence cess would be non-lapsable and strictly for capital expenditure — such as: Acquiring new aircraft, R&D in defence tech and Indigenous manufacturing. This enables long-term strategic planning free from annual budget cycles.
- Aligns India With Global Practices: Many countries (Italy, Sweden, China) have used luxury taxation or targeted levies to support strategic sectors or correct fiscal imbalances. India can draw from these models to introduce a fiscally sound and globally validated mechanism.
- Boosts the Narrative of Nation-Building: In an era where narratives matter, this proposal encourages voluntary nation-building and elite participation in national security. It sends a message that “those who benefit most from India’s rise should contribute most to its protection.”
Challenges in Implementing a Defence Cess:
- Legal and Fiscal Complexity: Introducing a cess outside the GST framework may face legal and administrative hurdles, requiring amendments or coordination with the GST Council. There may be opposition from States citing federal fiscal concerns
- Risk of Misuse or Leakage: Any fund not managed with full transparency and oversight can fall prey to inefficiency or corruption. Strong audit systems and public reporting mechanisms must be built into the cess architecture from the outset.
- Need for a Clear Governance Structure: A dedicated body or fund management unit should be created under the Ministry of Defence or PMO, preferably with civil society representation for accountability. Without such a structure, funds may be diverted or underutilised.
- Revenue Predictability and Scale: Luxury consumption is inelastic but cyclical, it may dip during economic downturns. The fund should not be over-relied upon for core defence needs; rather, it must act as a complementary booster.
- Perception Management and Political Pushback: Some may view this as a populist or performative move, or even as a “sin tax on success”. There must be consistent and transparent communication that this is about contribution, not punishment.
- Moral Optics and Class Tensions: Care must be taken to avoid triggering class resentment or elite backlash, especially if the tax seems punitive. Framing it as “a privilege with purpose” is crucial — the messaging has to be inclusive, not divisive.
Conclusion: From Passive Consumers to Active Nation-Builders
India’s national security demands not just better weapons, but a sustainable model of public contribution and political imagination. A well-designed defence cess could convert elite indulgence into national insurance, creating a visible alignment between privilege and responsibility.
Value Addition
|
India’s Defence Modernisation:
| What Has Been Done: |
What is being planned |
- Tejas Mk-1A production initiated (HAL)
- Strategic partnerships under DPP-2020 for indigenous manufacturing
- Agni Prime, INS Vikrant, and SAM systems development
- Defence exports crossed ₹21,000 crore in 2023-24
- Emergency procurement powers given to armed forces post-Galwan
|
- AMCA (Advanced Medium Combat Aircraft) — 5th Gen fighter
- Twin-engine deck-based fighter (TEDBF) for Navy
- India-US Jet Engine Deal (GE-HAL) under iCET
- India-France agreement for submarine co-development
- Cyber and AI warfare units under Theatre Command model
|
Important Agreements and Collaborations:
| Country |
Collaboration |
| USA |
iCET, Jet Engine tech transfer (GE -F414) |
| France |
Rafale aircraft, scorpene submarine |
| Israel |
Missile defence (Barak-8) |
| Russia |
S-400 Missile systems, AK-203 Rifles |
Important Defence Policies:
- Defence Acquisition Procedure (DAP) 2020: Goal: To streamline the procurement process for the Indian Armed Forces, promoting indigenization and efficiency. Prioritizes “Buy Indian” categories, Enhanced Indigenous Content (IC), Simplification of Trial and Testing Procedures and has Emphasis on Make and Innovation.
- Innovations for Defence Excellence (iDEX): Goal: To foster an ecosystem for innovation and technology development in the defence and aerospace sectors, leveraging the potential of startups, MSMEs, academia, and individual innovators. It is managed by Defence Innovation Organization (DIO), a not-for-profit company founded by Hindustan Aeronautics Limited (HAL) & Bharat Electronics Limited (BEL).
- DRDO’s 5-Year Roadmap (Vision 2025): Goal: To lead India towards self-reliance in defence technologies and become a global leader in defence research and development.
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Why in the News?
India met its 20% ethanol blending (E20) target in petrol by March 2025 — five years early. Talks are now on to raise the blending ratio further in the immediate future.
About Ethanol Blended Petrol (EBP) Programme:
- Launched in 2003 by the Ministry of Petroleum and Natural Gas.
- Objective: Promote use of renewable, domestically produced ethanol in petrol.
- Nationwide rollout (except A&N and Lakshadweep) since April 2019.
- Feedstock:
- 1G Ethanol: From sugarcane molasses, maize, rice.
- 2G Ethanol: From agricultural residues like rice straw, bamboo, bagasse.
- Blending Progress:
- 1.6% in 2013–14
- 11.8% in 2022–23
- 20% achieved in March 2025 (E20)
- Future Plans:
- Discussions on E27 blending target by 2030.
- Government exploring flex-fuel vehicles (e.g., E85-capable (dual-fuel) cars).
India’s Achievements:
- Environmental Gains: 19.2 million tonnes of CO₂ emissions avoided (2014–2021).
- Economic Impact: ₹26,000 crore saved in foreign exchange via reduced oil imports.
- Industrial Growth:
- Distillery capacity scaled up with interest subvention support.
- Flex-fuel vehicles showcased by major automakers in 2025.
- Farmer Benefit: Creates demand for sugarcane and grains, increasing farm income.
Limitations:
-
- Lower mileage with E20 due to reduced energy content.
- Older vehicles may face engine compatibility issues.
- Flex-fuel technology adoption still limited.
-
- No drop in fuel prices despite ethanol savings.
- Consumer hesitation due to lack of visible benefits.
-
- High land and water use for ethanol crops (especially sugarcane).
- Food security risks from diverting food crops for fuel.
-
- Majority of ethanol still from sugarcane; limited 2G ethanol usage.
- Need to promote biomass-based ethanol (wood chips, crop residue).
| [UPSC 2025] Consider the following statements:
Statement I: Of the two major ethanol producers in the world, i.e., Brazil and the United States of America, the former produces more ethanol than the latter.
Statement II: Unlike in the United States of America where corn is the principal feedstock for ethanol production, sugarcane is the principal feedstock for ethanol production in Brazil.
Which one of the following is correct in respect of the above statements?
(a) Both Statement I and Statement II are correct and Statement II explains Statement I
(b) Both Statement I and Statement II are correct but Statement II does not explain Statement I
(c) Statement I is correct but Statement II is not correct
(d) Statement I is not correct but Statement II is correct * |
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Why in the News?
In a move to combat rhino poaching, the University of the Witwatersrand in South Africa, supported by the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), has launched the Rhisotope Project.
What is Rhisotope Project?
- Launched By: University of the Witwatersrand, South Africa, with support from the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA).
- Initiation: Concept began in 2021; formally launched in July 2024.
- Objective: Prevent rhino poaching by making horns traceable and unsuitable for illegal trade.
- Pilot Site: Waterberg Biosphere Reserve, South Africa.
- Pilot Implementation: 20 rhinos injected with radioisotopes (exact isotope remains undisclosed) for testing.
How the Isotope Tagging Works?
- Isotope Basics: Uses radioactive isotopes that emit detectable radiation as they decay.
- Injection Method: A small hole is drilled into the horn; a low dose of isotope is inserted safely.
- Detection Mechanism: Radiation Portal Monitors at ports can detect tagged horns—even inside 40-foot containers, as proven using 3D-printed horn simulations.
Significance:
- Safety Assurance: No damage to rhinos observed; cytological tests showed no cellular or physiological harm.
- Impact on Illegal Trade: Horn becomes detectable, unusable, and toxic for illegal human consumption.
| [UPSC 2019] Consider the following statements:
1. Asiatic lion is naturally found In India only. 2. Double-humped camel is naturally found in India only. 3. One-horned rhinoceros is naturally found in India only.
Which of the statements given above is / are correct?”
Options: (a) 1 only * (b) 2 only (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3 |
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Why in the News?
A joint population census conducted by Kerala and Tamil Nadu has revealed the presence of 2,668 Nilgiri tahrs in the Western Ghats.
About Nilgiri Tahr (Nilgiritragus hylocrius):
- Endemism: Found only in the Nilgiri Hills and southern Western Ghats of Tamil Nadu and Kerala, India.
- Ecological Role: Key grazer in the montane grassland ecosystem, influencing plant growth and grassland regeneration.
- Habitat:
- Open montane grasslands interspersed with shola forests (South Western Ghats montane rain forests eco-region).
- Occurs at elevations between 1,200 to 2,600 metres (3,900 to 8,500 feet).
- Prefers steep rocky slopes, cliff edges, and grassy plateaus — areas with clear visibility to detect predators.
- Population: Estimated 3,122 individuals in the wild; Locally extinct in about 14% of its historical habitat.
- In Kerala (1,365): Eravikulam National Park (ENP) – largest single population (~841 individuals); Anamalai Hills landscape.
- In Tamil Nadu (1303): Mukurthi National Park; Grass Hills National Park; Kalakkad-Mundanthurai Tiger Reserve (lesser presence)
- Conservation Status:
- IUCN Red List: Endangered
- Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972: Schedule I
- Cultural Significance:
- Official state animal of Tamil Nadu.
- Mentioned in Tamil Sangam literature (~2,000 years ago).
- Seen in Mesolithic rock art (10,000–4,000 BC), indicating its deep historical importance.
| [UPSC 2018] Consider the following fauna of India:
1. Gharial 2. Leatherback turtle 3. Swamp deer
Which of the above is/are endangered?
Options: (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 3 only (c) 1, 2 and 3 * (d) None |
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Why in the News?
To align ancient Indian diets with modern nutrition, FSSAI and the Ministry of Ayush have released an official list of food items under the Ayurveda Aahara category.
About Ayurveda Aahara:
- Definition: Refers to food products based on Ayurvedic dietary principles—focused on balance, seasonality, and natural, therapeutic ingredients.
- Objective: Ensures standardisation, safety, and consumer trust in Ayurvedic dietary practices.
- Legal Framework: Regulated under the Food Safety and Standards Authority of India’s Ayurveda Aahara Regulations (2022).
- Textual Basis: Product list notified under Note (1) of Schedule B, grounded in classical Ayurvedic texts listed in Schedule A.
- Standards: Foods must follow authentic Ayurvedic recipes, ingredients, and preparation methods.
- New Product Inclusion: Food Business Operators (FBOs) can propose additions by citing authoritative Ayurvedic sources.
- Institutional Support: Endorsed by the National Institute of Ayurveda and the Ministry of Ayush; the Ayush Aahara Compendium offers scientifically validated formulations for industry use.
Significance:
- Health Benefits: Supports preventive health, digestion, and immunity through time-tested dietary wisdom.
- Cultural Revival: Reconnects with India’s ancient food traditions, including those from the Sangam era; recognised globally alongside Yoga and Millets.
- Regulatory Clarity: Provides structured guidelines to manufacturers, enabling ease of business and consumer confidence in authenticity.
| [UPSC 2017] Which of the following are the objectives of ‘National Nutrition Mission’?
1. To create awareness relating to malnutrition among pregnant women and lactating mothers.
2. To reduce the incidence of anaemia among young children, adolescent girls and women.
3. To promote the consumption of millets, coarse cereals and unpolished rice.
4. To promote the consumption of poultry eggs.
Select the correct answer using the code given below:
Options: (a) 1 and 2 only* (b) 1, 2 and 3 only (c) 1, 2 and 4 only (d) 3 and 4 only |
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Why in the News?
India’s Mutual Fund (MF) industry has witnessed exponential growth, with Assets Under Management (AUM) reaching ₹74.40 lakh crore as of June 2025, a sevenfold increase over the past decade.
What are Assets Under Management (AUM)?
- Definition: AUM refers to the total market value of financial assets (stocks, bonds, etc.) managed by an investment firm on behalf of clients.
- Growth Drivers:
- Net investor inflows and redemptions
- Market performance
- Dividend reinvestments
- Importance:
- Indicates fund size, investor confidence, and fund stability
- Reflects fund manager performance and popularity
- Higher AUM allows better liquidity and portfolio diversification
- Impacts management fees and minimum investment limits
What is a Mutual Fund?
- Definition: A mutual fund pools money from multiple investors to invest in a diversified portfolio.
- Management: Handled by professional fund managers to balance risk and return.
- Unit-Based Investment: Investors purchase fund units; each unit’s value is called the Net Asset Value (NAV), which changes with market movement.
Classification of Mutual Funds
a. Based on Asset Class:
- Equity Funds: Invest in stocks; includes large-cap, mid-cap, and small-cap funds.
- Debt Funds: Invest in bonds and other fixed-income instruments.
- Hybrid Funds: Mix of equity and debt for balanced risk-return.
b. Based on Investment Objective:
- Growth Funds: Focus on capital appreciation; suitable for long-term investors.
- Income Funds: Aim for regular income via bonds/dividends.
- Liquid Funds: Invest in short-term debt; low risk and high liquidity.
- Tax-saving Funds (Equity Linked Savings Scheme): Offer Section 80C tax benefits; equity-focused.
- Pension Funds: Meant for retirement; long-term return-focused.
c. Based on Structure:
- Open-ended Funds: Investors can enter or exit anytime; highly liquid.
- Closed-ended Funds: Fixed maturity; investments only during the initial offer period.
- Interval Funds: Allow purchase/redemption only at specific intervals.
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| [UPSC 2025] Consider the following statements:
I. India accounts for a very large portion of all equity option contracts traded globally, thus exhibiting a great boom. II. India’s stock market has grown rapidly in the recent past, even overtaking Hong Kong’s at some point in time. III. There is no regulatory body either to warn small investors about the risks of options trading or to act on unregistered financial advisors in this regard.
Which of the statements given above are correct?
Options: (a) I and II only * (b) II and III only (c) I and III only (d) I, II and III |
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As questions emerge over the conduct of elections in India, restoring faith in the Election Commission is crucial to safeguarding democratic legitimacy.
Context and Relevance (GS2 – Polity and Governance, Constitutional Bodies):
The Election Commission of India (ECI), a constitutionally mandated body under Article 324, is once again in the spotlight. Following the 2024 general elections, allegations from political leaders, including Rahul Gandhi and Tejashwi Yadav, have cast a shadow over the Commission’s neutrality and transparency. These charges revive a critical debate: Can India’s democracy survive without full public trust in its electoral machinery? The answer lies in the integrity, independence, and accountability of the Election Commission, one of the bedrocks of India’s representative democracy.
Why Is Electoral Credibility So Vital?
- Democratic legitimacy stems not just from elections being conducted, but from them being widely perceived as free, fair, and impartial.
- If losers in elections feel the process was biased or manipulated, public trust erodes, similar to a rigged court trial or fixed sporting match.
- Thus, electoral bodies must maintain absolute transparency to avoid a crisis of trust.
What are the Allegations?
- Discrepancies in Voter Rolls: A Member of Parliament has hinted at large-scale discrepancies in the 2024 elections. Tejashwi Yadav alleged that his name was missing from the electoral rolls in Bihar due to a mismatch in his EPIC (voter ID) number.
- Opacity in VVPAT Functioning: The Voter Verifiable Paper Audit Trail (VVPAT), a critical component of EVMs, has been flagged for lack of transparency. Unlike the Ballot Unit and Control Unit, the VVPAT contains software and is centrally programmed — raising questions about tamper-proofing and auditability.
- Arbitrary VVPAT Tallying: The process of randomly tallying VVPAT slips with EVM counts has become highly discretionary, leading to low public confidence.
- ECI’s Defensive Posture: Rather than addressing concerns head-on, the ECI has simply rejected tampering allegations and asked parties to raise objections “at the appropriate time”.
Wider Implications for Indian Democracy
- Public Trust in Institutions: Without visible impartiality, even a fair process may be discredited by perception. This impacts citizen engagement, voter turnout, and social cohesion.
- Level Playing Field in Elections: If major opposition leaders claim unfair treatment, it undermines the equality of contest fundamental to electoral democracy.
- Rule of Law and Accountability: The ECI is not above public scrutiny. While insulated from political pressure, it must remain answerable to constitutional values and public confidence.
- Judicial Oversight and Electoral Reforms: Calls may grow for stronger judicial or parliamentary oversight of ECI decisions — or reforms such as: Collegium system for appointing Election Commissioners, Mandatory disclosures of EVM-VVPAT audit protocols.
Way Forward
- Ensure Real Transparency: ECI should publish standard operating procedures for VVPAT tallying and voter roll revision.
- Independent Audit Mechanisms: Encourage third-party audits and real-time grievance tracking for electoral complaints.
- Reform ECI Appointments: Move from Executive-dominated selection to a multi-member collegium including CJI, opposition leaders, and the President.
- Digital Literacy and Voter Awareness: Boost public understanding of electoral tech like EVMs and VVPAT to counter misinformation and suspicion.
Conclusion:
India’s electoral democracy is only as strong as its citizens’ belief in its fairness. As a constitutional guardian of that belief, the Election Commission must go beyond legal compliance and strive to uphold both institutional credibility and democratic trust. A recalibration is urgently needed — not just for politicians or parties, but for the citizen-voter, who is the ultimate stakeholder in the democratic process.
Sample UPSC Mains Question (GS2 – Polity, 15 Marks)
“The credibility of democratic institutions lies not just in their constitutional design but in public perception of their impartiality.” In light of recent controversies, critically examine the functioning of the Election Commission of India. Suggest reforms to strengthen its autonomy and transparency.
Value Addition:
|
Constitutional Articles related to ECI
- Article 324: Vests the superintendence, direction, and control of elections in the ECI.
- Article 325: One general electoral roll for every territorial constituency.
- Article 326: Elections to Lok Sabha and State Assemblies to be based on adult suffrage.
- Article 327: Power of Parliament to make provisions with respect to elections.
- Article 328: Power of State Legislature to make provisions relating to elections.
- Article 329: Bar to interference by courts in electoral matters.
Voter Verified Paper Audit Trail (VVPAT)
- VVPAT is an independent system attached to EVMs that allows voters to verify that their vote has been cast correctly.
- It generates a printed slip with the candidate’s name and symbol, visible for 7 seconds before being dropped into a sealed box.
- First used in India: 2013 in Nagam (Nagaland) by-election.
- Nationwide use: Mandated by the Supreme Court in 2013; implemented in all 543 constituencies in 2019 General Elections.
- SC 2019 ruling: 5 random VVPAT slips to be matched with EVMs per Assembly segment to increase transparency.
Electronic Voting Machines (EVMs) in India
- Introduced on experimental basis in 1982 (Parur Assembly, Kerala).
- Used in some constituencies in 1999 Lok Sabha elections.
- Nationwide use: Since 2004 Lok Sabha elections.
- EVMs have no internet connectivity, operate on standalone power, and are considered tamper-proof by EC.
- Two parts: Control Unit & Balloting Unit, connected via cable.
Recent Issues in News Related to ECI
- Demand for Collegium-style appointment of Election Commissioners:
- The Supreme Court in 2023 ruled that CEC and ECs will be appointed by the President on recommendation of a committee comprising PM, LoP, and CJI.
- Aims to reduce Executive influence and ensure independence of the ECI.
- Delay in Disqualification under Anti-Defection Law:
- ECI was criticized for delay in acting on defections in assemblies, e.g., Maharashtra political crisis.
- Raises questions about the commission’s proactive powers under Tenth Schedule.
- Electoral Roll Purification & Aadhaar-linkage:
- Efforts to link voter ID with Aadhaar raised privacy concerns.
- Opposition raised fears of disenfranchisement, especially of vulnerable communities.
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The Growth is Now Coming Not from Insecticides or Fungicides, but Herbicides.
Understanding the Three Major Types of Pesticides:
Pesticides are chemical or biological substances used to protect crops by eliminating or controlling pests, diseases, or weeds. India’s pesticide market primarily consists of:
- Insecticides: These control insects that damage crops by feeding on them or transmitting diseases.
- Fungicides: These are used to prevent or eliminate fungal infections like mildew, blight, or rust that affect crop yield and quality.
- Herbicides: These destroy or inhibit the growth of weeds that compete with crops for nutrients, water, and sunlight.
Herbicides – The New Growth Driver of India’s Pesticide Market:
India’s organised crop protection market is valued at approximately ₹24,500 crore. While insecticides (₹10,700 crore) remain the largest segment, herbicides (₹8,200 crore) have emerged as the fastest-growing category, with an annual growth rate exceeding 10%. This shift reflects a deeper transformation in India’s rural economy—one driven by labour scarcity, rising wage rates, and the need for mechanisation and efficiency in farm operations.
Why Herbicides Are Gaining Ground:
- Labour Shortages in Agriculture: Manual weeding is time-consuming and labour-intensive. A labourer takes 8–10 hours to weed one acre, and the average daily wage has increased from ₹326 in 2019 to over ₹447 in 2024. Moreover, rural youth are increasingly moving away from agricultural work. This has led to a surge in herbicide use as a labour-saving input, similar to how tractors reduced the need for manual ploughing.
- Time-Saving and Cost-Effective: Power weeders are limited in closely spaced or deep-rooted crops. Herbicides, on the other hand, can be sprayed easily and reduce both labour dependence and turnaround time between cropping cycles.
- Strategic Use Patterns Emerging: Earlier, herbicides were used only after weed emergence (“post-emergent”). Now, farmers increasingly apply “pre-emergent” herbicides at or just after sowing to prevent weed growth from the beginning—reflecting a shift from reactive to preventive agriculture.
Role of Indian Companies Amidst MNC Dominance:
India’s crop protection sector remains largely dominated by multinationals like Bayer (Germany), Syngenta (Switzerland), Corteva (USA), and Sumitomo (Japan). However, Indian companies like Crystal Crop Protection Ltd (CCPL) and Dhanuka Agritech are rising players:
- CCPL acquired rights for key herbicides like Ethoxysulfuron and Gramoxone from global majors.
- It has also developed new products like ‘Sikosa’ in partnership with Battelle (USA) and Mitsui (Japan), showing how Indian firms are strategically expanding through innovation and collaboration.
Why This Matters for India’s Agricultural Future
- Productivity Gains: Weeds reduce crop yield by competing for water and nutrients. Herbicides help ensure better resource absorption by crops.
- Supports Mechanisation: Like other farm machinery, herbicides reduce dependence on human labour and enable faster, scalable farming.
- Aligns with Climate-Resilient Agriculture: Timely and smart weed control reduces input waste and improves crop resilience.
Key Concerns
- Ecological Impact: Excessive herbicide use can lead to soil degradation, water contamination, and loss of biodiversity.
- Labour Displacement: As weeding becomes chemical-driven, demand for rural manual labour might further decline.
- MNC Monopoly: Unlike seeds and fertilisers, pesticides remain MNC-dominated, raising questions on strategic autonomy in agri-inputs.
Conclusion:
The rise of herbicides in India’s pesticide market marks a significant transformation in agricultural input use. While they offer a timely solution to labour shortages and boost farm efficiency, a cautious, balanced, and indigenously empowered approach is necessary.
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President Trump announces steep tariff hikes on Indian imports over continued Russian oil purchases; India calls it “unjustified and unreasonable”.
Context and Relevance (GS2 – International Relations, GS3 – Economy, Trade Policy):
In a move that has strained India–U.S. economic ties, U.S. President Donald Trump has announced plans to “substantially” increase tariffs on Indian goods. This decision comes days after a 25% tariff plus penalty was imposed, with Trump citing India’s oil imports from Russia as the trigger. India has hit back, defending its energy security needs and calling out the West’s own trade with Russia.
This development adds to the geopolitical-economic complexity facing India’s foreign policy and trade decisions in the wake of the Russia–Ukraine conflict.
What are Tariffs?
- A tariff is a tax imposed by a government on imported goods.
- Tariffs make foreign goods costlier, potentially protecting domestic industries but also risking retaliation and higher consumer prices.
Sectors Likely to Be Affected
- Pharmaceuticals – India is a major exporter of generic drugs to the U.S.; tariffs could increase prices and affect competitiveness.
- Metals and Engineering Goods – Steel, aluminum, and other value-added metals are vulnerable.
- Textiles and Apparel – A major Indian export to the U.S. which operates on thin margins.
- IT Services (Indirect Impact) – Not under direct tariff but can be impacted by broader deterioration in trade ties.
- Petrochemicals and Refined Products – As India refines and re-exports Russian crude, this area could come under scrutiny.
- Defence Procurement and Technology Sharing – Strategic relations could take a hit, affecting high-tech transfers.
- Startups and Digital Trade – New tech collaborations may slow if the overall atmosphere deteriorates.
Why is the U.S. Taking This Step:
President Trump’s reasoning includes:
- India allegedly buying “massive amounts of Russian oil” and re-exporting it for profits.
- High Indian tariffs and non-tariff barriers that restrict U.S. goods.
- India’s continued energy and defence cooperation with Russia.
- Trump’s argument taps into U.S. domestic concerns around trade imbalances and perceived strategic neutrality by India on the Russia–Ukraine issue.
India’s Stand: Energy Security First:
India’s Ministry of External Affairs (MEA) issued a strong rebuttal:
- India started buying from Russia when traditional suppliers diverted oil to Europe.
- The U.S. itself had encouraged these imports to stabilise global markets.
- Western nations continue trading with Russia in: LNG, uranium, palladium, fertilisers, and chemicals.
- EU–Russia bilateral trade in 2024 exceeded €84.7 billion (goods + services).
India argued that its trade was a “vital compulsion”, unlike the West’s “strategic choice”.
Economic and Strategic Implications for India:
Core Economic Concepts at Play
- Trade Diversion & Substitution: U.S. importers may turn to other countries, diverting trade away from India.
- Protectionism vs Globalisation: Rising protectionism threatens the rules-based global trade order.
- Non-Tariff Barriers Debate: Focus returns to India’s complex regulatory environment that discourages FDI and foreign trade.
- Elasticity of Demand for Indian Exports: Tariff hikes could reveal price sensitivity in sectors like pharma and textiles.
Foreign Policy and Strategic Autonomy
- India’s multi-alignment strategy is being tested.
- Strategic autonomy in energy choices now faces economic costs.
Impact on India’s Export Competitiveness
- With countries like Vietnam, Mexico, and Indonesia unaffected by such tariffs, India faces a competitive disadvantage.
Investor Confidence
- Heightened U.S.–India tensions could create policy uncertainty for foreign investors.
Way Forward for India:
- Bilateral Negotiations: Urgent dialogue needed through trade channels to de-escalate.
- Diversification: India must strengthen ties with other large markets (e.g., EU, ASEAN, Africa).
- Strengthen Domestic Industry: Boost manufacturing competitiveness through PLI schemes, FTAs, and ease of doing business.
- Energy Diplomacy: Deepen engagement with Gulf countries and renewables to reduce over-dependence on Russia.
Conclusion:
This episode is a litmus test for India’s balancing act between strategic autonomy and economic pragmatism. It also reflects the larger trend of global economic nationalism overshadowing multilateral cooperation. India will need to walk a tightrope between asserting its sovereign right to energy security and preserving its vital trade relationships.
Sample UPSC Mains Question (GS2/GS3 – 15 Marks)
In the wake of rising global protectionism and India’s continued energy trade with Russia, critically examine the impact of unilateral tariff impositions by developed nations on India’s strategic autonomy and export competitiveness. Suggest a multi-pronged approach to mitigate such risks.
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Why in the News?
To support India’s net-zero transport goal by 2070, NITI Aayog launched the India Electric Mobility Index (IEMI) to track and rank States/UTs on their shift to electric mobility.
![[pib] India Electric Mobility Index (IEMI)](https://d18x2uyjeekruj.cloudfront.net/wp-content/uploads/2025/08/imei.jpg)
About India Electric Mobility Index (IEMI):
- Launched by: NITI Aayog in 2024.
- Purpose: To evaluate and benchmark the progress of Indian States and Union Territories (UTs) in achieving their electric mobility and transport decarbonization goals.
- Scoring: States and UTs are scored out of 100 using 16 indicators grouped under 3 core themes.
- Core Themes:
-
- Transport Electrification Progress – Measures EV adoption across segments (2W, 3W, 4W, buses, etc.)
- Charging Infrastructure Readiness – Assesses public charging station density, coverage, and policy support.
- EV Research & Innovation Status – Tracks EV startups, R&D activity, patents, and skilling efforts.
- Significance:
- Supports tailored policymaking and cross-learning.
- Enables transparency and healthy competition among states.
- Aligns with India’s net-zero emissions target by 2070.
- Methodology: Based on VAHAN data, charging infrastructure maps, and stakeholder consultations.
- Accessibility: Publicly available dashboard and report for rankings, scores, and methodology.
Key Highlights (2024 Edition):
- Top Performers: Delhi, Maharashtra, and Chandigarh lead overall in EV readiness.
- Category Leaders:
- Transport Electrification: Delhi and Maharashtra.
- Charging Infrastructure: Karnataka, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Ladakh.
- Research & Innovation: Delhi, Tamil Nadu, Maharashtra, Karnataka, Telangana, Haryana.
- EV Policy Status: 29 States/UTs have formal EV policies; 4 are in the draft stage.
- EV Adoption Data:
- EVs make up 5.3% of private vehicle sales in 2024.
- Over 12 lakh EVs registered in India during the year.
- Public Charging Network: India has over 25,000 public EV charging stations.
- State Categories:
- Performers: Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Uttar Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Odisha, Haryana, Goa.
- Aspirants: Punjab, Rajasthan, Telangana, Andhra Pradesh, Assam, Bihar, Kerala, North-East states.
| [UPSC 2024] Which one of the following is the exhaust pipe emission from Fuel Cell Electric Vehicles powered by hydrogen?
Options: (a) Hydrogen peroxide (b) Hydronium (c) Oxygen (d) Water vapour* |
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Why in the News?
After suspending the Indus Waters Treaty, India is asserting water control in J&K by reviving the Sawalkote Hydroelectric Project — the UT’s largest planned hydro project.
About Sawalkote Hydro Project:
- Location: Ramban and Udhampur districts, Jammu and Kashmir.
- River: Built on the Chenab River (a western river under the Indus Waters Treaty).
- Agency: Implemented by National Hydroelectric Power Corporation.
- History: Proposed in the 1960s; delayed due to Pakistan’s objections, environmental issues, and red tape. Revived after India suspended the Indus Waters Treaty post the April 2025 Pahalgam terror attack.
- Status (2025): Forest clearance granted; tenders floated on 29 July 2025; declared a project of national importance.
- Timeline: 96 months post-clearance; expected commissioning by or after 2032.
Key Features:
- Type: Run-of-the-river (utilizes the natural flow and elevation drop of a river) hydroelectric project.
- Capacity: 1,856 Megawatts (8 × 225 MW + 1 × 56 MW).
- Dam: 192.5 m high, roller-compacted concrete gravity dam; reservoir holds 550 million cubic meters.
- Powerhouse: Underground, with Francis turbines.
- Cost: ₹22,704.8 crore (~2.6 billion United States Dollars).
| [UPSC 2009] Gandhi Sagar Dam is a part of which one of the following?
Options: (a) Chambal Project * (b) Kosi Project (c) Damodar Valley Project (d) Bhakra Nangal Project |
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Why in the News?
In a landmark ruling, the Supreme Court has empowered Pollution Control Boards (PCBs) across India with the authority to impose and collect restitutionary and compensatory damages under the Water and Air Acts.
Key Highlights of Supreme Court Ruling:
- Key Powers Granted:
- Impose and collect restitutionary and compensatory damages.
- Demand bank guarantees in anticipation of environmental harm.
- Legal Basis:
- Section 33A, Water Act, 1974: Power to issue directions for closure/regulation of industries and stoppage of utilities to enforce water pollution norms.
- Section 31A, Air Act, 1981: Similar binding powers to control air pollution; non-compliance is a legal violation.
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About Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB):
- Established: September 1974 under the Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974; Also empowered under Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981.
- Role: Statutory technical body to promote clean air and water; provides services under the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986.
- Key Functions:
- Control and abate water and air pollution; promote stream and well cleanliness.
- Advise the Central Government on pollution-related issues.
- Coordinate with and assist State Pollution Control Boards (SPCBs); resolve disputes.
- Monitor pollution in Union Territories via delegated powers under Water, Air, and Water Cess Acts.
- Develops and revises:
- National Ambient Air Quality Standards.
- Water Quality Criteria from various sources.
- Emission/Discharge Standards under Environment Protection Rules, 1986.
- Bio-Medical Waste Incineration Norms.
- Noise/Emission Limits for diesel, LPG, and CNG generators.
- Minimal National Standards (MINAS) Issuance:
- Covers effluent, emission, noise, and solid waste across industries.
- Mandatory for State adoption as baseline standards.
- Publishes COINDS (Comprehensive Industry Documents), manuals, and codes for pollution treatment and control systems.
About State Pollution Control Boards (SPCBs):
- Constitution: Formed by State Governments under the Water and Air Acts.
- Functions:
- Monitor and control local pollution.
- Inspect industries and enforce compliance.
- Advise state governments.
- Conduct awareness campaigns.
- Implement control programmes and collaborate with CPCB and local bodies.
| [UPSC 2018] How is the National Green Tribunal (NGT) different from the Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB)?
1. The NGT has been established by an Act whereas the CPCB has been created by an executive order of the Government.
2. The NGT provides environmental justice and helps reduce the burden of litigation in the higher courts whereas the CPCB promotes cleanliness of streams and wells and aims to improve the quality of air in the country.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
Options: (a) 1 only (b) 2 only * (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2 |
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Why in the News?
The Asian giant tortoise (Manouria emys), the largest tortoise in mainland Asia, has been reintroduced into the Zeliang Community Reserve in Nagaland’s Peren district.
About Asian Giant Tortoise (Manouria emys):
- It is the largest tortoise in mainland Asia.
- Two subspecies: Manouria emys emys and Manouria emys phayrei.
- Uniquely, it lays eggs above ground in leaf-litter nests.
- Behaviour: It is solitary and active mostly during dawn and dusk.
- Found in evergreen and bamboo forests across India, Bangladesh, Myanmar, Thailand, Malaysia, and Indonesia.
- Habitat in India: Nengpui WLS, Nongkhyllem WLS, and North Cachar Hills.
- Conservation status: IUCN – Critically Endangered; CITES – Appendix II; Wildlife Protection Act – Schedule IV.
- Major threats: Illegal hunting for meat, habitat degradation, forest fires, and bamboo removal.
| [UPSC 2017] In India, if a species of tortoise is declared protected under Schedule I of the Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972, what does it imply?
Options: (a) It enjoys the same level of protection as the tiger*
(b) It no longer exists in the wild, a few individuals are under captive protection; and how it is impossible to prevent its extinction
(c) It is endemic to a particular region of India
(d) Both (b) and (c) stated above are correct in this context. |
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Why in the News?
A recent breakthrough demonstrated use of quantum science, blockchain, and cryptography to create truly random and secure numbers used in encryption for secure communication.
About the Technology:
- Encryption: Converts readable data into unreadable code using a “key”; only someone with the correct key can decrypt the message.
- Importance of Randomness: Secure encryption depends on unpredictable keys—predictable keys can be guessed or hacked.
- Issue with Computers: Most keys are generated using pseudo-random algorithms, which appear random but are predictable if the method is known.
About the Breakthrough Lava Lamp Method:
- Setup: 100 lava lamps placed on a wall at Cloudflare’s San Francisco office; a camera takes periodic photos of the moving blobs.
- Process: Each photo is converted into numerical data, creating a random seed to generate encryption keys.
- Why Lava Lamps? The heat-driven movement of wax blobs is unpredictable and creates unique images.
- Limitations: Movements follow physics, so not truly random. Also, the algorithm that converts images is deterministic—reproducible if known.
Quantum Random Number Generation Protocol:
- Why Quantum Physics: Subatomic particles like photons behave randomly; for example, a photon’s polarization is unknown until measured.
- How It Works: Scientists used lasers to generate entangled photons and measured them millions of times to produce random results.
- Data Conversion: The raw data (in binary) was biased, so a randomness extractor was used to generate a clean 512-bit unbiased number using a second random seed.
- Blockchain Role: Each step was recorded on blockchain for transparency, with digital fingerprints (hashes) to ensure data integrity.
- Team Involvement: National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST), University of Colorado, and DRAND each handled separate parts to ensure decentralization and trust.
- Public Use: The final random numbers are shared via CURBy, a public distribution service.
- Significance: Though still emerging, this method shows strong potential for future ultra-secure encryption systems.
| [UPSC 2025] Consider the following statements:
I. It is expected that Majorana 1 chip will enable quantum computing. II. Majorana 1 chip has been introduced by Amazon Web Services (AWS). III. Deep learning is a subset of machine learning.
Which of the statements given above are correct?
Options: (a) I and only I (b) II and III only (c) I and III only* (d) I, II and III |
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PYQ Relevance:
[UPSC 2015] India’s Traditional Knowledge Digital Library (TKDL) which has a database containing formatted information on more than 2 million medicinal formulations is proving a powerful weapon in the country’s fight against erroneous patents. Discuss the pros and cons making this database publicly available under open-source licensing.
Linkage: This question directly discusses the “Traditional Knowledge Digital Library (TKDL)” and its role in protecting “traditional knowledge” from erroneous patents. This is highly relevant as the source champions the idea of treating repair as a “cultural and intellectual resource” and recognizing “tacit knowledge”. |
Mentor’s Comment: In May 2025, the Indian government accepted a report proposing a Repairability Index for mobile phones and appliances, marking a significant policy shift toward sustainable electronics and the Right to Repair. This move comes amid growing global and domestic recognition of repair as a cultural, environmental, and intellectual resource. It ties into India’s digital and AI policy evolution, yet highlights a blind spot — the continued exclusion of informal repair ecosystems from mainstream policy frameworks, even as they remain central to material resilience and circular economy goals.
Today’s editorial analyses the Repairability Index for mobile phones and appliances. This topic is important for GS Paper II (Governance) and GS Paper III (Science and Technology) in the UPSC mains exam.
_
Let’s learn!
Why in the News?
Recently, the Indian government made an important move to support eco-friendly electronics by approving a report that suggests a Repairability Index.
What is India’s Repairability Index?
- India’s Repairability Index was introduced by the Department of Consumer Affairs under the Ministry of Consumer Affairs, Food and Public Distribution.
- It is part of the broader Right to Repair framework announced in 2022, aimed at empowering consumers, reducing electronic waste, and promoting sustainable consumption practices in line with India’s LiFE (Lifestyle for Environment)movement.
- This index will rank products based on:
-
- Ease of repair
- Availability of spare parts
- Duration of software support
What is the significance of it?
- Sustainable consumption – Promotes products that last longer and are repairable. Eg: Smartphones with modular parts like Fairphone (Dutch electronics company known for producing sustainable and repairable smartphones).
- Informed consumer choices – Enables buyers to compare repairability before purchase. Eg: Choosing a laptop with a higher repair score.
- Reduction in e-waste – Minimizes discarding of electronics due to minor faults. Eg: Repairing washing machines instead of replacing them.
- Accountability of manufacturers – Pushes brands to provide spare parts and repair guides. Eg: Brands like Apple offering self-service repair kits.
- Support for circular economy – Aligns with India’s LiFE initiative and green goals. Eg: Encouraging reuse and repair to lower carbon footprint.
Why is informal repair knowledge important?
India’s Repairability Index promotes affordable, sustainable repairs by valuing informal repair knowledge
- Affordable & Accessible Repairs: Informal repair shops offer low-cost services, especially in rural and low-income areas. Eg: Mobile repair kiosks in small towns reduce reliance on costly authorized centers.
- Skill Preservation & Livelihoods: Supports local employment and traditional skills, often passed down informally. Eg: TV/radio technicians in informal markets maintain electronics affordably.
- E-waste Reduction & Sustainability: Extends product lifespan, minimizing electronic waste and promoting circular economy. Eg: Refurbishing laptops in Delhi’s Nehru Place instead of discarding them.
What are the challenges related to the informal repair sector?
- No Legal Recognition: Informal repairers lack licensing, social security, and financial support. E.g.: Mobile repairers in small towns operate without official status or access to schemes.
- Bias Toward Authorized Centres: Policies favour OEM (Original Equipment Manufacturer) -authorized repairs, sidelining local technicians. Eg: Warranties void if not repaired at authorized service centers.
- Exclusion from Policy Frameworks: Right to Repair and e-waste policies neglect grassroots repair ecosystems. Eg: Informal markets like Nehru Place not integrated into national repair planning.
Which steps can link repair to AI and sustainability goals?
- AI-Powered Predictive Maintenance: AI algorithms detect faults early and recommend timely repairs, reducing waste. Eg: Smart appliances (e.g., washing machines) alert users before breakdowns, helping extend product life.
- AI-Driven Repair Diagnostics: AI tools assist technicians by analyzing errors and suggesting solutions, even in informal sectors. Eg: Mobile apps using AI (like Bhashini-based tools) guide rural repairers to fix smartphones or electronics.
- Support for Circular Economy: Integrate AI with repairability data (e.g., India’s Repairability Index) to promote reuse and reduce e-waste.
Way forward:
- Recognize Informal Repair Sector: Include informal technicians in policy frameworks and skilling programs under schemes like Skill India.
- Strengthen India’s Repairability Index: Ensure it includes access to spare parts, repair manuals, and supports local repair ecosystems.
- Promote Open Access to Repair Tools: Mandate OEMs to share diagnostic tools and data with certified independent and informal repairers.
- Leverage AI for Inclusive Repair Solutions: Use AI-powered platforms to assist grassroots repairers and map repair needs, boosting sustainability goals.
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Why in the News?
Recently, the World Bank’s 2024 update to its income classification system revealed major shifts, with a sharp decline in low-income populations and a rise in upper-middle-income countries.
Global Income Classification Trends (2004–2024): Key Shifts in Population Distribution:
- Global Shift Upwards: The share of the world population in low-income countries dropped from 37.4% in 2004 to 7.6% in 2024, showing significant poverty reduction.
- Rise of Upper-Middle Group: The population in upper-middle-income countries rose from 8.9% in 2004 to 34.7% in 2024, indicating broad economic progress in many developing nations.
- Lower-Middle Income Stability: The lower-middle-income group has remained relatively stable, around 38–40% of global population from 2004 to 2024.
- High-Income Countries’ Share Fluctuated: The global population in high-income nations peaked at 18.9% in 2014, then slightly declined to 17.4% in 2024.
- Country Reclassifications: Countries like India and Indonesia moved to higher income groups, while some African countries remained or slipped into low-income status.
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What is the World Bank’s income classification?
- Four Income Groups: Countries are classified into low, lower-middle, upper-middle, and high-income based on their Gross National Income (GNI) per capita.
- Annual Update: Classifications are updated yearly, adjusting for global inflation and changes in income.
- Absolute Thresholds: Groupings are based on fixed income thresholds, not relative comparisons with other countries.
- Low income: GNI per capita ≤ $1,135
- Lower-middle income: $1,136 – $4,465
- Upper-middle income: $4,466 – $13,845
- High income: ≥ $13,846
How is GNI per capita used in this system?
- It measures the average income per person, including income from abroad.
- GNI figures (reported in local currency) are converted to USD using exchange rates.
- Countries are placed into groups using predetermined income thresholds.
Why do countries shift between income groups?
- Economic Growth or Decline: Strong GDP growth raises GNI per capita, moving countries to higher groups. Eg: India’s GNI per capita rose from $2,250 (2022) to $2,610 (2023), nearing upper-middle-income status.
- Currency Exchange Fluctuations: A weaker local currency reduces GNI in USD terms. Eg: Egypt’s currency depreciation led its GNI per capita to fall from $3,890 (2022) to $3,240 (2023), reclassifying it from upper-middle to lower-middle-income.
- Population Growth Rates: Fast population growth reduces GNI per capita even if total income rises. Eg: Nigeria’s large population growth kept its GNI per capita at $2,110 (2023), maintaining its lower-middle-income status.
What are the challenges for India as a Lower-Middle-Income Country?
- Limited Fiscal Space: India struggles to allocate sufficient funds for healthcare, education, and infrastructure. Eg: Public health spending remains around 2% of GDP, below the global average of 5–6%.
- High Income Inequality: Rapid growth hasn’t translated into equitable wealth distribution. Eg: The top 10% in India hold nearly 77% of total national wealth (Oxfam, 2023).
- Jobless Growth: Economic expansion hasn’t created enough formal sector jobs. Eg: Despite over 6% GDP growth, unemployment among youth remains high at around 45% (CMIE, 2023).
What are the steps taken by the Indian government?
- PM Gati Shakti Mission: Enhances infrastructure development for seamless connectivity and job creation.
- National Education Policy (NEP) 2020: Aims to improve access, equity, and quality in education, especially in rural areas.
- Ayushman Bharat Scheme: Provides free healthcare to over 50 crore people, addressing public health gaps.
- Make in India & PLI Schemes: Promote domestic manufacturing and boost employment across key sectors.
- Digital India & Skill India: Focuses on digital inclusion and vocational training to equip youth with employable skills.
Way forward:
- Accelerate Inclusive Economic Growth: Focus on MSMEs, rural entrepreneurship, and labour-intensive sectors to boost incomes and job creation.
- Invest in Human Capital: Enhance education quality, healthcare access, and nutritional outcomes, especially for the poor.
- Strengthen Social Safety Nets: Expand direct benefit transfers (DBTs) and targeted subsidies to reduce vulnerability and inequality.
- Promote Technological Innovation: Support startups, R&D, and digital infrastructure to drive productivity and global competitiveness.
Mains PYQ:
[UPSC 2013] The World Bank and the IMF, collectively known as the Bretton Woods Institutions, are the two inter-governmental pillars supporting the structure of the world’s economic and financial order. Superficially, the World Bank and the IMF exhibit many common characteristics, yet their role, functions and mandate are distinctly different. Elucidate.
Linkage: This question directly asks about the World Bank’s role, functions, and mandate. A fundamental aspect of the World Bank’s function is its income classification system, which was initially designed to determine eligibility for loans, particularly concessional ones, based on a country’s average income.
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Why in the News?
Concerns have emerged over India’s commitments in the India-UK Comprehensive Economic and Trade Agreement (CETA), particularly Article 13.6 on intellectual property. Critics argue it weakens India’s long-standing stance on compulsory licensing, favouring voluntary mechanisms instead.
How does Article 13.6 affect medicine access in India?
- Dilution of Compulsory Licensing Rights: The Article 13.6 of CETA favours voluntary licensing over compulsory licensing, reducing India’s legal room to ensure affordable drug access, especially during public health emergencies.
- Reduced Policy Space in Patent Law: Provisions like weakening the “working requirement” restrict India’s ability to revoke non-working foreign patents, hampering local production of essential medicines.
- Dependence on Foreign Patent Holders: Voluntary licensing shifts control to multinational corporations, allowing them to set restrictive terms, often limiting distribution, pricing, and manufacturing flexibility for Indian firms.
- Loss of Global TRIPS Advocacy Role
India’s past leadership in pushing for TRIPS flexibilities (Doha Declaration) is undermined, affecting its credibility in representing developing countries’ interests in global forums.
- Risk to Access and Affordability of Medicines: The FTA could hinder production of low-cost generics, making life-saving drugs less accessible to Indian citizens and low-income countries relying on Indian pharma exports.
What is Voluntary Licensing?
Voluntary licensing is when the patent holder (usually a pharmaceutical company) gives permission to another company (often in another country) to produce and sell its patented product, usually generic versions under agreed terms and conditions.
What is Compulsory Licensing?
Compulsory licensing is when a government allows someone else to produce a patented product or process without the consent of the patent holder, usually under specific public interest grounds such as health emergencies. |
Which global rules backed India’s earlier patent stand?
- TRIPS Agreement (WTO): Allowed for compulsory licensing under public health grounds, helping India prioritize affordable access over strict patent monopolies.
- Doha Declaration on TRIPS and Public Health (2001): Reaffirmed countries’ right to protect public health and promote access to medicines, supporting India’s flexible patent stance.
- Paragraph 6 System (WTO, 2003): Enabled countries like India to export generic medicines to nations lacking manufacturing capacity, aligning with its role as the “pharmacy of the world.”
- Indian Patent Act, 1970 (amended in 2005): Incorporated TRIPS flexibilities such as compulsory licensing and strict patentability criteria (e.g. Section 3(d)) to prevent evergreening.
- UN High-Level Panel on Access to Medicines (2016): Emphasized that IP rights should not override public health, validating India’s position on balancing innovation and accessibility.
What should be done?
- Reaffirm TRIPS Flexibilities in Trade Negotiations: India must ensure that all future FTAs explicitly protect its right to use compulsory licensing and patent law flexibilitiesunder the TRIPS Agreement.
- Strengthen Domestic Patent Law: Amend and reinforce provisions like the “working requirement” to protect public health and allow challenges to non-working or unaffordable patents.
- Enhance Public Health Safeguards in FTAs: Negotiate clear exceptions for essential medicines and green technology, ensuring that IP provisions do not override public interest obligations.
- Build Strategic Alliances with Global South: Collaborate with developing countries to collectively oppose IP-heavy provisions in trade deals and promote affordable access to medicines globally.
- Promote Indigenous Innovation and R&D: Invest in public sector research and incentivize Indian pharma and green tech innovation to reduce dependency on foreign patents and strengthen self-reliance.
Mains PYQ:
[UPSC 2024] Discuss the implications of Intellectual Property rights with respect to life materials? Although, India is second in the world to file patents, still only a few have been commercialized. Explain the reasons behind this less commercialization.
Linkage: This question directly asks about “Intellectual Property rights with respect to life materials” and patents. The article talks about the implications of India’s CETA commitments on its patent regime concerning “patented medicines” and the “patent system”. The “slip up” in the trade pact is precisely about India compromising its traditional stance on IPR, particularly regarding access to medicines, which is a direct implication of intellectual property rights on life materials.
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Why in the News?
New research shows that rain can reduce ocean buoyancy and stabilize tropical waters, challenging the belief that rain always enhances mixing.
About Buoyancy:
- What is it: It is the upward force exerted by a fluid (e.g., water) on an object submerged in it.
- It determines whether an object floats, sinks, or stays suspended.
- Buoyancy in Oceans: It depends on density differences in water.
- Lighter water above → unstable → mixing happens.
- Heavier water above → stable → mixing stops.
- Buoyancy Flux: Measures changes in buoyancy at the ocean surface over time.
- Freshwater from rain → makes surface lighter → positive flux → promotes mixing.
- Heat loss → cools surface → makes water denser → negative flux → resists mixing.
Key Findings of the Study:
- Light Rain (0.2–4 mm/hr): Often leads to positive buoyancy flux → supports ocean mixing.
- Heavy Rain:
- Usually results in negative buoyancy flux → surface becomes stable.
- Caused by cold pools that enhance heat loss.
- Day vs. Night Effect:
- Night: Rain destabilizes surface → mixing increases.
- Day: Rain promotes stability → due to added heat loss from sunlight blockage.
- Geographical Insights:
- Cold Rain Zones (Western Pacific, Indian Ocean): More stabilization.
- Hot Rain Zones (Central Pacific): More prone to mixing.
Significance of the Study
- Scientific Implications:
- Refutes the general belief that rain always increases buoyancy.
- Shows rain can both stabilize or destabilize the ocean surface depending on conditions.
- Climate Relevance:
- Ocean mixing is key to heat, carbon, and nutrient cycling.
- Misreading rainfall’s role can skew climate and weather models.
- Practical Impact:
- Improves forecasting accuracy in oceanography and climate science.
- Aids in understanding the climate-ocean feedback loop more precisely.
| [UPSC 2020] With reference to Ocean Mean Temperature (OMT), which of the following statements is/are correct?
1. OMT is measured up to a depth of 26°C isotherm which is 129 meters in the southwestern Indian Ocean during January — March.
2. OMT collected during January — March can be used in assessing whether the amount of rainfall in monsoon will be less or more than a certain long-term mean.
Select the correct answer using the code given below:
Options: (a) 1 only (b) 2 only* (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2 |
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Why in the News?
A new study by the Wildlife Institute of India (WII) reveals that wind farms in the Thar Desert, Rajasthan, have the highest recorded bird mortality rates globally.
Bird Mortality at Wind Farms: Key Findings
- Study Details: Conducted across 3,000 sq. km in Jaisalmer, Rajasthan, covering 90 wind turbines and 272 bird species, including the critically endangered Great Indian Bustard.
- Carcass Count: 124 bird carcasses found within 150m radius of turbines.
- Annual Mortality Estimate: 4,464 birds per 1,000 sq. km, after corrections for detection gaps and scavenger interference.
- Control Sites: 28 sites (500–2,000m from turbines) found zero carcasses — indicating turbines as the direct cause.
- Reasons:
- Policy Gap: Onshore wind projects in India do not require Environmental Impact Assessments (EIAs), which weakens ecological safeguards.
India’s Wind Energy Growth:
- Current Status: India added 3.5 GW of wind power in the first half of 2025 — an 82% YoY increase.
- Total Installed Capacity: Now stands at 51.3 GW.
- Untapped Potential: Estimated at 1163.9 GW at 150 meters above ground level (National Institute of Wind Energy).
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Comparison with Past Studies:
- 2019 Studies: Recorded just 0.47 bird deaths per turbine/year in Kutch and Davangere.
- Thar Desert Rate: 1.24 bird deaths per turbine/month — significantly higher.
- Contributing Factors:
- High bird density in Thar.
- Location along Central Asian Flyway.
- Collisions with turbine-linked power lines included in this study.
Proposed Mitigation Measures:
- Technological:
- Paint one turbine blade for visibility.
- Shut down turbines during peak migration or high-risk periods.
- Planning-Based:
- Careful Site Selection seen as most critical step.
- Use of tools like AVISTEP (Avian Sensitivity Tool for Energy Planning), which maps avian sensitivity across India.
- AVISTEP ranks zones as low to very high sensitivity — intended as a guide for site avoidance.
| [UPSC 2012] Vultures which used to be very common in Indian countryside some years ago are rarely seen nowadays. This is attributed to:
Options: (a) the destruction of their nesting sites by new invasive species disease among them
(b) a drug used by cattle owners for treating their diseased cattle persistent and fatal *
(c) scarcity of food available to them
(d) a widespread, persistent and fatal disease among them |
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